BIOLOGY | NOTES

Human Reproduction
Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------Testes: (Note: When the question is pointing to
1 testis, make sure you write it as singular)
Structure: Mass of sperm producing tubes
Function: To produce sperm and testosterone.

Scrotal Sac:
Structure: Literally an abdominal cavity in a sac
Function: To keep the testes at temperature slightly lower
than that of the body, which is suitable temperature for
sperm production.

Epididymis:
Structure: Ducts that originate from the sperm producing
tubes of the testes, form the coiled epididymis which is
about 6m long.

Function: Sperm pass to the base of this tube for a short

period of storage.

Vas Deferens/Sperm Duct:

Structure: Straight, muscular tube about 40 cm long.
Function: Transports sperm from Epididymis to Urethra. It is
also the site of sperm storage before ejaculation.

Urethra:
Structure: 2 sperm ducts, one from each testis will lead to
the urethra. It is a tube which passes through the center of
the penis to the exterior. A circular band of muscles called
the sphincter muscles exist at the base of the urinary
bladder to prevent urine from coming out of the bladder
during ejaculation or release of semen.
Function: Passage in which urine and semen are discharged
at different times.

Accessory Glands (Seminal Vesicle, Prostate

Gland, Cowper's Gland:
Structure:

Seminal vesicle is a gland that opens into the sperm

duct. We have 2 of these vesicles.

At the base of the urinary bladder, where the 2 sperm

ducts join into the urethra is the prostate gland. We
have 1 of this gland.

Cowper's Gland exists below the prostate gland. We

have 2 of these glands.

Function: All the glands secretes seminal fluids that forms a

part of semen. The seminal fluid contains fructose, mucus,

and prostaglandins to facilitate fertilisation.

Penis:
Structure: Contains erectile tissue with numerous blood
spaces that will fill with bood when sexually excited.
Function: Deposits sperm into the female vagina when
inserted.

Ureter:
Function: Transports urine from kidney to urinary bladder.

(Note that the accessory gland in the diagram is actually the

cowper's gland.)

Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------Ovaries:

Structure: Two ovoid bodies 3-5cm.

Function: To produce the female gametes, the eggs or the
ova, to produce the female sex hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.

Oviducts:
Structure: Narrow muscular tubes that leads from ovary to
uterus. They have a funnel like opening and have feathery
processes called fimbriae. Cilia lining the fimbriae beat and
cause a current that draws in the egg/secondary oocyte after
it has been released from ovary. Cilia lining the oviduct beat
and smooth muscle contractions, causing peristaltic
movements, moving secondary oocyte down the oviduct to
the uterus.
Function: To allow the egg/secondary oocyte to be released
from the ovary and provide a location for it to undergo
fertilisation.

Uterus/Womb:
Structure: Shape of an inverted pear. It has smooth muscles
lining its outer wall (myometrium), contracting strongly
during birth. The inner walls, (endometrium), contains glands
and blood vessels.
Function: To allow the embryo to implant on the
endometrium of the uterus and grow.

Cervix:
Structure: Narrow entrance from uterus leading to vagina,
made up of strong muscles.
Function: To direct sperms into the uterus during intercourse,
and to provide a passage for the birth of a baby from the
uterus out through the vagina during labour

Vagina:
Structure: Muscular tube, walls contain elastic tissue.
Function: Stretches during childbirth to allow passage of the
baby and during sexual intercourse to allow the penetration
of the penis.

Comparison of Male and Female Gametes.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------Male:

Small Elongated and Streamlined.

Large numbers mature at the same time and all

the time.

Presence of a tail (flagellum) for motility to swim

to the egg/secondary oocyte.

Very little cytoplasm to reduce its mass so it can

swim rapidly.

Possesses a lot of mitochondria so that more

energy in the form of ATP can be released for
motility.

Female:

Large, spherical and fat because its literally a

round egg

One normally matures once every month/once in

a menstrual cycle.

Absence of a tail, non-motile.

Abundant cytoplasm that contain stored

nutrients.

Few mitochondria as movement is not necessary.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
-----------------------------------------------------------------------An average menstrual cycle is 28 days.
Note: Ovulation occur 14 days prior to the end of the
cycle, hence it does not always occur on the 14th
day. If a menstrual cycle lasts for 31 days, ovulation
will usually occur on the 17th day.

Green represents the Uterine Cycle.

Blue represents the Ovarian Cycle.
Day 1-5:

Cycle begins with the onset of menstruation AKA

the monthly discharge of blood from the uterus
via the vagina. This is due to the endometrial
lining of the uterus being sloughed off during
menstruation, and the endometrial lining
contains blood vessels.

Endometrium is broken down.

The hypothalamus secretes Gonadotrophin

Releasing Hormone, GnRH

This stimulates the anterior pitiutary gland to

secrete the FSH hormone into the bloodstream,
traveling to the ovaries. FSH stimulates the
development of a small number of follicles in the
ovaries, one of which will become the Graafian
follicle.

The cells of the growing follicles to secrete

Oestrogen.

Overall: Endometrium starts to break down.

GnRH hormone is released. FSH is secreted.
Follicles are starting to be developed. Growing
follicles start to secrete oestrogen, oestrogen
levels increase. NOTE: Do not state: FSH
causes oestrogen to be secreted.

Day 6-10:

Oestrogen secreted by the growing follicles

cause the growth and repair of the
endometrium.

Oestrogen also inhibits the secretion of FSH from

the anterior pituitary gland, preventing
development of more follicles.

Overall: Endometrium starts to grow and repair.

Follicle development stops.

Day 11-17:

Oestrogen levels increase. As it increases to a

high level, it triggers the secretion of LH
hormone from the anterior pitiutary glands,
traveling via the blood stream to the ovaries.

LH hormone causes the follicular wall of the

Graafian follicle to rupture, releasing the
secondary oocyte into the oviduct funnel. This is
ovulation.

After ovulation, LH causes the formation of an

active corpus luteum from the ruptured follicle.

The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and

some oestrogen.

Overall: Oestrogen levels still increase. LH

levels increase, the Graafian follicle ruptures,
and secondary oocyte is released (ovulation).
Corpus Luteum forms, progesterone levels

increase.
Day 18-28:

Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum keeps

endometrium thick, well-supplied with blood and
stimulates formation of glands that secrete
nutrients to prepare endometrium for the
implantation of the embryo if fertilization occurs.

FSH and LH production is inhibited by

progesterone.

If fertilization does not occur, the drop in LH

levels will cause the corpus luteum to
degenerate, as it cannot form an active corpus
luteum without LH.

As a a result, the lack of an active corpus luteum

causes progesterone levels to drop. When this
happens, the uterine lining cannot be
maintained in a thickened state, thus it breaks
down.

Menstruation occurs and endometrial lining is

sloughed off and discharged through vagina.
This marks the beginning of the next cycle.

If fertilization occurs, the zygote develops into

an embryo that implants itself into the uterine
lining. The embryo then produces a hormone,
hCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) that
prevents the corpus luteum from degenerating
so that the corpus luteum continues to secret

progesterone and oestrogen (until placenta

takes over).

Overall: Progesterone levels increase,

endometrium thickens. FSH and LH levels
decrease.

If fertilization fails to occur: Corpus Luteum

degenerates. Progesterone levels decrease.
Endometrial walls are sloughed off and
discharged. Next cycle occurs.

If fertilization occurs: Zygote develops into

embryo, implantation into uterine lining occurs.
hCG is produced, corpus luteum remains active.
Progesterone and Oestrogen levels continue to
remain high.

Note: Estradiol refers to Oestrogen.

Effects of Hormones involved in Menstruation.

GnRH: (Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone)

Causes secretion of FSH hormones.

FSH: Stimulates development of small number

of follicles in ovaries. Stimulates secretion of

Oestrogen.

Oestrogen: Causes growth and repair of uterine

lining. Inhibits FSH secretion. Prevents
development of follicles. Releases secretion of
LH at high levels.

LH: Causes Graafian Follicle to rupture, releasing

secondary oocyte, allowing ovulation to occur.
Causes formation of active Corpus Luteum from
ruptured follicle. Allows Corpus Luteum to secret
progesterone and oestrogen.

Progesterone: Keeps uterine lining thick, well

supplied with blood and stimulates formation of
gland secreting nutrients. LH and FSH are
inhibited.

hCG: (Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin)

Maintains corpus luteum and keeps it from
degenerating.

Timeline of Hormone activity in a menstrual

cycle.
Day 1-5: GnRH , FSH , Oestrogen
Day 6-10: FSH , Oestrogen
Day 11-17: Oestrogen , LH , Progesterone
Day 18-28: Progesterone , FSH , LH , hCG (if

fertilization occurs)

FERTILIZATION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF

EMBRYO
-----------------------------------------------------------------------1.

Fertilization occurs when the haploid sperm

nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus to
produce a diploid zygote.

2.

As the zygote passes down the oviduct, it

divides successively into a small ball of cells
called the embryo (blastocyst).

3.

It embeds itself onto the endometrium

(implantation).

Amniotic Fluid and the Placenta

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Amniotic Fluid:

Structure: Incompressible, absorbs shocks.

Function: Absorbs shocks to protect the

embryo/foetus against mechanical injury.

Placenta:

Function

Allows glucose, amino acids, mineral salts to

pass from the mother's blood to the foetus's

blood via diffusion and active transport.

Allows metabolic waste products such as CO2

and Urea to diffuse from the foetal blood
capillaries into the mother's blood stream.

Acts as a barrier to the passage of certain

chemicals or pathogens in the mother's blood
to the foetal blood.

Produces progesterone that maintains uterine

lining during pregnancy.

How is the placenta adapted for its functions?

Structure: It has projections called chorionic

villi
Function: This increases total surface area for
exchange of materials between foetal blood
and maternal blood/endometrium.

Structure: Within the chorionic villi are blood

capillaries of the foetus
Function: This allows for a constant
circulation of blood in both maternal and foetal
systemic circulations. This allows nutrients or
waste materials that have diffused across the
placenta to be moved away, maintaining a
steep diffusion gradient.

Structure: Maternal part contain maternal

blood spaces which are supplied with arterial
blood from arterioles in uterus wall.

Function: The blood pressure in the maternal

blood spaces are low so as to create a steep
diffusion gradient, allowing increased rate of
diffusion of dissolved nutrients and waste
products in and out of the foetus.

Structure: Blood capillaries of foetus

separated from mother's blood system by a
thin layer of tissue.
Function: Thin barrier decreases the diffusion
distance, hence diffusion of nutrients or waste
materials occurs at a faster, efficient rate. / To
ensure that the 2 blood systems do not mix as
agglutination might occur due to the
difference of the foetus's and the mother's
blood group.

Note: The foetus has 2 umbilical arteries

and 1 umbilical vein.

Note: Intervillous space refers to maternal

blood spaces.

Benefits of Breast Milk

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Contains fat, lactose and proteins that are easily

digested by the baby.

Contains vitamins A and C and antibodies to any

diseases from which the mother has recovered.
This helps defend the baby against infection
when the immune system has not been fully
developed.

Breast Milk is free of bacteria.

How are twins formed?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Identical twins arise when a zygote forms 2

separate embryos.

Fraternal twins occur when two ova released

during ovulation are fertilised by 2 separate
sperm to form 2 zygotes that develop into 2
separate embyros.

Methods of Contraception
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Rhythm method (Having sexual intercourse

based on mmomomnm mcmymcmlmemsm menstrual cycles.)

Withdrawal

Male Condom (prevents sperm from entering

vagina)

Diaphragm/Cap (inserted top of vagina over

cervix)

Female Condom

Intra Uterine Device (inserted into uterus to

pevent implantation)

Spermicide

Contraceptive Pills (contains oestrogen and

progesterone to limit FSH and LH and therefore
prevent follicle development and ovulation).

Morning After Pill

Vasectomy (Sperm Duct is cut or tied)

Tubal Ligation (Tying oviducts)

Plant Reproduction
Fertilization of Plants
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

After pollination, the pollen grain germinates in

response to fructose secreted by stigma. causing

a pollen tube to grow out of the grain.

The cytoplasm of the pollen grain, the pollen

tube (vegetative) nucleus and the generative
nucleus pass into the pollen tube. (The growth of
the pollen tube is controlled by the pollen tube
nucleus).

The pollen tube secretes enzymes to digest the

tissue of the stigma and the style as the tube
grows.

The generative nucleus divides via mitosis to

form two non-motile male gametes. The
vegetative nucleus disintegrates. The pollen
tube enters the ovule at the micropyle (a small
hole at the bottom of the ovule).

In the ovule, the tip of the pollen tube absorbs

sap and bursts, releasing the 2 male gametes.

1 haploid male gamete nucleus fuses with the

haploid egg cell nucleus to form the diploid
zygote.

The other haploid male gamete will fuse with the

diploid definitive nucleus to form the triploid
endosperm nucleus. (Double fertilisation occurs,
which ensures that the endosperm will only
develop in ovules where the egg has been
fertilised, preventing wastage of nutrients).

Each egg cell in the ovule in an ovary is fertilised

by separate male gametes from separate pollen

grains.

Note: The central cell refers to the definitive nucleus.

Post fertilisation/Fruits
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Zygote -> Embryo. The zygote divides

repeatedly to form the embryo of the seed.

The embryo consists of the contyledons (seed

leaves), plumule (developing shoot), and radicle
(developing root).

Endosperm Nucleus -> Endosperm. In

monocot plants, endosperm remains as a food

store. In dicot plants, the cotyledons already act

as a food store, hece the endosperm disappears.

Ovary -> Fruit, Ovary Wall -> Fruit

Wall/Pericarp

Ovule -> Seed.

Integuments (layer of cells around the

ovule) -> Seed Coat/Testa.

Stamen, Petals, Style and Stigma shrivel

and fall off.

Molecular Genetics
DNA
-----------------------------------------------------------------------A DNA molecule consists of 2 polynucleotide chains
twisted in the shape of a double helix.
Each DNA molecule has a sugar phosphate
backbone. The adjacent nucleotides within a strand
are held together by strong covalent phosphodiester
bonds.
Genetic information is read from the 5' end to the 3'
end.
The two strands of polynucleotide chains are held
together by hydrogen bonds in between the
nitrogenous bases of opposite strands.

Complimentary base pairing occurs between Adenine

to Thymine (2H bonds), Guanine to Cytosine (3H
bonds).

Differences between DNA and RNA.

DNA:

Basic Unit: Deoxyribunucleotide.

Pentose Sugar: Deoxyribose

Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Thymine,

Guanine, Cytosine.

Ratio of Bases: A:T = 1:1, C:G = 1:1

Strands: Double Stranded

No of Types: 1

Size: Relatively larger

Location: Mostly in nucleus, small amount in

Mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Amount: Constant in all cells (except for in

dividing cells and gametes).

RNA:

Basic Unit: Ribunucleotide.

Pentose Sugar: Ribose

Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Uracil, Guanine,

Cytosine.

Ratio of Bases: A:U =/ 1:1, C:G =/ 1:1

Strands: Single Stranded

No of Types: 3 (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA)

Size: Relatively smaller

Location: Mostly in cytoplasm, synthesized in

nucleus

Amount: Varies from cell to cell according to

level of protein synthesis.

Genetic Engineering
-----------------------------------------------------------------------4.

Isolate the gene with the help of restriction

enzymes.
-Restriction enzymes cut the DNA at specific
palindromic sequences of areas flanking the
gene, or restriction sites.
- They remove the gene coding for a specific
product away from the rest of the genome.

5.

Use the same restriction enzyme on

plasmids.
-Plasmids are circular double stranded RNA that
occurs naturally in bacteria. It replicates
independently of the rest of the bacteria genome

and carries useful genes.

-The same restriction enzyme should be used, as
it generates the same sticky ends as those
flanking the target gene. This allows for
complementary base pairing and facilitates
insertion of the gene into the plasmid.
6.

Mix the DNA strand containing the gene

and the cut up plasmids together with DNA
ligase.
-The DNA ligase catalyses the formation of
phosphodiester bonds in the DNA backbone. This
allows the formation of recombinant plasmids.

7.

A host cell is induced to take up the

recombinant DNA molecule.

Transcription and Translation.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------Transcription: The transfer of genetic
information from DNA to RNA.

DNA uncoils and its double helix structure

unwinds.

1 strand of DNA acts as the template

This allows free ribonucleotides to bind via

complementary base pairings between
deoxyribose and ribose sugars.

This also allows for transcription to occur

between the template DNA strand and the premRNA. Enzymes in the nucleus modify the premRNA in various ways before it leaves the
nucleus through pores in the nuclear envelope.

Translation: The use of genetic information to

make proteins.

mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit in a

ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
tRNA carries specific amino acids.

The Anticodon of the initiator tRNA binds to the

codon of the mRNA.

The large ribosomal subunit serves as a scaffold

for translation.

The Anticodon of the 2nd tRNA binds to the 2nd

codon of the mRNA.

This allows the amino acids attached to the tRNA

to form peptide bonds.

The bond between the first amino acid and the

initiator tRNA breaks, allowing the peptide bond
to be now carried by the second tRNA.

The Ribosome shifts towards the 3' end of the

mRNA. This allows the next tRNA to bind to the
subsequent codon.

The peptide bond formation continues until the

stop codon is read. The translation complex

dissociates and the polypeptide chain folds to
form proteins.