Reproduction

Male Reproductive System

•Testes:
•Male gonads located outside the abdomen in a skin pouch
called the scrotum.
•Each testis is divided into 250 to 300 lobules.
•Each lobule contains 1 to 4 tightly coiled seminiferous
tubules.

•Seminiferous Tubules:
•The site of spermatogenesis (production of sperm).
•Contain Leydig cells between them, which produce the male
sex hormone testosterone.

•Accessory Ducts:
•Include the vasa efferentia, epididymis, ductus deferens,
ejaculatory duct, and urethra.
• Male reproductive system consists of
external genitalia and male copulatory
organ; consist of a pair of testes
• Testis: lie outside the body
• Covering: in the sac-like scrotum
• Male copulatory organ: used to transfer
the sperms into the female reproductive
tract.
• Each testis consists of a highly complex
duct system called seminiferous tubules.
• In seminiferous tubules repeated division by the cells
of the germinal epithelium produce spermatogonia.
• These increase in size and differentiate into primary
spermatocytes which undergo meiotic division to form
secondary spermatocytes and spermatids.
• Eventually, the spermatids differentiate into mature
sperms.
• Fluid secreted by sertoli cells provides liquid medium,
protection and nourishment to sperms while they are
in the tubules.
• The sperms are then transferred to the main duct of
the male reproductive tract: the vas deferens
• Vas deferens which forms highly convoluted
epididymis.
• The sperms then pass through the urinogenital duct
and are discharged out.
Female Reproductive System
• Complexity:
• The female reproductive role is more
complex than that of a male.
• Involves producing gametes and
nurturing a developing embryo for
approximately nine months.
• Main Components:
• Ovaries
• Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)
• Uterus
• Cervix
• Vagina
Ovaries
• Function:
• Female gonads producing ova and releasing
hormones.
• Paired ovaries flank the uterus on each side,
held in place by several ligaments.
• Structure:
• Almond-shaped, measuring about 3-5 cm long
and 2-3 cm wide.
• Contains tiny sac-like structures called ovarian
follicles.
• Follicles:
• Each follicle contains an immature egg
(oocyte).
• Monthly ovulation involves a follicle ejecting an
oocyte from the ovary.
• Post-ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms
into the corpus luteum.
Fallopian Tubes
• Function:
• Receive the ovulated oocyte.
• Site of fertilization.
• Structure:
• About 10 cm long.
• Extends near the region of the ovary to the
uterus.
• Contains smooth muscle and ciliated and
non-ciliated cells.
• Transport:
• Oocyte is carried towards the uterus by
peristalsis and cilia.
• Non-ciliated cells produce a secretion to
keep the oocyte moist and nourished.
Uterus
• Location and Size:
• Located in the pelvis, anterior to the rectum and posterior
to the bladder.
• About the size and shape of an inverted pear.
• Function:
• Hollow, thick-walled, muscular organ.
• Functions to receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized ovum.
• Structure:
• The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers:
• Perimetrium: Outermost thin covering layer.
• Myometrium: Middle thick muscular layer composed of
bundles of smooth muscle, which contracts rhythmically during
childbirth to expel the baby.
• Endometrium: Inner spongy lining of the uterine cavity.
• Endometrium:
• If fertilization occurs, the young embryo implants into the
endometrium and resides there for the rest of its
development.
Cervix
• Description:
• Narrow entrance to the uterus from the
vagina.
• Normally blocked by a plug of mucus.
Vagina
• Description:
• Thin-walled tube, 8-10 cm long.
• Extends from the cervix to the body exterior.
• Functions:
• Often called the birth canal, providing a
passageway for the delivery of an infant.
• Passageway for menstrual flow.
• Urethra is embedded in its anterior wall.
Oogenesis
1. Definition:
• The process of egg formation in females.
2. Duration:
• Takes years to complete, spanning from the fetal
period to adulthood (10 to 14 years at the very
least).
3. Process:
• Fetal Period:
• Oogonia (diploid stem cells of the ovaries) multiply
rapidly by mitosis.
• Enter a growth phase and accumulate nutrient reserves.
• Transformation:
• Oogonia are transformed into primary oocytes.
• Primary oocytes become surrounded by a single layer of
follicle cells.
• Meiotic Division:
• Primary oocytes begin the first meiotic division but stall
late in prophase I.
• They remain in a suspended state throughout childhood
until puberty.
4. Puberty:
•A small number of primary oocytes are recruited each month.
•Only one oocyte is selected each time to continue meiosis I.

5. Meiosis I Completion:
•Produces two haploid cells, which are dissimilar in size:
•Secondary Oocyte: Larger cell containing nearly all the
cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.
•First Polar Body: Smaller cell.
6. Secondary Oocyte:
•Arrests in metaphase II.
•This is the cell that is ovulated.

7. Fate of the Secondary Oocyte:

•If not penetrated by sperm, it deteriorates.
•If sperm penetration occurs, it quickly completes meiosis II.

8. Meiosis II Completion:
•Produces one large ovum and a tiny second polar body.
•The unequal cytoplasmic divisions ensure the fertilized egg
has ample nutrients for its six- to seven-day journey to the
uterus.

9. Polar Bodies:
•Without nutrient-containing cytoplasm, the polar bodies
degenerate and die.
Menstrual Cycle
• Definition:
• The reproductive cycle in humans and other primates.
• First menstruation begins at puberty.
• Cycle Characteristics:
• Series of cyclic changes that the uterine endometrium
undergoes each month.
• Responds to the waxing and waning of ovarian
hormones in the blood.
• Coordinated with the phases of the ovarian cycle,
controlled by gonadotropins released by the anterior
pituitary.
Additional Information
• A female's total supply of eggs is determined by
the time she is born.
• The time span during which she releases eggs
extends from puberty to menopause, around the
age of 50.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle
1. Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5):
• Uterus sheds all but the deepest part of its
endometrium.
• Menstrual Flow:
• Thick, hormone-dependent functional layer of
the endometrium detaches from the uterine wall.
• Accompanied by bleeding for 3-5 days.
• Detached tissue and blood pass out through the
vagina as menstrual flow.
• Hormonal Changes:
• Beginning of this stage: ovarian hormones are at
their lowest levels.
• Gonadotropins are beginning to rise.
• FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) levels begin
to rise.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle
2. Proliferative/Preovulatory Phase (Days 6-14)
• Estrogen Influence:
• Rising blood levels of estrogens cause the basal layer of
the endometrium to generate a new functional layer.
• Endometrium becomes velvety, thick, and well
vascularized.
• Cervical Mucus Changes:
• Normally thick and sticky.
• Rising estrogen levels cause it to thin and become
crystalline.
• Forms channels that facilitate the passage of sperm into
the uterus.
• Ovulation:
• Occurs in the ovary at the end of the proliferative stage
(day 14).
• Triggered by a sudden release of LH (Luteinizing
Hormone) from the anterior pituitary.
• LH surge also converts the ruptured follicle to a corpus
luteum.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle
3. Secretory/Postovulatory Phase (Days 15-28)
• Importance:
• Previous 14-day phase is the most important for preparing the
endometrium for implantation of an embryo.
• Progesterone Influence:
• Rising levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum act on the
estrogen-primed endometrium.
• Causes arteries to elaborate and convert the functional layer to a
glandular secretory layer.
• Endometrial Changes:
• Uterine glands enlarge, coil, and begin secreting nutritious
glycogen into the uterine cavity.
• These nutrients sustain the embryo until it has implanted in the
blood-rich endometrial lining.
• If Fertilization Does Not Occur:
• Corpus luteum begins to degenerate toward the end of the
secretory phase as LH levels decline.
• Progesterone levels fall, depriving the endometrium of hormonal
support.
• Endometrial cells die, setting the stage for menstruation to begin
on day 28.
Menopause:
• Menstrual cycle ceases around 50 years of age, termed menopause.
• Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive life in
females.

Multiple Ovulation:
•In 1-2% of all ovulations, more than one oocyte is ovulated.
•This phenomenon increases with age and can result in multiple births.

Fraternal (Nonidentical) Twins:

•Different oocytes fertilized by different sperm.
•Resulting siblings are fraternal twins.

Identical Twins:
•Result from the fertilization of a single oocyte by a single sperm.
•Followed by the separation of the fertilized egg's daughter cells in early
development.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Gonorrhea
• Causative Agent:
• Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
• Invades the mucosa of the reproductive
and urinary tracts.
• Common Symptoms in Males:
• Urethritis
• Painful urination
• Discharge of pus from the penis
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Gonorrhea
• Symptoms in Women:
• Vary widely; about 20% of cases may have no
symptoms.
• Abdominal discomfort
• Vaginal discharge
• Abnormal uterine bleeding
• Occasionally, urethral symptoms similar to those in
males
• Complications if Untreated:
• Urethral constriction
• Inflammation of the entire male duct system
• In women, it causes pelvic inflammatory disease and
sterility.
• Treatment:
• Can be treated by penicillin, tetracycline, and other
antibiotics.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Syphilis
• Caused by Treponema pallidum.
• Usually transmitted sexually, but can also be
contracted congenitally from an infected mother.
• Symptoms in Newborns: Foetuses infected with
syphilis are usually stillborn or die shortly after
birth.
• Bacterial Action: Bacterium penetrates intact
mucosa and abraded skin.
• Incubation and Early Symptoms: Within a few
hours of exposure, an asymptomatic body-wide
infection begins.
• Incubation period: 2-3 weeks.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Syphilis
• Initial symptom: a red, painless primary
lesion called a chancre appears at the
site of bacterial invasion.
• In males: typically on the penis.
• In females: often goes undetected in
the vagina or on the cervix. The chancre
ulcerates, then heals spontaneously and
disappears within a few weeks.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Syphilis
• Secondary Syphilis: If untreated, secondary
signs appear several weeks later.
• Symptoms include: Pink skin rash all over the
body, Fever, Joint pain. These symptoms
disappear spontaneously in 3-12
weeks.Disease enters a latent period and is
detectable only by a blood test.
• Latent : Latent stage may last a person's
lifetime or the bacteria may be killed by the
immune system.
• Tertiary syphilis: Characterized by gummas
(destructive lesions of the CNS, blood vessels,
bones, and skin).
• Treatment: Penicillin is the treatment of choice
for all stages of syphilis.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
AIDS
• Overview: AIDS is one of the most
serious, deadly diseases in human
history.
• First cases detected more than 20 years
ago in San Francisco and New York.
• Currently, an estimated 42 million people
live with HIV or AIDS worldwide.
• Approximately 3 million people die
annually from AIDS-related illnesses.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
AIDS
Cause:
• Caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
• HIV destroys a type of defense cell in the body called
a CD4 helper lymphocyte.
• HIV Action: HIV invades CD4 lymphocytes. Inserts its
genetic material into the cell. Uses the cell to
reproduce. Eventually destroys the CD4 lymphocyte,
which impairs the immune system.
Effects on the Immune System:
• CD4 lymphocytes are part of the body's immune
system, defending against infections.
• HIV destroys these lymphocytes, leading to a
weakened immune system.
• People with HIV are more susceptible to serious
infections that they normally wouldn't get.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
AIDS
Disease Progression:
• The medical community has developed drugs to
inhibit the virus, slowing its growth.
• These drugs have made it possible to live with the
disease longer.
• No cure exists for HIV and AIDS.
Transmission:
• Spread through high-risk behaviors such as:
• Immoral sexual activities;
• Sharing needles (e.g., for injecting drugs, tattoos);
• Can be transmitted from an infected person to
another through blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and
breast milk;
• Also spread from an infected mother to her child
during birth.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
AIDS
Prevention and Awareness:
• Importance of safe practices to
prevent transmission.
• Ongoing research for better
treatments and a potential cure.