SHEARING STRENGTH OF SOILS

SYMBOLS
Notation

Dimensional Analysis

b = a length
c = the cohesion intercept
Ip = the plasticity index
P = a force
u = the pore fluid pressure
= an angle
1 = shear strength reduction factor related to time effects
2 = shear strength reduction factor related to fissuring
= the normal stress on a plane
= the shearing stress on a plane
= the angle of internal friction
= an angle related to cohesion

L
M L-1 T-2
M L T-2
ML-1 T-2
Angle
M L-1 T-2
M L-1 T-2
Angle
Angle

Subscripts etc. where not identified above

= parameter measured in terms of intergranular or effective quantities
c = preconsolidation values
cu = consolidated undrained parameters
d = drained test parameters i.e. dissipated pore pressures
e = so-called true parameters
f = failure values
max = maximum values
n = normal to plane values
nc = normally consolidated values
o = overburden values
u = unconsolidated undrained test parameters
1 = major principal values
2 = intermediate principal values
3 = minor principal values
1. INTRODUCTION
Stability analysis in geotechnical engineering includes all studies which
attempt to determine whether or not the average shearing strength of soil
over the assumed failure surface has a sufficient factor of safety against
failure. Basically such studies consist of comparisons between all the
forces which are or may act to cause failure and the resisting forces
provided by the soil's shearing strength.
The shearing strength of a soil sample is generally defined as its
maximum resistance to shearing forces. In special cases an ultimate,
residual or post peak value is used. The peak and ultimate values are
shown on the normal stress-strain plot of test results in Figure 1. The
residual value (Skempton, 1964) may be taken as the value recorded on a
presheared sample or on an intact sample which is subject to excessive
shearing, such as in a ring shear apparatus (Bishop et al, 1971), where the
soil particles can rearrange themselves into preferred orientations.
Normally stability problems are solved by approximating the stress-strain
behaviour by an ideal rigid-plastic material as shown in Figure 2. Where
such an assumption is made the stability can be expressed in terms of
some definition of the shearing strength f alone (this need not be a
maximum value of ). In actual fact the failure strength varies with the
normal stress on the failure plane. Coulomb is credited with being the
first person to express this variable
failure strength in terms of two engineering properties or parameters,
namely:
(1) cohesion (c), or the resistance due to the forces tending to bond or
hold the soil particles together in a solid mass;
(2) internal friction (), or the rate of change of the resistance due to an
increase of normal stress (n) on the failure plane.

Figure 1. Stress-strain curves for sand.

Coulomb's original shearing strength equation or Law is shown on

Figure 3 and was expressed in terms of total stresses by

f ' c % n tan

(1)

It should be noted that unless = 0 the value of f is not equal to the

maximum shearing strength stress max. This relationship expresses both
the variation of strength of a single sample to changing external stresses
or the locus of test results using different samples of the same type soil.
Another point worth noting is that the equation must have some limitation
otherwise soil slopes with slope angles less than could theoretically be
infinitely high. Particle crushing will obviously occur first.

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

99

remoulded soils, showed that the cohesion intercept was dependent on the
moisture or water content of the failing soil sample. This led to what has
become termed the true cohesion (ce) and true angle of internal friction
(e) which are determined as shown in Figure 4 and a restatement of
equation (1) by
f ' ce % n tan e

(4)

ce ' nc tan e

(5)

where nc is the effective intergranular pressure which would have to be

applied normally to the failure plane of a normally consolidated sample of
the same soil to give a failure water content of the same value as the
failing sample, and e is an angle which relates the true cohesion to nc.
Hvorslev's proposals are useful as an academic model for soil strength but
are normally not used in practice.

Figure 2. Stress-strain curve for ideal rigid-plastic material.

Figure 3. Coulomb's law.

2. EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPT

Unfortunately the values of c and were not found to be constant
values. Their usefulness was not universally accepted until Terzaghi's
concept of effective intergranular stress () was postulated. This related
the soil's behaviour to the difference between the total stresses () and soil
fluid pressure (u) by
' & u

(2)

In accordance with Terzaghi's concept the shearing strength of a soil may

be expressed as

Figure 4. Hvorslev's concept of true cohesion and friction

angle (e.g. Gibson, 1953)

4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In nature soil has been affected by weathering and other phenomenon
(3)
so that fundamental relationships, such as suggested by Hvorslev, have not
found general acceptance in practical engineering. In addition the
where the primes signify that the soil parameters are determined using shearing strength of soil is, like most other engineering material,
effective stresses or equivalent intergranular stresses.
dependent on factors such as creep and fatigue. For these and other more
complex reasons the shearing strength parameters used in practice are
3. TRUE PARAMETER CONCEPT
generally based on simplifying conditions of determining the stability
Hvorslev (e.g. Gibson, 1953) working with multiple samples of against immediate failure and (or) long term failure depending on the
f ' c % (n & u) tan '
c % n tan

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

100

nature of the problem.

expression for shearing strength (equation (1)) and then apply the result
to practical problems in terms of short term undrained or total stress
In the analysis of immediate stability it is assumed that the soil has a parameters (equation (6)) or long term drained or effective stress
very low permeability and the moisture content of the soil will remain parameters (equation (13)).
unchanged during the course of the engineering works. For such
conditions the soil is tested rapidly enough to ensure undrained conditions. 6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND
Interpretation of the test results is then based on considering the soil as a FAILURE SHEARING STRESS
single phase material much as most other engineering materials (i.e. steel,
The relationship between the principal major and minor stress and
concrete and the like). Analysis is then performed by working in total failure shearing stress using the Coulomb failure criteria is illustrated by
stresses. The shearing strength equation for immediate, total stress or resolution of the forces on the element shown in Figure 5. (Note that the
undrained stability analysis for a soil at a given moisture content
intermediate principal stress has no theoretical effect on the Coulomb
failure criteria).
f ' cu % n tan u
(6)
where cu = the undrained cohesion
u = the undrained angle of internal friction
It has been shown by Skempton (1948a) and Bishop and Eden (1951)
that when soil samples at the same moisture content and same stress
history are fully saturated and the pore fluid and soil solids are
incompressible in comparison with the soil skeleton
u ' 0

(7)

This result is extensively used when dealing with immediate stability

problems involving saturated or near saturated clays and relatively
impermeable saturated silts for which, very simply (further corrections
may be required prior to application) for the identical saturated samples
f ' cu

(8)

For saturated samples with different moisture contents cu would, of course,

vary. Thus in a natural soil deposit cu may vary with depth.

Figure 5. Elemental stresses on random plane.

Resolving forces (P) normal to any assumed plane making an angle
with the plane on which the major principal stress acts
Pn ' P1 cos % P3 sin

(14)

b
On the other hand where the permeability of the soil is high and rapid
n
' 1 b cos % 3 b tan sin
(15)
cos
dissipation of pore fluid pressures occur, such as with clean sands and
gravel, or in low permeability soils where a change in moisture content is
likely during loading, the shearing strength is expressed in terms of
n ' 1 cos2 % 3 sin2
(16)
effective intergranular stresses as given by equation (3). The parameters
are sometimes referred to as drained (more logically dissipated pore fluid where subscripts 1 and 3 refer to major and minor principal values, and b
pressure) parameters
is a length over which P1 acts.
Resolving forces parallel to any assumed plane to find the shear force
f ' cd % n tan d
(9)
P on the plane
In a drained test the pore fluid pressures are zero (or used as the zero
datum when not zero) so that
cd ' c

(10)

n ' n (u ' 0)

(11)

d '

(12)

Thus equation (9) becomes identical to equation (3) or

f ' c % (n & u) tan

(13)

P ' P1 sin & P3 cos

b
'
cos
1 b sin & 3 b tan cos

' (1 & 3) sin cos

(17)

(18)

(19)

If the assumed plane is the failure plane and Coulomb's relationship is

taken as being valid on the plane

' f ' c % n tan

(20)
It should be clearly understood that the term "drained" refers to the
dissipation of pore fluid pressures and not to the drainage under gravity
of pore fluid from the soil. Basically what is being referred to is the open Substituting equation (19) with suitable subscripts to indicate failure and
position of the drainage cock leading to the pore water of the soil. With equation (16) for n in equation (20)
the cock open pore water may (drain) enter or leave the sample to maintain
(1 & 3)f sin cos '
zero pore pressure. A fully saturated soil specimen subject to a drained
laboratory test remains fully saturated. In clean sands, gravels and
c % [(1)f cos2 % (3)f sin2] tan
(21)
normally consolidated clays c is generally close to and assumed to be
zero.
c % 3 tan
1 ' 3 %
5. THEORY VERSUS APPLICATION
(22)
sin cos & cos2 tan
From a simple engineering mechanics point of view it is appropriate to
at failure
develop theoretical engineering solutions in terms of Coulomb's

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

101

The plane of least resistance would make this value of 1 a minimum

value to produce failure or
2

sin cos & cos tan ' Maximum

(23)

To find the location of it is necessary to differentiate with respect to

and equate to zero.
d
(sin cos & cos2 tan ) ' 0
d

(24)

For the case of a saturated soil tested in an undrained condition u = 0.

The total stress criterion using equation (31) then gives
f ' cu ' {

cos ' sin % 2 cos sin tan

' 0
& cot 2 ' tan
9 '

(25)

(26)

%
' 45E %
4
2
2

(27)

Substituting back into equation (22) gives (at failure)

1 ' 3 N % 2 c N

(28)

where
N '

1 % sin
1 & sin

)
2

' tan2 (45 %

1

'

tan2 (45 &

(29)

)
2

Also substituting equation (27) in equation (19)

f ' (1 & 3)f sin (45 % ) cos (45 % )

2
2

(30)

only when = 0 does the Coulomb failure shearing stress equal the
maximum shearing stress. This may easily be seen on the Mohr circle
shown in Figure 6. The Mohr circle is a useful method of verifying the
above equations. It may be seen that the radius of the Mohr circle which
must touch the failure locus shown in Figure 6 is (at failure)
1 & 3
2

' {

% 3
c
} sin
% 1
2
tan

}f

(32)

The other simple condition is for clean sands and gravels where c = 0.
The effective stress criterion using equation (31) then gives
1

1 & 3

' N

(33)

7. MEASUREMENT OF SHEARING STRENGTH

The shearing strength of a soil can be determined in situ or in the
laboratory. In situ tests are often preferred in the practice of engineering
because great care and judgement are required in the sampling,
transportation, storage and handling of laboratory samples prior to testing.
Furthermore, cohesionless soils are badly disturbed during sampling and
handling. Such disturbance makes correlations between laboratory testing
and field performance questionable. Fortunately for granular soil c may
be taken as zero and field testing is then correlated with only. The high
permeability of most granular soil generally means that undrained failure
is unlikely. For cohesive soils, however, the long term parameters cannot
be satisfactorily determined in situ and these soils are often sampled and
tested in the laboratory. Laboratory testing must also be relied on to
determine the parameters of placed and compacted soils where testing of
these soils is required.
Although c and are not true constants in practice they are generally
regarded as constant at any given point (or depth) over the stress range
likely to be encountered in the field problem being analyzed.
Consequently, testing should be carried out at stress magnitudes
appropriate to the solution and location being considered. For example in
a u = 0 analysis cu is constant at a given depth but may vary, often
linearly, with depth.
The values of c and , if assumed constant may be determined by
carrying out two or more (generally three is considered minimum) tests
with different normal pressures acting on the plane of shear failure. If the
shearing strength on the failure plane is measured directly, as in the shear
box text shown in Figure 7, the shearing strength may be plotted directly
against the normal stress on the induced failure plane to give c and as
shown in Figure 3.

(31)

which may be rearranged to give equation (28).

Figure 7. Principle of direct soil-shear testing apparatus.

Figure 6. Failure stress interrelationships from Mohr's

circle.

Alternatively where the external stresses are controlled, such as the

principal stresses in the triaxial tests shown in Figure 8, the results may
be plotted on a Mohr circle as shown in Figure 9. Once two or more
failure circles are drawn a common tangent determines the values of c and
.
Normally the triaxial test is done in compression with 2 = 3 however
an extension test is sometimes done in research or expensive projects
where warranted. In such cases 1 = 2. In either case the value of 2 has
no theoretical effect on the Coulomb failure criteria, although in fact some
differences have been noted (Bishop, 1966). Because of these differences
a number of different laboratory testing equipment are available for
research and special projects. The shear box and triaxial test equipment

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

102

are the mainstay of a commercial laboratory particularly where both c and complex equipment are also available (e.g. the plate test and in situ shear
are required. A special form of triaxial test where 3 = 0 is known as the box used by Marsland, 1971).
unconfined compression test.
8. TYPES OF SHEAR TESTING
Three main types of tests are performed on soils dependent on the
dissipation of pore pressures (termed drainage) from the specimens under
test.

Figure 8. Stresses acting on triaxial compression sample.

(A) Immediate or Undrained Test (also known as Quick Test): the

samples are subject to an applied pressure (under conditions of no
drainage) and as quickly thereafter sheared. Care is taken to prevent (in
fact this is difficult) any dissipation of pore pressure since the results
assume none has occurred. The test is most applicable to clays with low
permeability where drainage is very slow and negligible if the test is
performed quickly. If the soil samples being tested have the same stress
history and are fully saturated then at failure u = 0 as shown in Figure
12. This is one way of establishing that a soil is fully saturated. Clays
with fine sand lenses where cavitation of air from the pore fluid often
occurs prior to failure and partially saturated soils with high degrees of
saturation generally give low values of u. The undrained immediate
strength is also obtained in situ with the vane equipment. This test is most
applicable to soft saturated soils. For such a result = 0 is assumed.
Similarly in the laboratory when the unconfined compression test 3 = 0
is done u = 0 is assumed and (1 - 3) = 2 cu. For different sets of samples
(i.e. from different depths) different values of cu will obviously be
obtained.

Figure 10. Experimental determination of c and .

Where either c or is assumed several tests are available both for in
situ and laboratory testing. The most common in situ tests are the vane
shear test shown in Figure 10 for use in soft clays to measure cu (u = 0) Figure 11. Main characteristics of standard penetration test.
and the standard penetration test shown in Figure 11 for use in sands
where the number of blows of a standard sampling spoon is related to
(c = 0). Other common field equipment includes the static or dynamic
(B) Consolidated Undrained Tests: the samples are allowed to
cone penetrometer for sands (Sanglerot, 1972) and the pressure meter consolidate under an applied pressure. Once equilibrium is reached the
(Baguelin et al, 1978) for stiff clays and soft rocks. Numerous more drainage cock is closed and they are then sheared at constant moisture
content under conditions of no drainage. The total stress parameters,
obtained by using different consolidation pressures, ccu, cu are of little
value in practice so pore fluid pressure is generally measured during the
test. Where the pore fluid pressures are measured the test must be
performed slow enough to allow equalisation of pore pressure (normally
95%) since the sample may not be perfectly uniform in composition or
external loading. This allows the effective or long term strength
parameters c and to be obtained as shown in Figure 13. Because of
the slow rate of consolidation of soils having low permeability this test is
generally preferred for obtaining the c and values of clays. There is
no equivalent in situ test. The value of c and is affected by the
consolidation pressure used in relationship to the soil's preconsolidation
pressure. When the consolidation pressure greatly exceeds the
preconsolidation pressure c is normally observed to be close to zero
which is a characteristic of normally consolidated remoulded clays.

Figure 11. Principle of vane shear apparatus.

(C) Drained Tests: the samples are allowed to consolidate as in the

consolidated undrained test and then sheared slowly enough that any
excess pore pressures dissipate completely (normally 95% dissipation is

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

103

acceptable). In highly permeable material this test is preferred because of

the difficulty of ensuring no escape of water in the consolidated undrained
test. In soils of low permeability such as clays the time required to ensure
95% dissipation of all pore pressures becomes excessive. This test is
particularly suited for granular cohesionless materials. In the field it is
performed indirectly in the form of a standard penetration test (SPT) or
cone penetration test in which case c = 0 is assumed and correlations exist
to establish . Since the effective and total stresses are the same, results
similar to the effective stress construction shown in Figure 13 are
obtained. Small differences, which are generally neglected, sometimes
exist.

material generally result in c = 0. On dense material, as shown in Figure

14, the anomaly c 0 is often obtained due to the fact that for dense
cohesionless soils tends to decrease with increasing confining pressure.
Indeed if the confining pressure is excessively too high severe particle
crushing occurs. The decrease in is important for high earth dams and
the like. Under normal foundation engineering loads c = 0 is generally
assumed. Thus from one test result

Figure 12. Undrained results on saturated soils with

identical histories.
Figure 15. Typical shearing strength of rockfill
(e.g. Leps, 1970).

Figure 13. Consolidated undrained test results.

Figure 14. Triaxial compression tests on crock ballast

(e.g. Raymond and Davies, 1978)

For dense clean granular soils, particularly gravel sized material and
larger, this often leads to the nonsensical result of > 45E. This is
clearly not the friction between two surfaces but includes energy required
for dilation. Nevertheless, because of established usage of the c = 0
approximation and the fact that the energy to cause dilation would be
required to cause failure in situ this convention is maintained herein. An
increase in density (decrease in porosity or void ratio) at a constant value
of n thus causes an increase in The effect of increasing the confining
pressure on granular materials at a given density results in a decreasing
value of as shown by Taylor (1948) for sands (Figure 15) and by Leps
(1970) for larger size particles (Figure 16). Leslie (1963) has shown that
well (or broadly) graded granular soil has a higher value of than a
uniformly graded (single sized or well sorted) soil with the same
maximum particle size. In addition a higher is recorded for the larger
particle sized soils of two similarly graded soils. Soils composed of
angular particles generally have higher values of than soils composed
of rounded particles as shown in Table 1 (Sowers and Sowers 1951).
Typical values of for granular soils loaded at normal engineering
foundation stresses are given in Table 2. These values would decrease
under the high pressures associated with high dams and the like.
In the field values of are normally obtained from either the standard
penetration test (SPT) or cone penetrometer. Typical test correlation
values for sands at n = 200 kPa are shown in Table 3. The values of
should be decreased 5E for non-plastic (plastic index less than 6) silt size
soils and silty sands and increased 5E for gravel sand mixtures. Silts and
sands with plastic fines should be evaluated as cohesive soils.

9. SHEARING STRENGTH OF COHESIONLESS SOILS

The mobilisation of shearing resistance of cohesionless soils is

' tan&1 ( f )
(34)
n
illustrated by the stress-strain curves shown in Figure 1. For dense
granular materials the resistance increases to a peak value and then
decreases as the strain increases further to an ultimate value. During this
post peak period the soil particles gradually loosen to a condition 10. SHEARING STRENGTH OF COHESIVE SOILS
The selection of the shearing strength parameters appropriate to an
approximately the same as that of the granular material in the loose state.
The value of for loose granular soil often being called the angle of engineering works built in cohesive soils is one of the most complex and
repose. Several tests conducted at different confining pressures on loose difficult decisions facing the Geotechnical engineer. It is the intent herein

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

104

to deal only with the strength of cohesive soils in a simplistic manner. Other factors such as anisotropy are also important but are generally not
Cohesive soil properties need selection for three types of common analysis specifically determined in routine commercial investigations.
depending on the appropriateness of the problem

Table 1. Effect of Angularity and Grading on Peak Effective

Friction Angle of Coarse Sand in Degrees
(e.g. Sowers and Sowers, 1951).
Shape and Grading

Symbol

Loose

Dense

Rounded, Uniform
Rounded, Well Graded
Angular, Uniform
Angular, Well Graded

SP
SW
SP
SW

30
34
35
39

37
40
43
45

Figure 17. Relation between sensitivity and salt

concentration in pore-water of marine clays
(e.g. Skempton, 1953).
The undrained strength classification, often termed consistency, varies
as shown in Table 4 from very soft to hard. These terms have no
relationship to stress-strain properties since soft clays may, in some cases,
be extremely brittle. It will be noted that the strength range covered by
each higher consistency level is twice the range and values of the directly
lower level.
Very soft and soft cohesive soils are generally intact and show little or
no fissuring. Stiff to hard consistency clays, on the other hand, are very
frequently fissured. Indeed as the strength increases some of the fissures
may become classified as joints and these hard soils become
indistinguishable from soft rocks. Clearly there is no clear cut division
between these definitions and great care must be exercised in dealing
with problems where fissures or joints are likely to be important in any
stability analysis. Medium strength clays are likely to be either intact,
showing no signs of a fissured pattern, or be clearly fissured. Their
behaviour will be very much dependent on their physical nature.
Figure 16. Typical friction angles from direct shear tests on
sub-rounded sand (e.g. Taylor, 1948).

The sensitivity of a cohesive soil is defined as the ratio of its

undisturbed undrained strength to the remoulded undrained strength of the
same soil. A sensitivity classification (Skempton and Northey, 1952) may
be made and is shown in Table 5. It should be clearly understood that
determination of a soil's sensitivity is not standardized. For the higher
(i) the total stress or undrained stability, which for a saturated soil, yields values of sensitivity there will normally be considerable differences in the
some appropriate proportion of cu 0 and u = 0,
values determined in the laboratory and in the field. The value determined
(ii) the peak effective stress analysis in terms of some appropriate by field vane is often less than that obtained by a laboratory triaxial or,
proportion of c and
more commonly, unconfined compression test. Further complications
(iii) the residual effective stress analysis in terms of cr and r.
occur due to the fact that sensitive clays show different degrees of strength
regain (known as thixotropic strength regain or thixotropy) after
remoulding. Thus the time between remoulding and testing may have an
11. STRENGTH CLASSIFICATION OF COHESIVE SOILS
Because cohesive soils often present serious stability problems the appreciable effect on the measured value of sensitivity.
further classification of these soils beyond that established using the
Unified System is most common. Three main characteristics of immediate
One of the best known type of clay deposits exhibiting high
interest in any stability analysis are
sensitivities are those deposited in a sea water environment and then
(i) Variation of undrained shearing strength cu of the soil deposit
leached by fresh water. Sensitivity in these deposits are sometimes related
(ii) Nature of fissuring within the soil deposit
to residual salt content (Figure 17).
(iii) Sensitivity of the various soil layers within the deposit.

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

105

Table 2. Typical Values of Frictional Angles for Granular Soils for n = 100 kPa
Soil Type
Silt (non-plastic)
Uniform Sand and Silty Sand
Well Graded Sand
Gravel

Symbol

Loose

Medium

Dense

ML, MH (PI<6)
SP, SM
SW
GW, GP, GM

26 - 30
26 - 30
30 - 34
32 - 36

28 - 32
30 - 34
34 - 40
36 - 42

30 - 34
32 - 36
38 - 46
40 - 48

Table 3. Relationship for and In situ Tests in Clean Sands

Sand Density (SW,SP)

Very Loose
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very Dense
*

Relative Density

Standard Penetration
Test N - blows/300 mm

Static Dutch-Cone
Resistance
qc - MPa

Angle of Internal
Friction*
Degrees

< 0.2
0.2 - 0.4
0.4 - 0.6
0.6 - 0.8
> 0.8

<4
4 - 10
10 - 30
30 - 50
> 50

2
2-4
4 - 12
12 - 20
> 20

< 28
28 - 30
30 - 37
37 - 42
> 42

Decreases 5E for non-plastic silts (ML,MH with PI < 6) and silty sands (SM)
Increase 5E for gravel or gravel sand mixtures (GW,GP,GM)

Table 4. Consistency of Saturated Clay Soils

Consistency

Very Soft
Soft
Medium/Firm
Stiff
Very Stiff
Hard

Unconfined
Compressive
Strength-kPa

Shearing
Strength
(kPa)

Standard
Penetration
Blows/300 mm

< 25
25 - 50
50 - 100
100 - 200
200 - 400
> 400

< 12.5
12.5 - 25
25 - 50
50 - 100
100 - 200
> 200

<2
2- 4
4- 8
8 - 15
15 - 30
> 30

In a new, fresh or young deposit of uniform, fully consolidated soil the

effective overburden pressure in most practical cases, increases relatively
uniformly with depth (Skempton, 1948a) though, due to positive or
negative artisan water pressure, this may be slower or faster than given by
a static water table assumption. In such a normally consolidated soil
deposit this uniform increase in effective overburden pressure (o) is
associated with a decrease in moisture content of the soil and a uniform
increase in undrained shearing strength (cu). Note that if three samples of
soil from the same depth are tested in an unconsolidated undrained test u
= 0, cu = constant for the given depth. On the other hand if a series of
such sets of tests are performed, each set from different depths, and the
value of cu for each depth is compared with the effective overburden (o)
then (in practice cu is obtained with an in situ vane test or unconfined
compression test)
cu

Table 5. Sensitivity of Clays

(after Skempton and Northey, 1952).
Classification

Strength Ratio

Insensitive
Low Sensitivity
Medium Sensitivity
Sensitive
Extra Sensitive
Quick

<1
1-2
2-4
4-8
8 - 16
> 16

' constant

(35)

This very important relationship is characteristic of young normally

consolidated clay deposits. Where erosion of a young normally
consolidated clay deposit has occurred the deposit becomes lightly
overconsolidated. Because the expansion index of a soil is very much
smaller than its compression index a small decrease in effective stress (due
for example to erosion) has little effect on the soil's moisture content and
on its undrained shearing strength cu at a given depth. It does, however
have an effect on the effective overburden pressure. In lightly
overconsolidated young deposits of clay equation (35) must be modified
to
cu
c

' constant

(36)

12. STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS IN SOFT CLAYS

Very soft and soft clays are generally intact, rarely exhibiting any where c = the preconsolidation pressure (in effective stresses)
fissures. They have a liquidity index over 0.5 depending on their
As the amount of erosion increases the assumption of no change in cu
sensitivity and strength. Sensitive soils have a liquidity index close to or
greater than 1.0 and insensitive soils a liquidity index less than 1.0. The at a given depth becomes less valid and thus equation (36) decreases in
liquidity index decreases as the strength (consistency) increases and for correctness.
stiff and very stiff clays reduces to a value close to zero.

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

106

Obviously both equations (35 and 36) will be valid although the constants
will be different. An example of a deposit exhibiting this quasipreconsolidation due to aging is shown in Figure 18. For glacial and post
glacial clays the constants of equations (35 and 36) generally range with
the limits shown in Figure 19.

Figure 18. Example of 'aged' normally consolidated clay

(e.g. Raymond, 1968).

Figure 20. Post failure factors of safety from undrained total

stress analysis using full values of cu (e.g. Bjerrum, 1973)

Figure 19. Typical characteristic values of glacial and post

glacial normally to lightly overconsolidated clays
(e.g. Bjerrum, 1973).

Figure 21. Variation of ' with plasticity index for normally

consolidated remoulded clays (e.g. Gibson, 1953).

Normally consolidated deposits may also be aged by other factors such

as the bonding of particles by chemical action. These soils may also show
Normally consolidated clays may exhibit a continuing consolidation at a relationship expressed by equation (36) and it is common engineering
approximately constant effective stress (known as secondary practice in normally consolidated and lightly overconsolidated clay to
consolidation). This causes a slow decrease in moisture content and a check the validity of both equations (35) and (36).
slow increase in shearing strength. This rate of increase in strength has
been shown by Bjerrum (1967) to be dependent on the effective
Very soft and soft clay deposits of saturated or near saturated soils are
overburden pressure such that in some aged normally consolidated clays generally intact (do not exhibit fissures). Their short term undrained
both equations (35 and 36) are valid (the constants are different). For strength is based on u = 0, cu 0 with a correction for the difference in
normally consolidated deposits aged and modified by secondary rate of testing (Casagrande and Wilson, 1951), soil anisotropy and other
consolidation only, the induced preconsolidation pressure, known as factors. The correction to be made to the value of cu has been the subject
quasi-preconsolidation, increases uniformly with depth so that
of an extensive study by Bjerrum (1973). The correction factor was
correlated, with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, to the soil's
c
Plasticity Index (Ip). This is shown in Figure 20 and may be expressed by
' constant
(37)
o

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

107

1 '

1
0.84 % 0.08 Ip

(38)

where the engineering undrained stability strength is given by

f ' 1 cu

(39)

It is recommended that 1 should not be taken as greater than 1.

LaRochelle et al (1974) have suggested that the value of 1 may be
obtained by using the post peak strength (termed, by them, the undrained
residual) recorded at relatively low strains since this strength could drop
drastically on remoulding. Limited data is presently available on this
procedure.
The long term or effective stress stability of very soft and soft normally
consolidated and lightly overconsolidated clays are based on the peak
values of c and . Great care must be taken to determine the parameters
over the stress range applicable to the field since in aged clays the
parameters change quite abruptly if the soils are subject to in situ shear
stresses close to failure or close to or above the preconsolidation pressure.
According to Bjerrum (1973) the correction for rate of loading is similar
in magnitude to that expressed by equation (39).
f ' 1 (c % n tan )

(40)
Figure 22. Typical results for fissure clay (e.g. Ward et al.).

Gibson (1953) has given a tentative relationship for of normally

consolidated remoulded clays, Figure 21. Further data confirming the
guide has been presented by Kenney (1959).
Sensitive soils are particularly prone to major changes in their long
term strength parameters if loaded close to their preconsolidation
pressures along with major changes in their settlement parameters. These
changes may result in large long term deformations due to creep and (or)
consolidation. Sensitive soils may be treated, in terms of stability
analysis, like insensitive soils except that higher factors of safety should
be required particularly where failures are likely to cause large and
possible catastrophic deformations.
13. STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF STIFF TO HARD
CLAYS
Intact, non-fissured very stiff to hard clays may be considered such a
rarity that where they are reported it is recommended that a careful check
be undertaken or they be regarded as fissured. Fissured clays exhibit
weaknesses along the fissures which in random testing depends on the size
of specimen. Where selected testing is done results similar to those shown
in Figure 22 are obtained. For random testing the strength decreases as
the specimen size increases since larger specimens are more likely to
include more representative fissures of field scale. Considerable scatter
must be expected in a testing program and this is illustrated in Figure 23
which shows the strength profile for a deep deposit of very stiff to hard
London clay.
Provided that, in the field, water cannot enter the fissures and cause
rapid softening a total stress or undrained analysis in fissured clay may be
performed in the same way as any other undrained strength analysis
except that a factor (2) for fissures needs to be included.
Thus
f ' 1 2 cu

(41)

Figure 23. Strength-depth profile for london clay (e.g. Ward

et al, 1965).

Little information is available on the variation in values of 2 for different

In reality the undrained stability of stiff to hard clays is not generally
soil types. Generally local or regional information exists where a record
a
major
consideration since the strength is more likely to decrease in the
of case histories has been kept by local engineers. Quite often there are
Governmental records since Governments are the major clients dealing long term. Short term considerations should be centred on preventing the
fissures from opening. If the fissures do open then water enters the
with public works.
fissures and softens the clay adjacent to the fissures. The strength of the

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

108

soil adjacent to the fissures decreases and also controls the 'global'
strength of the deposit. Under such conditions the strength drops to values
closely associated with the residual strength parameters. This may occur
quite rapidly particularly where the prevention of fissure opening cannot
be or is not engineered.
For long term stability involving increases in compressive lateral forces
it is reasonable to assume that any fissures would remain closed and the
long term stability may be based on peak effective stress parameters
modified for time effects and fissure spacing.
' 1 2 (c % n tan )

(42)

Figure 25. Decrease in r' with increasing clay fraction

(e.g. Skempton, 1964)

Figure 24. Comparison of drained strength of intact and

failed overconsolidated clay (e.g. Skempton, 1964)
Figure 26. Properties of an overconsolidated clay
On the other hand when considering the long term stability involving
(e.g. Skempton and Larochelle, 1965)
decreases in compressive lateral forces the possibility of fissure opening
is of major concern. In such circumstances the long term strength should
15. SOILS WITH STRUCTURALLY UNSTABLE SOIL FABRIC
be based on residual effective stress parameters. Since theses should be
Although not stated so far in the discussion of shearing strength it has
obtained at very slow rates of loading and along presheared failure planes,
been implicitly assumed that the soils under discussion have a soil fabric
as illustrated in Figure 24, no time or fissure coefficients are necessary
structure which is sufficiently stable that it may be simplistically
and thus
modelled. These soils are characteristic of those found in post glacial
regions and in alluvial deposits. They are composed in the main of
relatively inert, natural or artificially compacted materials which are over
f ' c r % n tan r
(43)
90% saturated. Of more complexity are the soils of diverse characteristics
occurring in climatic regions which produce occasional or continuing
A rough guide, shown in Figure 25, to the value of r has been presented aridity. Present fundamental knowledge of these soils is limited but has
by Skempton (1964) who found the value to be very much affected by the been summarized by Aitchison and Tokar (1973) under the term known
as 'structurally unstable soils'. There is no clear definition of a
clay content of a soil.
'structurally unstable soil' however such soils have stress-strain responses
14. STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIUM TO STIFF which cannot be quantified simply in terms of the applied stress level and
an applied stress dependent pore fluid response. The definition includes
CLAYS
Medium to stiff intact clays should be treated in much the same way as high void ratio sands, silts and clays which are unsaturated and lightly
soft and very soft clays. On the other hand medium to stiff fissured clays cemented and which collapse or expand on wetting or leaching in the
should be treated in much the same way as stiff to hard clays. The scatter unloaded or lightly loaded condition. They also include those high void
in strength data may be expected to increase as the strength increases and ratio soils which may be subject to dynamic loading and respond by
as the overconsolidation ratio increases. In a strength depth profile a liquefaction.
general curve in the data, as shown in Figure 26, may be expected due to
The solution to a problem on a 'structurally unstable soil' generally
the reduction in strength with loss of overburden or increase in
takes on one of the following
overconsolidation ratio.
(a) to design for collapse (swelling) as quantified

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

109

(b)

to design for avoidance of collapse (swelling) by precluding the

operation of the triggering mechanism
(c) to induce collapse (swelling) prior to construction
(d) to apply soil stabilization processes to modify or remove the
susceptibility of the soil to collapse (swelling).
At the present time a practical scientific approach to the problems
involving 'structurally unstable soils' has not been developed which is
generally accepted. This is mainly due to the fact that the hazard to life
and injury is largely absent in these soils and thus research funding has
been noticeably minor. Nevertheless it should be understood that property
damage due to collapsing and swelling soils in terms of damage to houses,
buildings, roads and pipelines is conservatively estimated for the U.S.A.
by Jones and Holtz (1973) to be more than twice that due to damage from
floods, hurricanes, tornadoes and earthquakes.

American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 85, No. SM3, June 1959,
pp. 67-79. (TA710.A1 A57).
LaRochelle, P., Trak, B., Tavenas, F. and Roy, M., (1974) "Failure of a
Test Embankment on a Sensitive Champlain Clay Deposit", Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa,
Volume 11, No. 1, February 1974, pp. 142-164. (TA1.C213).
Leps, R.M., (1970) "Review of Shearing Strength of Rockfill", Journal of
the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Volume 96, No SM4, Proceedings Paper 7394, July 2970, pp.
1159-1170. (TA710.A1 A57).

Leslie, D.D., (1963) "Large Scale Triaxial Tests on Gravelly Soils",

Proceedings of the Second Panamerican Conference of Soil Mechanics
These soils will not be dealt with herein but the interested reader is and Foundation Engineering, Brazil, Volume 1, 1963, pp. 181-202.
referred to the State-of-the-Art statements in various Proceedings of the (TA710.P187).
International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Conferences as a suitable starting point.
Marsland, A., (1971) "Large In situ Tests to Measure the Properties of
Stiff Fissured Clays", Proceedings of the First Australian - New Zealand
Conference on Geomechanics, Melbourne, 1971, Volume 1, pp. 180-189.
16. REFERENCES
Aitchison, G.D. and Tokar, R.A., (1973) "Problems of Soil Mechanics and (TA710.A83t).
Construction on Soft Clays and Structurally Unstable Soils (Collapsible,
Expansive and Others)", Proceedings of the Eighth International Raymond, G.P. (1968) "Construction Method and Performance of an
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, Embankment on Deep Muskeg", Proceedings Third International Peat
August 1973, Volume 3, pp. 161-190. (TA710.I6t).
Congress, Quebec City, pp. 51-56. (TA710.A1 N27).
Baguelin, F., Jezequel, J.F. and Shields, D.H., (1978), "The Pressuremeter Raymond, G.P. and Davies, J.R., (1978) "Triaxial Tests on Dolomite
and Foundation Engineering", Trans Tech Publications, Germany. Railroad Ballast", Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
(TA775.B22 1987t).
American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 104, No GT6, June 1978,
pp. 737-751. (TA710.A1 A57).
Bishop, A.W., (1966) "The Strength of Soils as Engineering Materials",
Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Volume 16, Sanglerat, G., (1972) "The Penetrometer and Soil Exploration", Elsevier
No. 2, June 1966, pp. 91-128. (TA1.G3).
Publication Co., Amsterdam. (TA710.5 S2523).
Bishop, A.W. and Eldin, G., (1950) "Undrained Triaxial Tests on
Saturated Sands and Their Significance in the General Theory of Shear
Strength", Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London,
Volume 2, No. 1, June 1950, pp. 13-32. (TA1.G3).

Skempton, A.W., (1948a) "A Study of the Immediate Triaxial Test on

Cohesive Soils", Proceedings of the Second International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam, Volume 1, June
1948, pp. 192-196. (TA710.I6t).

Bjerrum, L., (1967) "Engineering Geology of Norwegian NormallyConsolidated Marine Clays as Related to Settlements of Buildings",
Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Volume 17,
No. 2, June 1973, pp. 81-118. (TA1.G3).

Skempton, A.W., (1948b) "The Geotechnical Properties of a Deep Stratum

of Post-Glacial Clay at Gosport", Proceedings of the Second International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam,
Volume 1, June 1948, pp. 145-150. (TA710.I6t).

Bjerrum, L., (1973) "Problems of Soil Mechanics and Construction on

Soft Clays and Structurally Unstable Soils (Collapsible, Expansive and
Others)", Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, August 1973, Volume
3, pp. 111-159. (TA710.I6t).

Skempton, A.W., (1953) "Discussion on Theories and Hypotheses of

General Character, Soil Properties, Soil Classification, Engineering
Geology", Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Zurich, Volume 3, 1973, pp. 115116. (TA710.I6t).

Casagrande, A. and Wilson, S.D., (1951) "Effect of Rate of Loading on Skempton, A.W., (1964) "Long Term Stability of Clay Slopes",
the Strength of Clays and Shales at Constant Water Content", Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Volume 14,
Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Volume 2, No. No. 2, June 1964, pp. 77-101. (TA1.G3).
3, June 1951, pp. 251-263. (TA1.G3).
Skempton, A.W. and LaRochelle, P., (1965) "The Bradwell Slip: A ShortGibson, R.E., (1953) "Experimental Determination of the True Cohesion Term Failure in London Clay", Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil
and True Angle of Internal Friction in Clays", Proceedings of the Third Engineers, London, Volume 15, No. 3, September 1965, pp. 221-242.
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, (TA1.G3).
Zurich, Volume 1, August 1953, pp. 126-130. (TA710.I6t).
Skempton, A.W. and Northey, R.D., (1952) "The Sensitivity of Clays",
Jones, D.E. and Holtz, W.G., (1973) "Expansive Soils - the Hidden Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Volume 3, No.
Disaster", Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1, June 1952, pp. 1-16. (TA1.G3).
Volume 43, No. 8, August 1973, pp. 49-51. (TA1.C58).
Sowers, G.B. and Sowers, G.F., (1970) "Introductory Soil Mechanics and
Kenney, T.C., (1959) "Discussion on Geotechnical Properties of Glacial Foundations", Third Edition, The MacMillan Co., New York, p. 556.
Lake Clays", Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, (TA710.S67).

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

110

Taylor, D.W., (1948) "Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics", John Wiley and

Sons Inc., New York, p. 700. (TA710.T2).
Ward, W.H., Marsland, A. and Samuels, S.G., (1965) "Properties of the
London Clay at the Ashford Common Shaft: In situ and Undrained
Strength Tests", Geotechnique, The Institution of Civil Engineers,
London, Volume 15, No. 4, December 1965, pp. 321-344. (TA1.G3).

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

111

Blank Page.

Shearing Strength of Soils -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond

112