Conference Lighting

LIGHTING GUIDE
THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT IN

LECTURE, TEACHING AND
CONFERENCE ROOMS
LG5 : 1991
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS
The rights of publication or of translation are reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the
Institution.
1991
THE CHARTERED INSTITUTION OF
BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERS
LONDON
ISBN 0 900953 47 0
This document is based upon the best knowledge available at the time of publication. However no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay however caused resulting from the use of these
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Foreword
In 1963 the Illuminating Engineering Society published a remarkable monograph entitled Lecture theatres and their lighting which became a standard
work of reference. An updated edition was published in 1973. With the
passage of time, and in a different economic climate, it was felt that a similar
work was needed. This Guide covers not only lecture theatres, but teaching
rooms, committee rooms, conference and multi-purpose rooms, and represents a wholly new approach to the subject.
CIBSE acknowledges the assistance in illustrating this Guide of Thorn
Lighting Ltd., the University of Cambridge, the University of Nottingham,
and the University of Surrey.
Task group
A W S Tarrant Chairman
R I Bell
F Bentham
J A Lynes
A Mitchell
Publications Secretary
K J Butcher
Co-ordinating Editor
V P Rolfe
Contributors
R Anderson
L Bedocs
K Jones
I MacLean
D Poole
iii
Contents
1
Introduction
1.1
Lecture theatres and lecture rooms

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
Lighting needs
General lighting
Suitable light sources
Suspension points and wiring
Controls
Adjoining spaces - corridors, lobbies, ante-rooms etc.

7.1
7.2
7.3
Visual and lighting needs

Daylight
Electric lighting
Surface finishes
Multi-purpose rooms
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Basic lighting and visual needs

Lighting systems and controls
Simultaneous interpretation booths
Committee rooms
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Lighting and visual needs

Rooms intended for formal instruction
Rooms intended for interactive learning
Rooms used for practical work
Large conference rooms

4.1
4.2
4.3
Basic lighting and visual needs

Lecture theatres
Lecture rooms
Chalkboards and their lighting
Provision of daylight
What the audience sees
Decoration and furnishings
Switches, dimmers and controls
Audio visual aids considerations
Access and movement
Use for theatrical presentations
Teaching rooms
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
The classification of teaching and conference spaces
Lighting objectives
Circulation
Waiting areas and lobbies
Emergency lighting
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
Escape route signs

Escape route illumination
Hazard areas
Operating conditions
Choice of systems
Classification of systems
Planning schemes
Planning sequence
Inspection and servicing
1
2
2
2
6
8
10
12
12
13
15
16
17
20
20
21
22
23
25
25
26
27
28
28
28
29
29
30
30
30
31
31
31
32
32
33
33
34
35
35
36
36
36
37
38
38
38
Maintenance
9.1
9.2
Lighting maintenance
Cleanliness and tidiness
10 The management of lecture and conference spaces

10.1 Visual clutter
10.2 Lecture attendants
10.3 Communication between lecturer and projectionist
or projector
10.4 Projection rooms and booths
10.5 Equipment rooms
10.6 Preparation rooms
10.7 Problems of visiting lecturers
40
40
40
41
41
42
44
45
45
45
45
Appendix 1
The preparation and use of slides and overhead

projector transparencies
47
Appendix 2
Dimming systems and equipment
49
Appendix 3
Theatrical presentations in lecture theatres and

conference rooms
51
References
51
Glossary
52
Index
55
1 Introduction
When people come together for the purposes of teaching or discussion, it is
necessary for them to be able to see each other properly. Whether it be a
formal lecture in some great professional institution, a class in a primary
school, a conference or perhaps even a commercial presentation in a hotel,
it is necessary for all the individuals present to be able to see each other
clearly, and to see what is going on. That may sound obvious but we have
all experienced classrooms in which some of the children cannot see what is
written on the chalkboard, or lecture rooms in which a distinguished speaker
has been made to appear grotesque by bad lighting, or multi-purpose rooms
in which an elaborately prepared demonstration has been ruined by an
unwanted ingress of daylight.
The function of this Guide is to offer advice on the lighting of lecture
theatres, teaching rooms, conference rooms and multi-purpose rooms and on
the visual problems that may arise. It is therefore necessary to discuss
other matters than simply the lighting equipment and its positioning. The
decoration and finishes of such rooms, the sightlines, the positioning of
lighting controls and access doors all need to be taken into account. The
lighting is a vital element in such rooms and requirements of lighting should
be taken into account from the first stages of the planning.
This point cannot be too strongly emphasised. Lighting is so important to
the functioning of all the premises covered by this guide that it must be
considered from the very outset of the planning process. By lighting we mean
both natural and artificial lighting; experience shows that whilst much
thought is given to natural lighting, i.e. window design, planning for artificial
lighting is often left until far too late in the design process.
However, lighting problems do not only occur in the design of new buildings;
equally important questions are those of re-lighting or redecorating existing
rooms, and this Guide has been written with this in mind. Questions of safety
must be considered, and so a section on emergency lighting has been included.
Consideration has also been given to the lighting of spaces immediately
adjoining teaching rooms; and sections have been included on the vital
questions of the management and maintenance of such rooms as far as the
visual problems are involved.
Each chapter has a list of points that the lighting designer should check
before finalising any design. The check lists are to be used in this way:First, read the questions on the checklist, and compare your answers with
the checklist answers. (Y = Yes, N = No, ? = You need to consider this
item).
Second, if your answers agree with the checklist, then carry on; if they
disagree, then check the chapter for advice; if the answer given is ? then
you will need to understand what the effect of your answer will be. Make
sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the
chapter for more information.
1.1 The classification of

teaching and
conference spaces
For the purposes of this Guide, teaching and conference spaces are classified
in the way indicated below, and this terminology is used throughout.
1.1.1 lecture theatres
Rooms used for the delivery of formal lectures with raked floors and/or
balconies or galleries and with fixed seating.
1
CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE
1.1.2 lecture rooms
Rooms used mainly for the delivery of formal lectures, with basically flat
floors and fixed seating. This category includes rooms with a raised step or
podium for the lecturer, and rooms with one or two raised steps towards the
rear of the seating.
1.1.3 Teaching rooms
Rooms used mainly for class teaching purposes, with flat floors and no fixed
furniture except possibly chalkboards and projection screens. Such rooms
will usually have a seating capacity of less than 60.
1.1.4 Rooms used for

practical work
Rooms used regularly for class teaching purposes, without large permanent
pieces of apparatus set up. Such rooms will usually have a seating capacity
of less than 60. This category will include many teaching laboratories.
1.1.5 large conference

rooms
Rooms used mainly for conferences and meetings at which people may
address the audience from almost any point in the room. Such rooms will
usually have a capacity of more than 60.
1.1.6 Committee rooms
Rooms used for meetings capable of seating up to roughly 30 persons.
1.1.7 Multi-purpose rooms
Rooms used for a wide variety of purposes, such as school halls, assembly
rooms, function rooms, church halls.
1.1.8 Adjoining spaces
Foyers, ante-rooms, lobbies and corridors immediately adjoining those spaces

listed above.
2 Lecture theatres and lecture rooms

The choice between a lecture room (basically flat) and a lecture theatre
(raked) will be determined by the audience size. If it is less than 60 there is
little point in providing a raked room. If it is more than 80, raked seating is
essential, unless the lecturer is raised on a stage or podium.
2.1 Basic lighting and

visual needs
The lighting in a lecture space must reveal the lecturer to the audience and
the audience to the lecturer and also provide for the other visual tasks
involved. These include observing demonstrations, reading what is written
on the chalkboard, and the taking of notes. Note-taking has to continue when
slides, films or video presentations are used.
The lighting in a lecture theatre may conveniently be thought of in terms
of that for the audience area and that for the demonstration area, though
this distinction should not be pushed too far; in many lecture theatres,
especially smaller ones, the audience area lighting may well function as
general lighting and provide much of the illumination in the demonstration
area as well.
2.2 Lecture theatres

2.2.1 lighting the audience
area
For the audience area the basic choice is between incandescent and fluorescent lighting. Incandescent light is readily controllable in intensity and
direction, and is often preferred on aesthetic grounds. However it is inefficient
in terms of energy usage, doubly so in the case of lecture theatres, since the
heat which it introduces to the building has to be removed (at great expense)
by the air conditioning system. Fluorescent lamps of modern types, with
good colour rendering, are very much more energy-efficient and in those
theatres which are heavily used e.g. in schools and colleges, energy economics
will usually dictate their use. Other types of discharge lamp (e.g. high pressure
sodium) are not suitable, since if they inadvertently get switched off it may
be several minutes before they can be relit.
LECTURE, TEACHING AND CONFERENCE ROOMS
Whatever type of lighting is used, the luminaires must be positioned so as

not to create glare problems either for the audience or the speaker, as shown
in Figure 2.1. This means that, unless the ceiling is exceptionally high, the
luminaires must be mounted on, or recessed into the ceiling. Figure 2.2
Figure 2.1 Luminaires at positions such as A,B

are close to eye level in the back row seats and
may cause intolerable glare.
Figure 2.2
Ribs in a ceiling used to act as glare shields.
shows that when the ceiling is not a flat horizontal surface it may be possible
to make use of its shape to conceal the luminaires from the direct sight line
of the audience, provided that they do not become bad glare sources for the
lecturer. The glare index at any point of the audience area should not exceed
16.
When incandescent lighting is used, luminaires of the downlighter type
should be avoided. Although these are often used in legitimate theatres and
concert halls, they produce a poor modelling of peoples faces, with the result
that the lecturer cannot see the reactions of the audience. When surface
mounted luminaires are used, they should not be of the type which produce
a distracting halo on the ceiling around them. Care should also be taken with
luminaires mounted close to the walls to avoid the scalloped effect on the
wall, which can also be distracting.
When fluorescent lighting is used, ceiling mounted luminaires of the recessed
or semi-recessed type may be used. The latter are preferred to prevent the
ceiling appearing too dark. In order to avoid note-taking shadows, the
luminaires should be mounted with their long axis parallel to the rows of
seats; it is not usually practicable to correlate the rows of luminaires with the
rows of seats beneath. The average illuminance on the working plane (usually
0.85 m above the floor) should be above 200 lux. Bare fluorescent tubes
should not be used if they are visible either to the audience or lecturer.
If the ceiling is white or of a light colour and is of uncluttered design, indirect
lighting may be used for the audience area, but the energy costs will be
higher. This method produces illumination which is quite free of glare, but
is felt by some to produce a soporific effect. In practice the light sources
usually have to be concealed in the cornices. Traditional uplighter fittings
cause obstruction to some of the sight lines and psychologically provide a
barrier between the lecturer and some parts of the audience and are best
avoided.
Lamps used should be of colour rendering group 1B, i.e. their CIE general
colour rendering index (Ra) should be greater than 80. The common 'white'
3
and 'warm white fluorescent tubes do not meet this requirement. An efficient
solution is offered by triphosphor fluorescent lamps.
2.2.2 Lighting the
demonstration area
In small lecture theatres and any theatres that have an unbroken horizontal
ceiling it is a good plan to carry the general lighting forward to serve the
whole area, and to add additional lighting as described below. This technique
does not emphasise any division between the demonstration and audience
areas. In very large lecture theatres, e.g. Figure 2.3, and especially those
where the ceiling height is reduced at the front it is advisable to use quite
separate lighting systems for the demonstration and audience areas. Since
the demonstration area lighting needs to be carefully directionally controlled,
only incandescent lighting is suitable.
In small lecture theatres, internal reflector spot lamps may be used, or
miniature low voltage luminaires designed for display use. In larger theatres
luminaires designed for stage lighting may be used. The lamps or luminaires
should preferably be recessed or otherwise concealed from the view of the
audience. They may otherwise become very obtrusive and give the theatre a
theatrical look, or even the aspect of an operating theatre.
The position and angling of luminaires in the demonstration area is critical.
The best alignment for ceiling mounted luminaires is about 45 to the
vertical, and between 30 and 45 to the side. If the angle is near the vertical
it may produce grotesque shadows on the lecturers face, and if it is near the
horizontal the lecturer may be dazzled when attempting to address the
audience. Similar considerations apply to luminaires mounted on the side
walls. Illuminance at table top height in the demonstration area should be
Figure 2.3
Example of a large lecture theatre.
higher, but not more than double those of the audience area. The recommended values are 500 lux for the demonstration area and 300 lux for
the audience area.
Lighting provided specifically for the lecturer to read notes when the theatre
is darkened for the purpose of slide projection needs careful attention. The
problems are that either light direct from the source, or light reflected from
the notes and desk, may fall on the screen and spoil the appearance of the
projection; it takes very little stray light of this kind to ruin the effect of a
good colour slide. The best solution is to incorporate carefully shielded low
4
power light sources in the lectern itself, whether it be of the pulpit variety,
shown in Figure 2.4, or of the movable table-top kind. The illuminance of
the notes should be kept as low as possible, 5 lux is quite enough. Linear
incandescent lamps can readily be used for this job, and their brightness can
be simply controlled with a dimmer mounted within the lectern itself.
Adjustable table lamps are not suitable for lighting the lecturers notes. The
Figure 2.4
Lectern embodying shielded lighting.
beam angles are so wide that a great deal of light goes where it is not wanted,
and adds to the stray light. It is also very easy for such lamps to be positioned
wrongly, so that light shines directly onto the screen or onto the audience.
2.2.3 Sightlines
The first requirements of a lecture space are that the audience shall see the
lecturer easily and that the lecturer shall see the audience easily.
Lecture theatres should not be raked too steeply, as shown in Figure 2.5, this
makes the audience feel uncomfortable and can present problems with slide
projection. The seating layout is important in raked theatres; if straight rows
are used the seats at the ends of the front rows offer a very oblique view.
Figure 2.5 Problems of a steeply raked theatre; if the screen is placed at A it will be very
uncomfortable for those in the front rows; if at B severe distortion may occur when slides/films are
projected.
There can be little social contact between different members of the audience,
and this is disadvantageous from two points of view: (a) it discourages
audience participation and (b) it does not facilitate or encourage discussion
and questions after a lecture.
Figure 2.6 Fan shaped lecture theatre.
For these reasons, the curved rows in Figure 2.6 are to be preferred using a
fan shaped plan. This arrangement has the disadvantage that if the room is
only two-thirds filled all the audience may be in the back half. Figure 2.7
shows a good design compromise with at least half the length of the side
walls parallel so as to limit the length of rows at the back. If a projection
room or booth is provided it must not jut out into the back rows, as this
creates an unhappy sense of division in the area. It is most important in any
lecture theatre that there is an adequate space in the demonstration area. In
practical terms, this means that there should be at least 3 m (10 feet) between
the front wall and the feet of people sitting in the front row. This not
only allows an adequate area for demonstration purposes and improves the
sightlines, but it gives the theatre a spacious quality as in Figure 2.3. If the
front wall is too close to the seats the theatre will look cramped, and have a
claustrophobic atmosphere.
Figure 2.7
Modified fan shape with angled
straight rows.
2.3 lecture rooms

2.3.1 Lighting
Because of the smaller dimensions, the audience area lighting in lecture

rooms will usually serve the demonstration area as well. It is desirable that
the lecturer and the immediate surroundings be a little brighter than the rest
of the room, and this can usually be effected by the use of a few incandescent
lamps of the reflector spot type directed towards the lecturer. However they
must be carefully positioned so as to avoid severe glare to the lecturer; usually
this will mean that they have to be mounted either on the side walls, or on
the ceiling adjacent to the side walls, the positions are shown in Figure 2.8.
If a fixed lecture bench is installed (which is not a very happy arrangement)
luminaires should not be mounted directly over it for demonstration purposes.
In this position they may well cause specular reflections from demonstration
equipment which makes it very difficult to see what is going on. Lighting
from the side is equally effective and spotlights may be mounted in the same
position as those to light the lecturer.
Figure 2.8 X marks possible positions for spotlights in a small lecture room on ceiling or side
walls.
The general lighting should be arranged to produce an illuminance above

200 lux at desk level in the audience area. It should be reasonably uniform
and if fixed seats are installed right up to the walls the illuminance at desk
level at the wall should not be below 70% of the average illuminance. If
there is an aisle next to the wall this does not apply. The lamps used should
be of colour rendering group 1B. In order that members of the audience may
take notes whilst slides or overhead projector transparencies are shown, a
much lower level of general illuminance - in the range of 15-30 lux is
needed. Ideally this may be achieved with the use of dimming equipment,
but economics in most cases dictate a plain switching arrangement, as
discussed in Section 2.8. Either a few incandescent pearl lamps in a separate
circuit can be used for slide viewing lighting or a few lamps of the general
lighting system can be wired in a separate circuit for this purpose.
2.3.2 Sightlines and glare
Lecture rooms are usually rectangular in plan and experience shows that the
best seating plan is that with the lecturing area at one end of the room with
rows of seating parallel to the short dimension as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figures 2.10, 2.11, and 2.12 show typical layouts of lecture rooms. In the
case of a lecture room which is basically flat the sight lines may be greatly
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Sightlines in a lecture room with a flat floor.
Figure 2.11
The sightlines may be improved by raising the lecturer on a step.
Figure 2.12
Sightlines can be further improved by raising the rear seats on one or two steps.
Good lecture room layout.
Figure 2.13 Back row glare in a lecture room; luminaires at A and B are very close to the students
sightlines, and will cause intolerable glare.
improved by raising the latter half of the audience on one or two steps and
raising the lecturer on a step. Lecture rooms in general have a much lower
ceiling than lecture theatres, and in the absence of raked seating the sightlines
become critical. The lighting equipment should be arranged so that the
luminaires do not cause serious glare to the occupants of the rear row of
seats, as shown in Figure 2.13, or to lecturer as shown in Figure 2.14. When
7
Figure 2.14
Glare to the lecturer caused by inappropriate luminaires.
fluorescent lighting is used the luminaires should be of the recessed or semirecessed types; if this is not possible they may be provided with the glare
shields illustrated in Figure 2.15. It may sometimes be possible to use ceiling
ribs as glare shields. On no account should bare fluorescent tubes be visible
to the audience.
The glare index at any seat should be less than 16. It should also be
remembered that avoiding glare for the audience may create glare for the
lecturer; in particular, the lecturer must not be subjected to disability glare.
Figure 2.15
2.4 Chalkboards and

their lighting
Glare shields placed behind luminaires to overcome the problem of back row glare.
Figure 2.16 shows a chalkboard made difficult to read by veiling glare. This
is usually caused by the internal light sources or windows. It is therefore
essential that all chalkboards should have a matt surface; the term chalkboard
includes both the traditional blackboard used with chalk, or whiteboards used
with marker pens,
If a blackboard is used it need not actually be black - a Munsell value not
exceeding 4 (reflectance less than 0.12) is satisfactory. Suitable surface colours
are given in DES Building Bulletin No. 9(2). Note that whiteboards cannot
satisfactorily be used as projection screens.
To keep reflections to a minimum chalkboards should be mounted vertically
on the front wall. They are best lit by ceiling mounted luminaires, similar
to that in Figure 2.17, shielded so that the lamps are not visible to the
audience. The best position for a chalkboard luminaire is shown in Figure
2.18; a luminaire placed close to the board cannot light the foot of the board
adequately. The illuminance on the chalkboard surface should average 500
lux, with a uniformity of 0.25; this can be halved in the case of white boards.
Figure 2.16
Reflection of a light source in a chalkboard.
Figure 2.17
Ceiling mounted fluorescent luminaire suitable for chalkboard lighting.
Figure 2.18
Choosing position for a chalkboard luminaire.
2.5 Provision of daylight
Almost all lecture presentations require controlled lighting at some stage.

For that reason, lecture theatres and rooms are often built with no access to
daylight. Equally, people do not like to feel shut in, especially when lectures
are given during daylight hours, and there are many who have a preference
for working under natural light. In rooms the size of lecture theatres the
provision of natural light in sufficient quantities for working purposes requires
very large areas of glazing. That is not only expensive from the point of view
of heat loss, but it is difficult to achieve a good blackout, and unless the
windows are north facing there may be severe problems with solar heat gain
in summer.
The only way in which an adequate blackout can be achieved in such rooms
is by the use of the completely opaque blinds, running in grooves at the sides
to provide a complete light trap. An example of this type of blind is shown
in Figure 2.19. Curtains or venetian blinds are not adequate. Blinds should
be of light colour on the inside so as not to present a large black area when
down, and in view of the area of window involved and the need for frequent
opening and closing they should be motor operated. Blinds should also be of
a light colour on the outside, to prevent excessive solar heat gain.
Figure 2.19
10
Blind with deep grooves suitable for lecture room use.
It is often felt that windows in lecture theatres and rooms have to be provided
to give the occupants some view of the outside world and to overcome feelings
of claustrophobia, i.e. to provide some visual escape rather than to provide
lighting. Figure 2.20 shows that very much smaller areas of window can be
used, and the problems associated with them much reduced. However, the
need for a perfect blackout remains and again groove enclosed blinds are
needed, though they may be hand-operated.
Figure 2.20 Windows of limited area in a lecture room, provided to offer visual escape to the
occupants rather than to admit daylight.
Windows should not be provided in either the front wall or back wall of a
lecture theatre or lecture room. The former would produce intolerable glare
to the audience and the latter would cause serious veiling reflections on the
chalkboard.
Skylights should not be provided; they require elaborate blackout arrangements and are very difficult to keep clean. In the few lecture theatres where
they have been installed they are usually kept permanently blacked out.
From the point of view of lighting, it is much better for lecture theatres and
rooms to be windowless. Since the occupants rarely have to remain in them
for more than an hour without a break, problems of claustrophobia do not
arise, although they may well do so in small teaching rooms. Some newer
institutions make extensive use of windowless lecture rooms with entire
success. Windowless lecture theatres and rooms require forced ventilation
which may in turn lead to noise problems, but it should be pointed out that
large theatres with extensive glazing have an equal requirement for forced
ventilation.
Light traps (e.g. two sets of doors or other effective means for excluding
daylight) should be provided in all lecture theatres and rooms to prevent
daylight getting in when the theatre is darkened for the presentation of colour
slides. This is particularly so in the case of entrances at the rear of the theatre,
which when opened suddenly by a latecomer may allow full daylight to fall
on the projection screen. These light traps should also function as sound
traps.
Such doors should not be provided with windows if it is not possible to
provide proper light traps. If automatic door closers are installed they should
be of a design which allows the door to be closed quickly and silently.
11
2.6 W h a t t h e a u d i e n c e
sees
The audience should be able to concentrate on the lecturer, screen or

chalkboard, and the decoration, furnishings and equipment should not be
competing with the lecturer for attention. The lecturers desk, chalkboard
and screen must be so placed that they do not obstruct the view of the
audience. If an overhead projector is used, great care must be taken to see
that it does not obstruct either the audiences view of the lecturer or the
lecturers view of the audience. Overhead projectors often lead to distracting
shadows appearing on the projection screen when slide or film projection is
used. Overhead projectors are best mounted on trolleys so that they can be
wheeled out of the way when not required.
Specular reflections of light sources and windows on the chalkboards,
sounding boards and glazed portraits should be avoided. Also avoid backgrounds, such as those in Figure 2.21 with disturbing patterns, and backgrounds full of fussy details. The audiences view of the front of the lecture
room or lecture theatre should be clear and free from visual clutter; in
particular the front wall should be kept clear of pipework, conduits, and
ventilation trunking. In some cases the luminaires themselves may provide
visual clutter, and ventilating diffusers are particularly apt to do so. A wall
full of chalkboards which cannot easily be cleaned results in a dirty-looking
grey area. See also Section 10.1.
Figure 2.21
2.7 D e c o r a t i o n a n d
furnishings
Disturbing pattern on the front wall of a lecture theatre.
It is the decoration and furnishings within a lecture theatre or room which,

in combination with the lighting determine its appearance and contribute to
that indefinable quality that we usually call atmosphere or character.
There is a great variety of styles available in a number of colours and finishes
and a choice from these should be made at an early stage in conjunction with
other decorative finishes and furniture. The use of darker colours on the side
walls of theatres will help concentration. The surfaces of the side walls should
have some degree of texture, such as that provided by timber panelling, textile
covered panels, slightly textured plastics or recessed-pointing brickwork.
Shuttered concrete is not recommended as it soon gets dirty and is not easy
to clean. In a lecture room without fixed seating it may not be desirable to
treat the side walls as a feature, but darker-toned colour can be used behind
the lecturer. Ceilings should be just off-white. Whether white or a tint will
12
Figure 2.22 Suitable colours for decoration and furnishings. The colours recommended are specified by their British Standard Colour Numbers (given
below each sample) according to BS 4800 (1984). Owing to the difficulties of colour reproduction, these samples may not accurately match the BS
colours. Designers and specifiers should quote the BS numbers and not attempt to match these samples visually.
depend on the style of lighting. The colour should always be light but if
luminaires are recessed and no light is reflected off the ceiling it will look
grey by comparison. Walls should be of a different colour from the ceiling
in order to define the boundaries of the interior space and avoid a feeling of
claustrophobia.
The co-ordination of the colour and texture of finishes with the lighting is
all-important. The colour rendering properties of the lighting will greatly
affect the choice of colours and in some cases daylight will have to be
considered also. When replacement lamps are fitted they should always be
the same as the originals, unless a positive decision is made to re-lamp the
whole theatre with lamps of a more modern type. Dark colours in decoration
and furnishings should be avoided and matt or semi-matt surfaces are
desirable as high gloss areas will cause specular reflection and be distracting.
Cold blues, dark greys and dull yellows must be avoided, and also colours
which are very clear and strong in blue and yellow; they are particularly
distorted by some forms of fluorescent lighting.
Colour contrasts of a modest nature are desirable since a bland interior
scheme, combined with dim lighting, tends to cause drowsiness amongst the
audience. These contrasts can usually be obtained by careful choice of the
colours of the seating as this presents a large area of colour; mid-toned colours
are best in a definite but not too strong hue. The flooring colour does not
contribute a great deal to the scheme in a lecture theatre. Whether carpet or
hard finish a coloured neutral is the most practical choice. Suggested colours
are given in Figure 2.22 with their British Standard references.
2.8 Switches, dimmers

and controls
In any lecture space the lighting controls need to be as simple and comprehensible as possible lecturers are more concerned with their subject matter
than light switches. In the main, the only lighting settings needed in a lecture
theatre are:
(a)
full normal lighting
(b)
audience area lighting reduced to a low level and demonstration area

lighting off; for the purpose of line slide projection, but allowing enough
light for the audience to take notes
(c)
all lighting off; for the projection of tone slides, colour slides, and for
the purposes of visual demonstrations.
Abrupt changes in the lighting are disturbing to the audience, and for that
reason dimmers which enable gradual changes to be made are preferable to
plain switches, Manually operated dimmers are not satisfactory as it is difficult
to get a smooth transaction from one lighting state to another.
A good system is that in which the only controls are three push buttons,
corresponding to the states (a), (b), (c) above. On pushing the appropriate
buttons the dimmers move accordingly. In such installations the time taken
to go from full-on (a) to full-off (c) should not be too long; about four seconds
is sufficient. The very slow dimming speeds used in the professional cinema
and theatre (usually about twenty seconds from full-on to full-off) are
inappropriate in lecture theatres; it is frustrating to audience and lecturer
alike to have to keep waiting while the lights go down before a slide can be
shown. A further advantage of the pre-set push button dimming system is
that several sets of out-station controls may be used and this may save the
lecturer a great deal of walking about; an out-station control should also be
provided for the lecture attendant e.g. in the projection room.
If it is not possible to use dimmers on grounds of cost, aless satisfactory, but
acceptable system using plain switches may be used in lecture theatres and
13
rooms seating up to 120; dimmers are essential in large theatres. In this

arrangement all of the lighting for the audience area and the demonstration
area (except the lectern light) is switched by a single switch at the lecturers
position which should have a large and clearly marked handle.
A miniature neon or LED indicator, permanently lit, should be provided to
enable the lecturer to find it in the dark. In lecture rooms that do not have
fixed seating this switch should be on the front wall and a little to one side
of the screen so that the lecturer does not have to walk in front of the screen
to operate it. The needs of slide projection and note-taking may be met by
use of a few plain pearl lamps in the ceiling (referred to as pilots) under the
control of a separate switch. Pilot lights of this kind should provide an
illuminance of about 15 lux in the audience area, and should be kept well
away from the demonstration area and projection area; an example of pilot
lights is shown in Figure 2.23.
Figure 2.23 The small incandescent lamps in this theatre are used alone as pilots when slides are
shown.
All lecture theatres should be arranged for one person operation as circumstances inevitably arise where a lecturer has to speak without the services of
an attendant.
Points to particularly avoid in the switching are:
A plethora of switches operating different sections of the general lighting
system.
14
Positioning the switches so that they become inaccessible when the

projection screen is in use as in Figure 2.24.
Arranging for some sections of the lighting to

with switches at the rear entrance doors. (This
to get all the lights off the unfortunate lecturer
switches to push up and which to push down,
different every time the room is used.)
Arrangements whereby any of the lighting can be controlled from

switches outside the room.
be on two-way circuits
arrangement means that
has to remember which
and the pattern will be
Figure 2.24
2.9 Audio-visual aids

considerations
Light switches rendered inaccessible by a projection screen.
It is vital that the various pieces of audio-visual equipment do not obstruct

the audiences view of the lecturer, the projection screen, and the chalkboard,
Overhead projectors and television monitors are particularly apt to do this.
One solution is to mount the two last mentioned items on wheeled trollies,
so that they can easily be moved out of the way (or out of the room) when
not wanted. A common problem is that a single screen will not be suitable
for both slide and overhead projector (OHP) use. To avoid the keystone effect
shown in Figure 2.25, the screen needs to be angled in different directions.
Figure 2.25
Example of the keystone effect.
15
Figure 2.26 shows movable screens but these are both costly and bulky, and
can cause unwanted shadows on the chalkboard as shown in Figure 2.27.
The simplest solution is to use two separate screens. Many lecturers like to
use both systems at the same time, and count upon being able to do so.
Figure 2.26 Movable screens in a large lecture theatre: that on the left is set for an overhead
projector, whilst that on the right is set for slide projection from the projection room.
Figure 2.27
Shadows on the chalkboard caused by a bulky projection screen.
It is advantageous for control cables from the projector to the lecturers

position to be permanently wired in this saves having cables trailing across
the floor. It is also helpful to have a lockable cupboard at the projector
position, in which it can be kept when not in use.
2.10 Access and

movement
16
In both lecture theatres and rooms the question of access is important. Ideally
the normal means of access for members of the audience should be through
doors at the back, with a separate entrance for the lecturer at the front. Rear
access for latecomers is essential; it is discourteous and annoying to the

lecturer and audience when latecomers attempt to pick their way across the
demonstration area. In larger theatres both front and rear access usually have
to be provided. Provided that latecomers are firmly directed towards the rear
doors by a suitably worded illuminated sign when lectures are in progress,
front access is quite acceptable; if it leads to a social area it may encourage
members of the audience to come and converse with the lecturer when the
performance is over.
For the purpose of mounting demonstrations it is important that there should
be direct access through which a sizeable trolley may be wheeled to the
demonstration area. However, access doors should not be in the front wall
of the lecture theatre or room, where they add to the visual clutter, and
distract attention. The same applies to the doors of preparations rooms,
lecturers rooms and stores.
All lecture theatres and lecture rooms sooner or later become used for
purposes other than that to which they were originally dedicated. Consequently all items in the demonstration area should be movable and removable.
Lecterns are obtainable which are readily movable, even those embodying
controls for the lighting and projectors. Figure 2.28 shows a removable
lectern. Massive permanent benches are to be avoided; they form an effective
barrier between lecturer and audience, and demonstrations may equally well
be mounted on a set of tables which can be carried out when not wanted.
Experience shows that when demonstrations are mounted, services other
than electricity are rarely, if ever, called for and there is little point in
installing a fixed bench simply to provide terminal points for water, gas, and
other outlets. If such services are needed, they are much better installed in
wall cupboards where they can be kept both locked and out of sight until
they are wanted.
Figure 2.28
able
Lectern embodying controls for lighting and projection which is movable and remov-
In some cases, local authority bye-laws require that all exits to a lecture
theatre/room be marked with permanently illuminated exit signs. Light from
such signs falling on a projection screen can ruin the effect of colour slides
or demonstrations. They should therefore be aligned so as to be visible to
the audience, but not to throw light on the projection screen.
2.11 Use for theatrical

presentations
Possibly because they resemble legitimate theatres in shape and possibly

because they often constitute the largest auditorium in a particular institution,
lecture theatres are sometimes chosen as the venue for theatrical presentations. Such presentations can be greatly helped by the provision of further
special facilities, which are set out in Appendix 3. However some of these
are expensive, and consideration will have to be given to the extent to which
17
a particular lecture theatre may be used in this way. The general experience
is that the larger the lecture theatre, the more likely it is to be used for
theatrical purposes.
Table 2.1 Checklist - Lecture theatres and lecture rooms
1) Compare your answers with the checklist answers. (Y = Yes, N = No, ? = You need to consider
this item)
2) If your answers agree with the checklist, then carry on; if they disagree, then check the section
for advice; if the answer given is '?' then you will need to understand what the effect of your answer
will be. Make sure that you understand the reasons behind the answers, and check the section for
more information.
Can the audience see the lecturer easily? Y

Can the lecturer see the audience easily? Y
Will it be a lecture room or a lecture theatre? ?
Is the audience lighting incandescent or fluorescent? ?
Is the audience lighting readily controllable? Y
Are the luminaires positioned not to create glare
problems either for the audience or the speaker?
Y
If the ceiling is not a flat horizontal surface, can
its shape be used to conceal the luminaires from
the direct sightline of the audience without
causing glare for the lecturer? Y
Are totally recessed luminaires of the downlighter type used? N
Is the modelling of human features good enough
for the lecturer to see clearly the reactions of
the audience? Y
Do any surface-mounted luminaires produce a
distracting halo on the ceiling? N
Do luminaires mounted close to the walls
produce a scalloped effect on the wall or any
other patterns which can be distracting? N
Where there is note taking, does the lighting
create multiple shadows of the pen/pencil point
on the paper? N
Are luminaires of the semi-recessed type to
prevent the ceiling appearing too dark? Y
Are fluorescent luminaires mounted with their
long axis parallel to the rows of seats to prevent
note-taking shadows? Y
Are luminaires arranged to produce general

illumination over the demonstration area rather
than angled at definite points? Y
The lecturer must be able to read notes when
the theatre is darkened for the purpose of slide
projection. Is this provided by the room lighting,
by dedicated lighting, or by carefully shielded
low-power light sources provided in the lectern
itself (preferred)? ?
In this situation, does light (direct from the
source, or reflected from notes or desk) fall
on the screen and spoil the appearance of the
projection? N
In this situation, is the luminance of the notes
low and can it be controlled easily? Y
In a lecture room does the general lighting
produce an illuminance above 200 lux at desk
level in the audience area? Y
In a lecture room, is the lighting in the audience
area reasonably uniform? Y
In a lecture room, if fixed seats are installed
right up to the walls is the illuminance at desk
level at the wall not less than 70% of the average
illuminance? Y n.b. if there is an aisle next to
the wall this does not apply.
Can a general illuminance of 15-30 lux (on the
desks) be set so that the audience may take notes
whilst slides or overhead projector transparencies are shown? Y
Is the average illuminance on the working plane

(normally 0.85 m above the floor) above 200 lux
and adjustable? Y
Are chalkboards lighted by suitably designed

ceiling mounted luminaires, carefully shielded
so that they do not cause glare to the audience?
Y
Do the lamps have adequate colour rendering

properties (CIE Class lB)? Y
Is the room windowless? Y
Is the lighting system designed so that it can be

properly maintained? Y
Have arrangements been made to ensure that
maintenance is carried out? Y
In small lecture theatres does the general
lighting extend forward to serve the whole area?
Y
In large lecture theatres is there a separate
lighting system for the demonstration area? Y
18
Is the position and angling of luminaires in the

demonstration area correct (about 45 to the
vertical)? Y
If windows are provided, has adequate blackout

been achieved by the use of completely opaque
blinds, running in grooves at the sides to provide
a complete light trap? Y
Are the blinds of light colour on the inside and
motor or handle operated? Y
Are small windows provided to give the occupants some view of the outside world and to
overcome feelings of claustrophobia? Y
Is the ventilation adequate? Y
Is the demonstration area lighting incandescent

with directional control? Y
Is noise from the ventilation system a problem?

Y
Are demonstration area luminaires recessed or

otherwise concealed from the view of the audience? Y
Are light traps provided to prevent the ingress

of daylight when the theatre is darkened for
projection (particularly in the case of entrances

Table 2.1 Continued
this item)
for advice; if the answer given is '?' then you will need to understand what the effect of your answer
more information.
at the rear of the theatre which can illuminate
the screen)? Y
Are the lighting controls as simple and comprehensible as possible? Y
Do the light traps also function as sound traps?

Y
Have the following 3 conditions been provided

and can they be achieved easily? Y
Will doors close quickly and silently? Y

[Lecture room only] Could sight lines be
improved by raising the latter half of the audience on one or two steps and/or raising the
lecturer on a step? Y
[Lecture room only] Is the lecturing area at one
end of the room with rows of seating parallel to
the short dimension? Y
[Lecture theatre only] Is the rake too steep,
making the audience feel uncomfortable or
causing problems with slide projection? N
[Lecture theatre only] Is the seating plan fanshaped with curved rows and limited row lengths
at the rear? Y
If a projection room or booth is provided, does
it jut out into the back rows? N
Is there anything which competes with the lecturer for attention? N
Do the lecturers desk, chalkboard and screen
obstruct the view of each other? N
If an overhead projector is used, does it obstruct
either the audiences view of the lecturer or the
lecturers view of the audience; does it obstruct
the projection path and cause shadows? N
If an overhead projector is used, is it mounted
on a trolley so that they can be wheeled out of
the way when not required? N
Is the audiences view free of visual clutter? Y
Is the atmosphere too strong nor too bland? N
Have darker colours been used on the side walls
to aid concentration on the focal point? Y
Is the ceiling finish light and off-white? Y
Are the luminaires recessed? ?
Are the ceilings and walls painted in the same
colour all-over? N
Have the colour rendering properties of the
lighting and daylight been allowed for in the
choice of surface colours? N
If replacement lamps are fitted, are they the
same as the originals or has a positive decision
been made to re-lamp the whole theatre? Y
Has full advantage been taken of modern lamp
types? Y
(a) full normal lighting

(b) audience area lighting reduced to a low
level and demonstration area lighting off;
for the purpose of slide projection but
allowing enough light for the audience to
take notes
(c) all lighting off; for the projection of tone
slides, colour slides, and for the purposes
of visual demonstrations
Have abrupt changes between lighting conditions been avoided? Y

Are dimmers with automatic fade controls used,
preferably with three push buttons, corresponding to the three control conditions (a), (b)
and (c) above? Y
Are the transition times (fade up and down)
acceptable (about four seconds)? Y
Has a suitable number of out-station controls
been used to provide flexibility and ease of
use, and has one been provided for the lecture
attendant e.g. in the projection room? Y
If dimmers are not used because of cost, does
the lecture room seat less than 120, and is the
control system flexible and easy to use. Y
If dimmable fluorescent lighting is required, is
it correctly designed, installed and maintained
to ensure satisfactory dimming from full brightness to a level of about 15% of full brightness.
Y
Can the type of lamps selected be dimmed with
the circuit proposed? Y
Does the fluorescent lighting use high frequency control gear (20 - 40 kHz) to minimise
acoustic noise and provide simple, reliable dimming? Y
If fluorescent lighting is switched rather than
dimmed, will it start cleanly without noise or
flickering? Y
If full dimming of the fluorescent lighting is not
provided, then are fluorescent and incandescent
lighting mixed with the latter on dimmer control
for slide projection? Y
Have matt or semi-matt surfaces been used

throughout? Y
Is the dimming equipment and associated wiring

designed to keep radio frequency emission to
the minimum and is other electronic apparatus
carefully screened to prevent interference being
picked up? Y
Have colour contrasts of a modest nature been

used? Y
Is the lecture theatre arranged so that it can be

used for one person operation? Y
Has adequate consideration been given to the

type of carpet (or other flooring) used and the
patterns of wear that will exist? Y
Are switches or controls positioned so that they

become inaccessible when the projection screen
is in use? N
Have dark colours in decoration and furnishings

been avoided? Y
19

Table 2.1 Continued
3 Teaching rooms
3 . 1 Lighting and visual
needs
The activities which take place in teaching rooms fall into three categories,
which require different styles of lighting, and these are discussed separately
in this chapter. One category covers the traditional type of teaching where
students sitting at prescribed places are addressed by a teacher speaking from
another prescribed place - a process described by Joad as .... the transfer
of information from the notebook of the teacher to the notes of the student
without passing through the minds of either. This style of teaching is
referred to here as formal instruction.
The second category includes that style of teaching which takes the form of
a group discussion, where teachers and students may sit anywhere, a process
sometimes irreverently termed the brainstorming session or circle dance.
This style of teaching is referred to here as interactive learning.
The third category is that which covers the teaching of practical work such
as metalwork, craft design and technology.
In the case of rooms intended for formal instruction the lighting needs are
similar to those of lecture rooms, except that the students must be able to
read from text books at their desks. The students may have to work at the
same point in the room for several hours at a stretch.
20
In the case of rooms intended for interactive learning, a sympathetic style of

overall lighting is needed, so that faces are revealed without grotesque
shadows in any part of the room. Problems such as glare are less important
because students are free to move their seats, and normally will not occupy
the same positions for prolonged periods.
Rooms used for practical work - laboratories, workshops, art rooms, craft
rooms and the like, involve visual needs and tasks which are the same as
those found in industry; this is particularly so if the room contains much
fixed equipment e.g. a workshop with lathes and other machine tools.
The reader should consult the Code for Interior Lighting(1) for advice on
laboratories, workshops and sewing rooms. However many rooms used for
practical work have to serve a wide variety of purposes and the visual needs
of these are discussed in Section 3.4.
Whichever style of teaching is envisaged, it is essential for the lighting
designers to understand the users intentions and their design implications.
3.2 Rooms intended for

formal instruction
In a room planned specifically for chalk and talk the role of the windows
is as much to provide visual contact with the outside world as to provide
working daylight with a specific daylight factor. Table 3.1 shows the Department of Education and Science requirements for windows in the UK.
Table 3.1 Department of Education and Science guidelines(3)
If daylight is to be the principal illuminant the uniformity of the natural

lighting is likely to be as important as the average daylight factor. The
uniformity should be acceptable so long as two conditions are fulfilled:
Figure 3.1 The no-sky line, which is the locus
of points beyond which it is impossible for an
occupant to see any part of the sky.
No substantial part of the working plane shall be beyond the no-sky

line, shown in Figure 3.1.
In a room daylit from one side, the sum of ratios (l/w + l/h) shall not
exceed 2/(1-p).
where:
l
w
h
= depth of room, normal

= width of room, parallel
= height of window head
= area-weighted average
remote from windows.
to window wall, as shown in Figure 3.2.

to window wall.
above floor.
of surface reflectances in half of room
On no account should the chalkboard be placed on a wall containing a

window and it is advisable that it should not be placed on a wall opposite
windows (see Section 2.4).
Figure 3.2 Limiting room proportions.
Windows will need blackout facilities. These can be checked by standing in

front of the projection screen. No sky should be directly visible from any
point on the screen. Curtains should be able to meet this criterion, assisted
if necessary by Velcro fasteners; the material should be suitable for blackouts.
Blinds in vertical rebates would be more effective, but mechanically less
reliable. The blinds themselves need not be dark in colour. If one side of the
blind is dark that side should face away from the window, as an absorbent
surface immediately inside a window exacerbates summertime over-heating
problems.
21
3.2.1 Electric lighting
The electric lighting has three principal roles; to light the desks, the teacher,
and the chalkboard.
3.2.1.1 Desks
For secondary schools, colleges and buildings used extensively after dark the
DES Guidelines(3) recommend a general illuminance of at least 300 lux. This
is best achieved by tubular fluorescent luminaires chosen to limit the glare
index to 16. The contrast rendering factor (CRF), which should be 0.8, should
be maximised by positioning of the luminaires. The classical precept light
over the left shoulder meets both these requirements, at least for righthanded students.
3.2.1.2 Teaching space
Lighting for the teachers space should always be switched separately from
the rest of the room. It may be worth considering a different type of luminaire
for this area. The teachers face should be sympathetically revealed. A vector/
scalar ratio between 1.5 and 1.8 would be suitable. The vector direction
should be such as to facilitate lip-reading. The background luminance should
preferably be slightly lower than the luminance of the teachers face. This
may be difficult in the case of teachers with dark skin tones, but in that case
a light background would be particularly inappropriate. Light switches should
be handy to the teacher and not local to each luminaire.
3.2.1.3 Chalkboard
Chalkboards need not be black, but should have a Munsell value not exceeding
4 (or reflectance not exceeding 0.12): DES Building Bulletin No. 9(2) illustrates
a range of suitable surface colours. Shiny finishes are unsuitable for chalkboards, as shown in Figure 2.16. The position of a chalkboard luminaire is
more important than its optical design. Figure 2.18 illustrates the principles
involved. The luminaire should be as far from the chalkboard as possible
whilst remaining above the dashed line. A luminaire close to the board cannot
illuminate the foot of the board satisfactorily, see also Section 2.4.
Purpose-designed fluorescent luminaires are available for chalkboards. A pair
of PAR 38 (internally silvered incandescent reflector flood lamps) positioned
to light across the board from opposite sides have the disadvantage of shorter
lamp life. However, they can be used for other display purposes.
3.2.2 Decoration
The wall behind the teacher should be as simple and uncluttered as possible
and preferably be of a low chroma colour, so that the teacher may be easily
seen. If there is a very light wall behind the teacher, the result can be
dazzling, and so be tiring to the students. This does not mean that all surfaces
should be sombre or dark; on the contrary a desirable freshness of atmosphere
can be achieved by using a variety of colours. As a general rule it is comfortable
to have the window walls a light colour, though not white. A light off-white
can be used for the ceiling, rather than dead white, particularly if the room
has a cornice to divide the ceiling from the walls. If wallpaper is used, it
should either be plain or have only a very restrained pattern.
3.3 Rooms intended for

interactive learning
3.3.1 Daylight
22
Good window design can make an important contribution to a room used

for interactive learning both by providing a variety of views and by natural
lighting. In the UK it is a requirement of DES that all teaching spaces in
schools should be daylit. The daylight factor distribution is not of major
importance; activities which need plenty of daylight can gravitate to a window.
Generally an average daylight factor of 5 per cent or more will ensure that
the room is cheerfully lit during daylight hours. An average below about 2
per cent will require continuous electric lighting unless photoelectric controls
are installed. Where possible, opening windows should be placed in more
than one wall, to soften shadows and to permit cross-ventilation on sunny
days.
The DES heat wave temperatures can be checked using the admittance
procedure(4). See also the BRE Environmental Design Manual(5). The DES
Guidelines(3) recommend that the resultant temperature should not exceed
27C during the school year. This can normally be achieved with crossventilation and a simple curtain drawn across sunlit windows. If crossventilation is impossible the curtains may need a reflective lining facing
outwards; the admittance calculation will show if more radical design modifications are needed in a given instance, to reduce the resultant temperature.
Curtains serve both to provide a degree of blackout sufficient for most
portable visual aids, and to provide acoustic absorption which is essential for
informal learning without distraction. In general, sunlight is not an overriding
problem for informal teaching. A student who feels dazzled or overheated
has only to move away from the window or to draw a curtain.
3.3.2 Electric lighting
The electric lighting in an informal teaching room should be gentle and

unassertive. The DES Guidelines(3) require a minimum illuminance of 150
lux at any point on the working plane.
Luminaires should be carefully chosen to provide a relaxed atmosphere.
Compact fluorescent luminaires may be particularly suitable. Light switching
should be accessible and flexible; block switching is not suitable.
As face-to-face communication is important it is worth checking the vector/
scalar ratio, which from all viewing angles should be between 1.5 and 1.8.
The lamps chosen should be of colour rendering group 1B. The glare index
will be relatively unimportant since students experiencing discomfort could
simply move their seat.
Visual aids such as overhead projectors, slide projectors and video or TV
monitors should be portable, and suitable for use under conditions of imperfect blackout. Switched socket outlets should be available in pairs, not more
than 3 m apart, at skirting height of 0.3 m around the walls. Overhead
supplies are also desirable, and preferable to floor sockets.
3.3.3 Decoration
By its nature, interactive learning needs a relaxed, informal, and quiet

environment. All furniture should be movable; wall-to-wall carpeting and
preferably, curtains should be provided.
A fixed blackboard would be unhelpful. Instead each wall might contain a
white steel marker board with magnets to support newsprint or drawings, or
a cork pinboard to hold Velcro or sandpaper-backed cut-outs. All surfaces
should be capable of accepting temporary adhesives without peeling or
leaving a mark.
3.4 Rooms used for

practical work
Reference has been made in Section 3.1 above to the visual needs in rooms
used for practical work. In recent years there have been great changes in the
way traditional subjects have been taught. Teaching spaces are increasingly
becoming more flexible in use with functions ranging from industrial to
office environments. The computer is no longer confined to special rooms,
but computer terminals or personal computers may be used almost anywhere.
If computers with visual display units are to be frequently used then Lighting
Guide LG3: Areas for visual display terminals(6) should be consulted. It is
particularly important to avoid specular reflections of light sources in VDU
screens.
A very large range of activities are to be found in secondary school craft,
design and technology departments and they may change throughout the
course of a year. The illuminance over the working plane (0.85 m above the
floor) should be above 300 lux, and the glare index below 16. If work
involving accurate judgement of colour (e.g. art, dyeing etc.) is to be done,
23
the lamps should be of colour rendering group 1B. Visual tasks such as
sewing will require temporary local lighting.
In all cases the teacher occupies no fixed position, but spends time at the
benches, machines and tables as needed. The main requirement is that good
supervision is necessary. In most rooms there will be a teaching wall from
where more formal instruction will be carried out with the students sitting
or standing by their machines, benches or tables. Detailed instruction, formal
or informal will be carried out in another room, classroom, seminar room or
small group room, and the design of these spaces should follow the advice
in the previous chapter.
Laboratories can take on similar informal arrangements with movable tables
and service pillars so that a variety of layouts can be provided. More formal
arrangements exist in tertiary education. In both cases, as with craft, design
and technology, there is usually a teaching wall. As with other teaching
rooms in schools, it is a DES requirement(3) that they are largely daylit, but
it is more important that sunlight is excluded because of disability glare and
the danger of rendering bunsen flames invisible. Discharge lamps (other than
fluorescent tubes) should not be used to avoid stroboscopic effects on rotating
machinery.
Table 3.2 Checklist - Teaching rooms
24

Table 3.2 Checklist - Teaching rooms
4 large conference rooms

4.1 Basic lighting and
visual needs
The basic visual needs in a large conference room are that all members of
the audience can see the chairman and central officers clearly, and that all
persons present should be able to see each other reasonably well in order
that a proper dialogue may take place. Many presentations in conference
rooms, e.g. the reading of scientific papers, are tantamount to formal lectures,
and the lighting needs are similar to those of lecture theatres. However
conference rooms are also often used as cinemas or theatres and the lighting
must be capable of meeting those purposes also.
Specifically the lighting must provide adequate illumination for reading or
taking notes at any point, good but not excessive modelling and good colour
rendering.
25
It must also be flexible and controllable from a single point, must be absolutely
silent and produce no thermal discomfort. Careful co-ordination of the
lighting design with the interior decoration and with the heating and
ventilating system is essential. Absolute blackout facilities will be needed,
and if the room is to be used for lecture demonstrations adequate power
supplies should be available.
Large conference rooms have a good deal in common with large lecture
theatres, and much of the information in Sections 2, 7, 9, and 10 applies to
them. Conference rooms usually have a clearly defined area where the major
part of the action takes place, corresponding to the demonstration area of a
lecture theatre, and a clearly defined audience area. But the activities in a
conference room differ from those in a lecture theatre in these ways:
(a)
The audience may be present for long periods, often on several successive days.
(b)
The proceedings although of a formal nature involve interaction

between members of the audience and they must be able to see each
other clearly.
(c)
Conference participants must be able to move easily between the

demonstration area and the audience area.
(d)
Simultaneous interpretation facilities may be required.
Item (a) above requires that participants should be able to move in and out
of the room whilst proceedings are in progress with the minimum of
disturbance, and the seating should be arranged accordingly, with a greater
ratio of gangway space to seating space than is the case in lecture theatres.
It is important that participants can both get in and out without disturbing
the projector beam if one is in use.
In the UK it has always been the custom that those who contribute to a
discussion should do so from their seats, but in many countries of the world
this is not so. A person wishing to speak must seek the chairmans approval
and then get up from his seat and go to a central podium to speak.
The points made in Section 2.2 relating to the layout of the seating apply
equally here. Cloakrooms, toilets, refreshment facilities and spaces where
participants may relax should be provided immediately adjacent to large
conference rooms.
4.2 Lighting systems

and controls
The lighting requirements of the demonstration area of a large conference

room will be similar to those of a lecture theatre, but all lamps should be
controlled by dimmer. Large conference rooms are likely to be used for
theatrical performances; consequently provision should be made for easily
rigging additional lighting equipment. The particular requirement is that
appropriate wiring is provided in the shape of numerous circuits terminating
in socket outlets at the points where additional spotlights are likely to be
wanted. These circuits may be controlled from a stage lighting control system
operated from the projection room; in a very large conference room the
lighting is likely to be so complex that a system of this kind, under permanent
control of an attendant is advisable in any case. If it is known that a large
conference room will be used for theatrical presentations further special
facilities may be advisable. These are described in Appendix 3.
The lighting of the audience area, and the appearance of the whole are
crucial in a conference room. The audience must not only be able to
see each other clearly, but should not appear grotesque. For that reason
downlighters are not recommended; they produce shadows under the eyes
26
which are not acceptable, this is shown in Figure 4.1. If the ceiling is plain
white, then recessed or cornice lighting may be used, provided that there is
sufficient direct lighting in the demonstration area to provide a modest degree
of sparkle. If this is not the case, it is worthwhile introducing a few small
incandescent luminaires for this purpose. The furnishing and decoration
should not be too dark, as light reflected from the floor and furniture will
significantly improve the modelling of participants faces. The points made
about visual clutter in Section 2 and 10 apply equally to conference rooms.
Figure 4.1 Grotesque modelling produced by downlighters.
4 . 3 Simultaneous
interpretation
booths
Strict specifications are laid down for the lighting of interpretation booths.
See IS0 Standard 2603(7). Care must be taken that light from them does not
spill onto the projection screen.
27

Table 4.1 Checklist - Large conference rooms
5 Committee rooms
5.1 Visual and lighting
needs
The basic functions of the lighting, be it daylight or artificial are:
to enable the committee members to see each other clearly and without
glare.
to enable members to read their papers and make notes.
to enable committee members to see wall mounted displays.
It should be remembered that committees sometimes have to work under

some stress, especially when unpleasant or unpopular decisions have to be
made. The luminaires should be unobtrusive, and glare kept to a minimum.
5.2 Daylight
Committee rooms should always have some natural lighting; windowless

rooms are unacceptable for committee purposes. The essential problem of
natural lighting in a side-lit committee room lies in the fact that occupants
on different sides of a table are likely to be exposed to different forms of
inconvenience. Those facing a window may suffer glare, and see their
colleagues opposite with features in shadow silhouetted against a bright sky.
Those with their backs to a window may cast a shadow on their own papers.
One possible approach is to ensure that the chairman faces the window and
can control both the curtains and the electric lighting. This arrangement
28
ensures that the chairmans face is clearly revealed, that there is no visual
discomfort, and that the faces of other participants can be seen comfortably.
If this can be achieved, it is unlikely that others will have difficulty in seeing
one or another.
Pinboards and flipcharts should not be seen next to a window: disability glare
will make them harder to read even when discomfort glare is quite acceptable.
They should also not be placed where they may reflect a shiny image of the
window. The prescription above, with the chairman facing the window, takes
care of these problems too.
5.3 Electric lighting
The geometry of lighting should correspond to the geometry of the conference

table, defining it as the focus of activity within the room. This does not
necessarily mean that the table should be the brightest surface; downlights
are particularly unsuitable as they cast harsh shadows, generate shiny reflections in a polished table-top and tend to leave walls and ceilings in relative
darkness. The illuminance on the table should be about 300 lux, and the
glare index at any point of the room should be below 16.
The light distribution should produce a vector/scalar ratio within the limits
recommended in the Code for Interior Lighting(1).
Supplementary display lighting will be required for wall-mounted charts etc.
This is governed by the same geometrical constraints as chalkboard lighting,
see Section 2.4. The display lighting should preferably be dimmer-controlled.
Careful design of a committee room will remove the need for easels and
portable projection screens, and for ad-hoc arrangements of slide projectors,
overhead projectors and blackout facilities.
5.4 Surface finishes
The background luminance should ideally be slightly lower than the luminance of the occupants faces.
Dark walls are more suitable for formal boardrooms. Very light coloured
walls can give a clinical feel. A few small pictures or ornaments can do much
to improve a committee room, but large and complicated features which may
distract the attention should be avoided. The floor carpet should not be very
dark.
Table 5.1 Checklist Committee rooms
29
6 Multi-purpose rooms
6.1 Visual and lighting
needs
The lighting designer should be involved with the architect and interior
designer from the start of the planning process. In attempting to design a
suitable installation for a multi-purpose room the first requirement is for the
designer, in consultation with the client, to draw up a list of the purposes
envisaged for the room and an order of priorities of use. The prime lighting
needs in terms of illuminances and the controls needed for each separate
activity can thus be tabulated and if any common pattern exists it will be
evident; in that case the lighting can be designed accordingly. However, in
many cases no common pattern will emerge and the designer will have to
produce a compromise design.
There are a few basic points, discussed below, which should be considered
at the start of the design process. These are excluding daylight, stage lighting,
and accommodating large chandeliers.
The next requirement is for the lighting designer to determine what
maximum value of illuminance is required and for how long. This will
determine the nature of the main light sources. The designer will also have
to consider whether a direct or indirect lighting system is used.
6.1.1 Excluding daylight
Daylight should preferably be excluded. Multi-purpose rooms require lighting

that is flexible and controllable to a high degree and daylight is not so. If
windows, rooflights or skylights are to be provided they should be fitted with
light tight blackout blinds of the type described for lecture theatres in Section
2.5. This is particularly so in the case of skylights.
6.1.2 Stage lighting
If the room has a definable stage area, then the lighting for it should be
regarded as stage lighting and designed accordingly.
6.1.3 Chandeliers
If large chandeliers are to be used, they should be thought of as decorative

features rather than the main source of illumination. They can very easily
obstruct both sightlines and the beams of spotlights and their use is not
recommended. If they are used they should be dimmer controlled along with
the rest of the installation.
6.2 General lighting
The function of the general lighting in a multi-purpose room is to provide

an overall uniform illuminance of acceptable colour rendering which is free
from glare, and which may be dimmed. The design survey mentioned above
will indicate the illuminance needed at working plane height e.g. 0.85 m
above the floor. If no such survey can be made the designer should aim for
a value of about 150 lux. If it is known that the room will be used regularly
for examinations then the provision should be for 300 lux. The colour
rendering should be of group 1B(1).
With the variety of activities that may take place, sightlines may be anywhere,
and it is important to avoid glare. This point is very well met if the general
lighting is indirect. If a direct system has to be used the luminaires should
preferably be recessed. If surface mounted fittings are used they should have
opaque or diffusing side surfaces, and in no circumstances should bare lamps
be visible. Suspended luminaires should not be used to provide general
lighting. Care should be taken in avoiding glare not to overdo it; recessed
downlighters in particular give no glare at all but produce both a modelling
effect on faces which is quite the reverse of what is wanted for a social
occasion and a gloomy atmosphere. The illuminance produced by the general
lighting should have a uniformity ratio of a least 0.5 at working plane height,
and if the ceiling is low this may be difficult to achieve with downlighters.
30
6.3 Suitable light

sources
The main lighting may be either incandescent or fluorescent; in a few cases

high pressure sodium may be used. Incandescent lighting is extremely flexible
and controllable, though is inefficient in terms of energy usage. Although its
colour rendering is not of the best it is often thought of as the appropriate
lighting for social functions. Energy efficiency is not of prime importance
unless certain purposes require the use of the room for extended periods, but
the heat which it generates may have to be removed (at some expense) by
the air-conditioning system.
Fluorescent lighting may readily be dimmed but by the nature of the source
is less flexible. The term fluorescent lighting includes compact source
fluorescent lamps which can be used in relatively small luminaires. Fluorescent lamps can be used to advantage in an indirect lighting system,
especially where the tubes can be concealed in cornices, coves, or in the
structure of a ribbed ceiling.
High pressure sodium lighting has a very long warm up time and is thus of
restricted value in multi-purpose rooms. However, for some functions, e.g.
exhibitions, it may be useful, especially if used to provide indirect lighting.
If used for direct lighting the mounting height should be at least 3.5 m.
In those rooms which may be used for sports especially badminton
care should be taken to see that light sources that will not cause flicker or
stroboscopic effects are used. Lighting Guide LG4: Sports (8) should be
consulted on this point.
6.4 Suspension points

and wiring
It may be necessary to mount temporary spotlights for many functions and

appropriate suspension points should be provided; a space frame ceiling is
ideal for this purpose. If the room has a definable stage area then provision
should be made for mounting front-of-house spotlights in the shape of wall
brackets or spot bars mounted below the ceiling and in smaller rooms that
may suffice for all spotlight mounting. Since wall lighting is often needed
for exhibition and display purposes a ceiling track round the entire room
1.2 m in from the wall is a wise provision if ceiling height is less than 4 m.
Where provision is made for spotlight mounting for stage purposes, appropriate wiring runs back to the control point/switchboard must be provided
with separate circuits for each outlet point. Outlet points of this kind are
normally out of reach from floor level and should be provided with sockets
to BS 546 (9) (15A round pin type).
The wiring should also provide a plentiful number of normal 13A outlet
sockets at wainscot level all round the room. These are necessary for exhibition
purposes. Flush fitting floor traps should also be provided where projectors
are likely to be used, and these should contain not only power outlets but
wiring and sockets of appropriate type for projector remote control systems.
6.5 Controls
Multi-purpose rooms will generally be regarded as places of public resort and

thus be subject to local bye-laws. These often require that the lighting controls
be placed in a separate room not accessible to the public, which is awkward
if the room is used for, say, a lecture involving slides and demonstrations.
All of the lighting controls should be grouped together so that one individual
can have charge of all of them; the controls are best placed in an adjacent
room with a window into the multi-purpose room. If the room is used as a
cinema the lighting controls can well be placed in the projection room,
provided that a full-depth window is installed and not just projector loopholes.
A microprocessor control system should be used if possible. This allows
complete flexibility of control, but also enables pre-set lighting arrangements
to be set up at the push of a button so that it can be used by unskilled
operators.
31

Table 6.1
Checklist Multi-purpose rooms
7 Adjoining spaces corridors, lobbies, ante-rooms etc.

7.1 Lighting objectives
The functions of the lighting in spaces adjoining teaching and conference

spaces are:
To provide for the entrance and exit of the users, bearing in mind that
many people may need to get in and out in a short time.
To put users, as they approach, in an appropriate frame of mind for the

activity in which they are about to take part.
In some cases, especially ante-rooms, to provide a social atmosphere

(such spaces are often used as tea and coffee spaces).
In some cases, to indicate to visitors the route they should take to reach
their destination, e.g. the lecture theatre in a museum. In other cases,
e.g. a suite of teaching rooms in a college, this may not be appropriate.
The lighting of an adjoining space should therefore be designed in parallel

32
with that of the lecture, teaching or conference space which it serves.

However, this does not necessarily mean that it should be in the same style,
or have the same illuminance values.
7.2 Circulation
If the lighting is to provide guidance for the visitor from entrance to

destination, that may be done in two ways. Firstly the geometry of the
luminaires can imply a direction. Secondly by the phototropic effect; people
are attracted to bright lights. A lighting designer can exploit this tendency
by leading visitors towards brightly-lit areas.
Lighting in corridors must provide for safe movement, and should provide
an illuminance of at least 100 lux at floor level, with a glare index of below
19. There must be appropriate lighting for hazards to be visible. A particular
hazard in corridors with shiny floors is that of water on the floor which may
have got there by spillage, roof leakage, or from melted snow carried in on
shoes.
Figure 7.1 Staircase lighting. Position A is

recommended; B and C are to be avoided; and
D can be used for wall-mounted luminaires on
very long staircases.
7.3 Waiting areas and

lobbies
The rule for staircase illumination is to light the treads and not the risers.
Figure 7.1 shows luminaires at B and C reduce the contrast between treads
and risers. In addition they can cause accidents by distracting attention. The
luminaire at A is well placed, illuminating each tread by putting the risers
into shadow. On a long staircase it might be supplemented by a wall-mounted
luminaire at D at a height which permits easy access for re-lamping. In the
latter respect too position B should be avoided; steps or ladders are hazardous
over a staircase.
Waiting areas and lobbies immediately adjoining teaching or conference
spaces should be kept tidy and free of visual clutter (see Section 10.1). As
they may well be used as social or tea and coffee areas, the illuminance
should be about 200 lux and lamps of colour rendering index group 1B
should be used. Unless the height is greater than 4 m above the floor,
downlighters should not be used.
Because activities of this kind may well go on at the same time as lectures
or conference proceedings, there should be two sets of doors at the entrance
to the teaching or conference space, to act as both light and sound traps.
There must be a rear entrance for latecomers to lecture theatres/rooms and
it should be clearly signposted from the main entrance preferably with a
sign illuminated when lectures are in progress. The main doorway should
be able to accommodate a large trolley.
If an ante-room for the lecturer is provided its lighting should be of a high
standard, comparable with a laboratory or workshop as appropriate. It can
usefully incorporate a light table and slide viewer for last-minute sorting of
slides or transfer to multiple carousels.
33

Table 7.1
Checklist - Adjoining spaces
8 Emergency lighting
In all of the premises covered by this Guide, large numbers of people will
gather together. It is therefore necessary to provide emergency lighting,
which is defined as lighting that will enable people to see their way out of a
building in the event of the normal lighting failing. It must be stressed that
it is not the function of emergency lighting to enable normal activities to
continue within a building if the main power supply should fail; such lighting
is referred to as standby lighting and is not normally provided in educational
and conference premises.
In many buildings these may be an actual legal obligation to provide
emergency lighting. The Fire Precautions Act (10) and the Health and Safety
at Work etc. Act (11) require adequate means of escape in all places of work
and public resort. Emergency lighting is an essential part of this requirement
and should be provided in all areas where there is insufficient natural lighting
at all times that persons are on the premises. BS5266 Code of practice for the
emergency lighting of premises (12) lays down minimum standards for the
indication and illumination of escape routes in the event of failure of normal
supply. The role of this emergency lighting is to reveal a safe passageway,
fire alarm call points, fire fighting equipment, escape signs and any permanent
hazards along the escape route.
Advice on the design of emergency lighting installation is given in Technical
Memoranda TM12: Emergency lighting (13). When new buildings are planned,
consideration should be given to the needs of emergency lighting in the early
stages of design. If any alteration is planned in the lighting of existing
buildings, care should be taken to see that emergency lighting requirements
continue to be met. In the case of other buildings it is advisable to check that
the requirement of the 1971 and 1974 Acts(10,11) are in fact met.
34
Although BS 5266 (12) provides detailed requirements as yet these are not
accepted uniformly throughout the UK. Before the finalisation of specification is completed it is essential to consult the local enforcing authority.
In general, teaching rooms and laboratories are used by persons who will be
reasonably familiar with the layout and safety provisions for an orderly
evacuation in the event of emergency. However, in laboratories some processes may need terminating before evacuation and in conference rooms the
majority of persons present are likely to be unfamiliar with the layouts. It is
therefore necessary to provide strategically placed signs permanently indicating the ways out of the areas and that adequate illuminance is provided
in special locations where a visual task must be performed prior to evacuation.
8.1 Escape route signs
Much anxiety and confusion can be alleviated by strategically placed signs

permanently indicating the ways out of the premises. It is very important
that exits and emergency exits are quite clearly sign posted and are visible at
all times with normal emergency lighting systems. The signs should use the
preferred terms EXIT or EMERGENCY EXIT. On no account should signs be used
indicating NO EXIT. Where direct sight of an exit is not possible and doubts
may exist as to its position, then direction signs with an appropriate arrow
or words should be added. The sign must direct someone who is unfamiliar
with the building to the nearest exit.
The signs must comply with the requirements of BS 5499 (14) Parts 1, 2 or 3
and in one building should be uniform in colour, format and style. Examples
of two types of exit sign are given in Figure 8.1.
The signs should be mounted above exit doorways or escape routes at a
height of 2 m to 2.5 m above floor. The signs may be externally or internally
illuminated. The use of self luminous signs is not recommended.
Figure 8.1 Examples of exit signs conforming

to BS 5499.
Externally illuminated signs with lettering of 50 mm or 75 mm high should

be illuminated by an emergency source to at least 5 lux with a uniformity of
0.7. Internally illuminated signs may have letters 75 mm or 125 mm high
with opaque or translucent green lettering. The luminance of the white
lettering (with green filter removed) or translucent white surround should
be 30 cd/m2.
8.2 Escape route

illumination
There are three types of areas to be considered for the purpose of escape
lighting requirement; clearly defined routes, large open areas and areas with
fixed seating.
8.2.1 Clearly defined route
Normally corridors or gangways. The horizontal illuminance at floor on the

centre line of a clearly defined route width up to 2 m wide should be lit to
a minimum of 0.1 lux. Wider routes should be treated as several 2 m bands.
8.2.2 Large open areas
Examples are dining halls, laboratories, and multipurpose rooms. These

places will not have defined routes and the layout of furnishings may change
from time to time.
The average horizontal illuminance over the whole area on an unobstructed
floor should be not less than 1 lux with a uniformity of 0.025.
8.2.3 Fixed seating areas
Examples are auditoriums, lecture theatres and rooms. These places will
have fixed seating layout on horizontal or sloping planes but divided by
gangways which are designed as clear escape route and should be treated so.
For any part of the area having fixed seating layout the average horizontal
illuminance measured on a plane 1 m above floor/pitch line, should be not
less than 0.1 lux with a uniformity of 0.025.
35
8.3 Hazard areas
In laboratories and certain control rooms or workshops the activity may

involve hazardous tasks not dependent on electricity supply or which present
a hazard if left in operation. These need to be made safe before evacuating
the area. In these situations the immediate area containing the task should
be illuminated to a minimum illuminance of 2 lux or such higher level,
normally 1% of the main lighting levels that the visual task demands it. This
illuminance may be of shorter duration than that used for escape lighting.
Often a strategically placed escape luminaire will suffice.
8.4 Operating
conditions
The emergency lighting must reach the required illuminance within 15

seconds after failure of the supply to the normal lighting and should maintain
these levels for a period of not less than 1 hour. Certain local authorities may
demand a faster response of 5 seconds. The emergency lighting luminaires
should be chosen with care and be installed in locations where they will not
cause disability glare (dazzle).
8.5 Choice of systems
Basically two systems can be considered for use; central power or self
contained. Block diagrams for the two systems are shown in Figures 8.2 and
8.3. The advantages and disadvantages of the systems are shown in Table
8.1.
Figure 8.2
system.
8.5.1 Central power system
36
Block diagram for central power
Figure 8.3 Block diagram for self contained

system.
In a central power system the energy is provided by batteries or generators

and is distributed through sub-circuits to feed a number of luminaires.
Typically with a central battery system the battery room or cubicle will
contain the charger, batteries, controls and indicators, and the automatic
change over switches. With central systems care should be taken on the
location of the fault detection equipment for the supply of the normal lighting
so that sub zone detection becomes effective. Also the wiring between power
source and luminaires must be routed and protected by special means to
ensure operation integrity for the full working duration even under fire
conditions. Central systems tend to be cheaper to purchase and maintain but

Table 8.1
Advantages and disadvantages of central and self contained power sources
complex to install and extend. The luminaires may use incandescent or

fluorescent lamps.
8.5.2 Self contained system
In a self contained system the emergency luminaires are self powered and
operate the luminaire independently in an emergency. Each luminaire is
fully equipped with battery, charger, charge indicator and change over device.
The batteries are continuously charged via the normal unswitched lighting.
Contained luminaires tend to be expensive with limited operating temperature but are easy to install and extend and require relatively little maintenance.
8.6 Classification of
systems
Systems are classified according to categories and modes of operation:
8.6.1 Categories
The emergency lighting system can be designed to supply the required load
for any desired time or duration. However, for application in the premises
covered by this guide a duration of one hour is adequate. The duration is
usually designated by X/1, X/2, X/3 for 1 hour, 2 hour and 3 hour rated units
respectively.
8.6.2 Mode of operation
The mode of operation is a description of the lamp working status in a

luminaire. Broadly speaking there are two modes of operation, maintained
and non-maintained. Maintained systems are identified by marking of M
whilst the non-maintained are marked NM. For the premises discussed in this
guide the use of systems having designations of M/1 or NM/1 are recommended.
8.6.2.1
Maintained
In this system the lamp is on all the time the premises are occupied. The
lamps may be powered by normal supply directly or indirectly and under
emergency conditions automatically switched to the emergency power. At
all times the output of the luminaire must meet the emergency lighting
requirements.
8.6.2.2
Non-maintained
In this system the emergency lamp is off when mains power is available to
charge the batteries. When the supply fails the lamp is energised from the
emergency power source. A variant of this system called sustained is often used
where maintained lighting is required, particularly for internally illuminated
signs. The sustained system uses two lamps. One operates off the mains and
the other when required from the emergency power.
37
8.7 Planning schemes
The lighting calculations involved in emergency lighting are straightforward.

The detailed methods are described in Technical Memoranda TM12: Emergency lighting (13). It is important to base all calculations on real photometric
data for the specific lamp and luminaire with the output at worst (minimum)
condition. These conditions can be a combination of end of maintenance
cycle, end of lamp life, end of discharge at end of battery life, lowest ambient
temperature, and longest supply wire to name just a few. It is important that
the designer discusses these parameters with the likely supplier and installer
of the equipment.
8.8 Planning sequence
There is no defined sequence to be followed but these few points indicate

one approach. It is most important that consultation with relevant bodies
over the specific plans are carried out early in the design process.
8.9 Inspection and

servicing
Establish licensing requirements.
Examine building plans.
Mark exits and final exits.
Mark escape routes.
Identify open areas, special locations.
Mark location of hazards, fire fighting appliances, alarm call points.
Identify toilets of 8 m2 floor cover or over, control rooms, special plant

rooms.
Note illuminance requirements.
Select signs and escape luminaires.
Position luminaries at essential places.
Add extra luminaires to complete scheme.
Check uniformity and glare.
Prepare installation instruction.
Prepare commissioning procedure including illuminance checks.
Prepare operation and service instructions.
Regular inspection and servicing of emergency lighting schemes is essential.

BS 5266 (12) provides the framework for certification of completion if installation and certification for periodic testing and servicing. The onus for these
activities falls on the owner/user of premises.
To verify that adequate emergency lighting is available at all material times
the system needs inspection/tests daily, monthly, six-monthly and threeyearly. These may require only to charge or that the lamp in the maintained
exit sign is on. Testing maybe by automatic devices provided these give
warning if action is required.
Servicing is straightforward. The batteries or fuel tank for generator may
need topping up. The luminaires need cleaning, failed lamps changing and
the batteries in the self contained luminaires replaced at the manufacturers
recommended interval. Regular servicing will keep the system effective and
reliable for operation at all material times.
38

Table 8.2
Checklist - Emergency lighting
this item)
for advice; if the answer given is ? then you will need to understand what the effect of your answer
more information.
Are the legal obligations to provide emergency

lighting understood for the type and location of
the premises? Y
Will escape lighting be provided in all areas
where there is insufficient natural lighting at all
times that persons are on the premises? Y
Does the escape lighting comply with the
requirements of BS 5266(12), Code of Practice for
the Emergency Lighting of Premises (which lays
down minimum standards for the indication and
illumination of escape routes in the event of
failure of normal supply)? Y
In essence, does the escape lighting reveal a safe
passageway, fire alarm call points, fire fighting
equipment, escape signs and any permanent
hazards along the escape route? Y
Does the design of emergency lighting installation conform to the advice given in TM 12(13)?
Y
Has the local enforcing authority been consulted
about the escape lighting? Y
In laboratories will safety considerations dictate
that some processes need to be terminated before
evacuation can be completed? ? If this is so then
standby lighting will be needed.
Are exits and emergency exits clearly signposted and are these signs visible at all times? Y
Where direct sight of an exit is not possible and
doubts may exist as to its position, have direction
signs with an appropriate arrow or words been
used to eliminate doubt about the route? Y
Would someone who is unfamiliar with the
building be directed to the nearest exit? Y
Do the signs comply with the requirements of
BS 5499(14) Parts 1,2 and 3 and are they uniform
in colour, format and style? Y
Are the signs mounted over exit doorways or
along escape routes at a height of 2 m to 2.5 m
above floor? Y
Where there is a clearly defined route corridors and gangways does the horizontal illuminance on the floor on the centre line of the
route exceed 0.2 lux at all points? Y
Where there is a clearly defined route corridors and gangways which is 2 m wide or less,
does the horizontal illuminance on the floor
exceed 0.1 lux at all points in the central area
(central band) which forms 50% of the width of
the escape route? Y
Where there is a clearly defined route which is
more than 2 m wide it must be divided into
2 m strips. For each strip, does the horizontal
illuminance on floor on the centre line of the
strip exceed 0.2 lux at all points? ?
Where there is a clearly defined route which is

more than 2 m wide it must be divided into
2 m strips. For each strip, does the horizontal
illuminance on the floor exceed 0.1 lux at all
points in the central area (central band) which
forms 50% of the width of the strip? Y
In large open areas dining halls, conference
rooms, laboratories, multipurpose rooms
which do not have defined routes and the layout
of furnishings may change from time to time,
is the average horizontal illuminance over the
whole area on an unobstructed floor greater
than 1 lux with a uniformity of 0.025 or better?
Y
In areas with fixed seating auditoriums, lecture halls - which have seating horizontal or
sloping planes divided by gangways which are
designed as clear escape routes, are the following
conditions met? Y In the part of the area with
fixed seating, does the average horizontal illuminance (measured on a plane 1 m above floor/
pitch line) exceed 0.1 lux with a uniformity of
better than 0.025? Y In the gangways and other
parts of the route does the horizontal illuminance on the floor on the centre line exceed
0.2 lux at all points and does the horizontal
illuminance on the the floor exceed 0.1 lux at
all points in the central area (central band)
which forms 50% of the width of the escape
route? Y
In the case of laboratories and certain control
rooms or workshops, the activity may involve
hazardous tasks which must be made safe before
evacuating the area. In these situations is the
immediate area containing the task illuminated
to the level that the visual task demands? Y Is
the minimum illuminance 2 lux or higher? Y
Will the emergency lighting reach the required
illuminance within 15 seconds after failure of
the supply to the normal lighting? Y Certain
local authorities may demand a faster response
of 5 seconds.
Will the lighting conditions be maintained for
a period of not less than 1 hour and in certain
cases 3 hours? Y
Will the luminaires and their location cause
disability glare (dazzle)? Y
Have installation instructions, commissioning
procedures and operation and service instructions been prepared? Y
Will appropriate tests and inspections be carried
out to verify that adequate emergency lighting
is available at all material times? Y (Inspection/
tests: daily, monthly, six-monthly and threeyearly).
39
9 Maintenance
9.1 Lighting
maintenance
In both lecture and conference spaces it is essential for the lighting equipment
to be properly maintained. Lamps which have failed, or which are flickering
not only fail in their function, but convey the impression to audience and
lecturer alike that nobody cares. It is important that lamps which have failed
be replaced promptly, and with lamps of precisely the same type. There is a
natural reluctance on the part of maintenance departments to maintain stocks
of special lamps, and thus there is a tendency to simply put in any lamp that
will fit the holders. It is necessary therefore to see that adequate stocks of
the correct lamps are held.
In raked lecture theatres, access to the luminaires is often difficult from
below. This is a point that the designer must bear in mind. It is strongly
advisable for a group replacement scheme to be used, in which all of the
lamps are replaced at set intervals. The reader is referred to the Code for
Interior Lighting (1) on the maintenance of lighting systems.
Other items such as blackout blinds, projection screens and lighting controls
suffer damage relatively frequently, often as a result of misuse by lecturers
unfamiliar with the particular theatre. Any damage of this kind should be
made good promptly. It can largely be avoided by mounting clear instructions
on an engraved plate adjacent to the item concerned and using equipment
of sufficiently robust construction to withstand the onslaughts of a frustrated
lecturer.
9.2 Cleanliness and

tidiness
Lecturers and audience alike expect lecture rooms and theatres to be clean.
Fixed seating presents particular difficulties to cleaning staff, especially in
steeply raked theatres it is difficult to both see and to reach under the
seats. In very large lecture theatres or conference rooms it may be worthwhile
to provide special overhead lighting for the purposes of the cleaners, but if
this is done it should be arranged so that it cannot be switched on during
the normal use of the theatre, as it will usually ruin the effects of the normal
lighting.
Because many lecture theatres are heavily used they are often cleaned at
night. Troubles then arise if they are used for special evening functions. On
such occasions arrangements should be made for at least rubbish to be
removed beforehand.
In many lecture theatres a non-smoking rule is made, and NO SMOKING signs
displayed. If this is done they should not be so large or obtrusive as to mar
an otherwise pleasant place; large signs intended for use in large factory
buildings are not suitable.
When such a rule is made it should be a permanent one. If it is relaxed when
the room is used for non-teaching purposes, e.g. evening film shows, it may
be difficult to enforce it at other times.
40

Table 9.1
Checklist - Maintenance
10 The management of lecture and conference spaces

For the purposes of managing lecture theatres there are three categories.
(a)
Those supposedly devoted to a single subject or single department of

an educational institution e.g. the nuclear physics theatre.
(b)
Those in common use by a wide variety of departments in an educational

institution, often very heavily used.
(c)
Those in research institutes, professional institutions, museums, galleries and so on, usually relatively lightly used.
In practice, all lecture theatres are on occasions used for purposes other than
their intended ones, sometimes on a hire basis.
10.1 Visual clutter
Mention has already been made in Section 2.7 of the need to keep lecture
rooms free of visual clutter, which means keeping them free of unwanted
paraphernalia which serves only to distract the attention of the audience
from the speaker. This is illustrated in Figure 10.1. It is an essential part of
the managing of a lecture theatre or conference room to see that unwanted
paraphernalia is kept out.
Lecture theatres of category (a) are particularly prone to this trouble; wall
charts, glass cased specimens, glazed portraits of the great men of the subject
serve to distract rather than inspire. Such items should only be permanently
displayed if there is a real need to refer to them frequently, e.g. the periodic
table in a chemistry lecture theatre.
The absence of visual clutter is also welcome in lecture rooms as shown in
Figure 10.2.
41
Figure 10.1
Visual clutter in a lecture room.
Figure 1 0 . 2 A lecture room used by all departments of a university.

clutter.
10.2 Lecture attendants
Note the absence of visual
The term lecture attendant refers to those individuals who actually assist in
the running of lectures, often called projectionists. The job of such lecture
attendants is to see that the lecturers wishes are fulfilled exactly as the
lecturer wants them, e.g. that slides appear at precisely the right moment,
that the projection is immaculate, that the lights are raised or lowered at the
right time and at the right speed. To do this, it is necessary for the attendant
to give undivided attention to assisting the lecturer and to avoid distraction.
This is particularly so when the projection room has a large window between
it and the lecture theatre/room. Whilst this may be a convenient arrangement
in allowing projectors to be operated from several positions, it raises visual
problems. First, if the lights are left on in the projection room whilst a lecture
is in progress, spill light will fall on the projection screen and ruin the quality
of any colour slides that may be shown. Second, the projectionist is extremely
visible to the lecturer, and may cause distraction to him.
42
In rooms of this type the internal lights must be kept off whilst lectures are
in progress, and only the designated projectionist should be there. A carefully
shielded desk light should be provided to enable the projectionist to read the
script or cue sheets. Figure 10.3 illustrates the typical lighting in a projection
room.
Figure 10.3 The projection room of a large university lecture theatre. Note
desk lights and that the room is strictly reserved for projection purposes.
the carefully shielded
Care should be taken to see that bright light from nearby lights in the
audience area does not fall on the projection window. The scattered light
which this causes can in some circumstances make it difficult for the
projectionist to see the screen.
In view of the pressure on the use of space in educational establishments, it
often turns out that the projection room attached to a large lecture theatre
is used as the permanent workplace for one or more audio visual aids
technicians. This is an appalling arrangement which should never be allowed;
a projection room is an integral part of a lecture theatre or lecture room.
Figure 10.4
Lighting controls mounted on a lectern in a large lecture theatre.

43
10.3 Communication
between lecturer
and projectionist
or projector
In the majority of lectures in which slides are shown, an automatic projector

under the direct control of the lecturer is used. Figures 10.4 and 10.5 show
the complementary controls of the lecturer and projection room staff. The
controls available to the lecturer should be clearly marked in words, sufficiently distinct to be visible in near-darkness. The controls available to the
lecturer should also include an on/off switch as it often happens that there
are long periods when slides are not required. Some automatic projectors
have an arrangement in which the light is physically obscured if a gap is left
in the train of slides, or an opaque slide inserted, but the fan noise will
continue to distract and annoy the audience; it is much better to be able to
actually switch the projector off from the lecturers position.
Figure 10.5
Projectionists controls for a large lecture theatre.
Lighting controls are similar; it is best if they can be operated directly by the
lecturer, but again the controls must be clearly marked. If this system is used
it is important that all the lights should be under the lecturers control. It is
commonly found that some of the lights in a lecture theatre/room are
switchable from a rear entrance door. This arrangement is not advisable, but
if it has to be adopted the switching should be such that the lecturer (or
lecture attendant) has complete control whilst lectures are in progress.
However advisable direct control of the projection and lighting may be, there
are occasions when they have to be in the hands of an attendant for
example when a large array of demonstrations is presented. When it has to
be so, it is best to use direct verbal communication, unless dozens of slides
are to be presented.
Where large numbers of slides are used the arrangement of a push button
on the lecturers desk which produces a distinctive visual signal in the
projection room may be used to indicate the next slide but a second signal
indicating slide off should also be available.
Verbal communication between lecturer and attendant is usually perfectly
acceptable, provided that both parties can hear each other. In the case where
the attendant is in a projection room, the lecturer can usually be heard
perfectly, but the lecturer cannot hear the attendant at all. Trouble then
occurs when a slide jams or when the lecturer makes an impossible request
of the attendant. To prevent this situation a talk-back link should be provided.
44
For this purpose, telephones between lecturer and attendant are useless.
In very large lecture theatres they may have some value when lecture
demonstrations are being set up, but they are of no value when a lecture is
actually in progress. Telephones connected to either the internal or national
networks should not be installed in lecture theatres/rooms.
1 0 . 4 Projection rooms
and booths
The traditional projection room adjacent to a lecture room is nowadays used

more often as a control room than a projection room, as shown in Figure
10.3. A separate projection room is strictly only required if full scale 35 mm
cinema films are to be projected, but experience shows that such a room is
essential in any lecture theatre seating more than 150. Besides housing the
projection equipment and its operator, it may also be needed to house sound
amplifying equipment, lighting controls, video recording and projection
equipment, and possibly controls for the air conditioning system. A projection
booth i.e. some sort of shack erected within a lecture theatre is not recommended because of difficulty of access once an audience is seated in the
theatre. Considerations of safety (often as local authority bye-laws) preclude
the use of booths of this type for 35 mm film projection.
10.5 Equipment rooms
The multiplicity of audio visual aid techniques now in use require that much
equipment needs to be kept where it is both secure and readily available
when it is wanted. Projection rooms should not also be expected to act as
equipment stores. Separate lockable equipment rooms should be provided.
In large lecture theatres there should ideally be a large equipment room
adjacent to and on the same floor as the demonstration area, which can be
used to house items such as television monitors and overhead projectors when
not in use, and a small equipment room adjacent to the projection room.
10.6 Preparation
rooms
The value of a preparation room immediately connecting with a lecture

theatre or lecture room is dubious, especially when the communication is
via a door in the front wall of the lecture theatre/room. Such a door
serves only to distract the audience, and unless elaborate demonstrations are
mounted frequently, preparation rooms of this kind are unnecessary; such
rooms often become junk rooms.
The use of lecture demonstrations is today relatively uncommon and is
usually confined to visiting lecturers who bring their equipment by car or
van. A serviceable trolley, kept under the care of a responsible lecture
attendant, with wheels of sufficient diameter to negotiate water bars and
doormats is much more useful than a preparation room.
10.7 Problems of
visiting lecturers
10.7.1 Lectures involving
audio visual aids but
not demonstrations
The problem here facing the visiting lecturer is familiarity with the lighting
controls, and seeing that the audio visual aids chosen will actually work
satisfactorily in the apparatus provided. The visitor should arrive in plenty
of time before the lecture to try things out and a lecture attendant must be
there.
Reference has already been made to the necessity for lighting and projector
controls to be clearly marked. They should be few in number and should be
grouped separately from other controls. A control panel resembling the flight
deck of a large aircraft does nothing to ease the lecturers task.
45
10.7.2 lectures involving

demonstrations
Adequate access to the theatre/room from cars or vans is required. Demonstration equipment intended to be seen by large numbers of people must
itself be large, and may well obstruct the view of some members of the
audience of either the projection screen or the lecturer. This is particularly
the case in lecture rooms and conference rooms as distinct from raked lecture
theatres. To avoid this problem the presentation area should be devoid of
any fixed furniture; the use of loose tables or benches of varying heights
usually enables this problem to be overcome.
Lecture demonstrations should always be tried out in the circumstances of
the actual lecture theatre in which they are to be presented. Often they will
need special lighting for their effect. They thus require a high degree of cooperation between the lecturer and the lecture attendant. For this reason the
lecture attendant must be in attendance throughout the setting-up period.
The difficulties caused by problems of this kind can be greatly reduced if the
visiting lecturer makes the requirements known to the host well beforehand.
A printed list of requirements is useful here.
Table 10.1 Checklist - Management
46
Appendix 1 The preparation and use of slides and OHP transparencies

Slide projectors and overhead projectors have the power to
rescue or wreck a lecture. They must be carefully positioned
and maintained. Remote controls should be properly
labelled.
Lamp failure must be provided for. Some projectors have
arrangements whereby a replacement lamp can be brought
into use at the push of a single lever. If these cannot be
used, it is better to provide a spare projector than a spare
l a m p - it is not easy to replace a red-hot lamp in the
middle of a lecture.
Table A1.1 shows the most common lenses for front projection, and corresponding relations of picture width to projection distance for 35 mm slides in landscape format. For
practical purposes the magnification is given sufficiently
accurately by the expression:
xf = yd
where:
X = Screened dimension (m)
f = Focal length of lens (mm)
y = Dimension on slide (mm)
d = Screen distance (m)
Table A1.1 Slide projection distances (m) for various focal lengths and
picture widths
For a formal presentation the landscape slide format is

preferred to the portrait format; a mixture of formats is
frowned upon, Slides should not merely reiterate the spoken
presentation. They may provide a sequence of headings,
but some pictorial content is always preferable. Captions
should be kept to a minimum. Titles, if used, should be
concise, Abbreviations should be avoided unless they are
very familiar. Diagrams should be kept simple. Outline
shapes may be best. Only essential dimensions should be
marked. A human figure or other recognisable object can
be included to indicate scale.
Consider the sequence in which a group of slides is to
be shown. The obvious succession from environment to
component may be less effective than the reverse. Start with
the door-knob, then the door, then the room, the building
and its setting in the landscape.
Columns of figures are hard to take in on a slide. When
possible they should be presented as graphs, histograms,
pie-charts or block diagrams, making full use of colour.
Both axes of a graph should be graduated, but the number
of graduations should be kept to a minimum. False origins
are best avoided. If used they must be clearly shown by a
break in the axes. Estimated values should appear as broken
extrapolated lines: they need no caption.
Artwork should be prepared on a sheet framed to the shape

of the slide aperture (normally width = 1.5 x height). On a
drawing 150 mm wide, outlines, axes and graduations should
be 0.75 mm thick. Trend lines on a graph should be 1.5
mm thick.
Conventional architectural and engineering drawings make
very bad slides. Non-essentials such as centre-lines and
construction lines must be rigorously suppressed. Captions
should be related to components by a line, not an arrow. A
separate key should be only a last resort. Captions should
be horizontal where possible. Vertical captions should read
upwards.
Sanserif type faces are sometimes preferred for lettering, as
these are usually obtainable with a wide range of weights and
sizes within one family. Heavily condensed or attenuated
versions of these faces should be avoided. Capitals should
be used only as initial letters. A typewritten caption looks
messy when enlarged. Rub-down lettering is ideal. Stentilled lettering is suitable if carefully spaced: spacing
between individual characters should be slightly greater
than in printed letter spacing.
If the master is on A4 paper, titles should be approximately
20 point, captions approximately 14 point. Point sizes refer
to the space occupied by successive lines of close-spaced
lettering. There are 72 points to one inch, or about 2.8 to
a millimetre. An 18-point type face implies a quarter-inch
distance between the bottom of one horizontal line and the
bottom of the next. This distance includes some white space
between the lines; the height of a capital letter might be
about three quarters of its point size, depending on its
typographic character.
For a formal lecture slides should be in identical double
glass mounts to avert the need for repeated re-focusing.
They should be marked, and if necessary numbered, as in
Figure A1.1. Slides should be marked in the following way:
Position slide, so that when viewed by eye, the picture

appears right way up and right way round.
Check by observing any lettering or numbering that

your position is correct.
Mark the bottom left hand corner with a red dot at least
4 mm in diameter.
When put in the projector the dot should be in the top

right hand corner on the side nearest the lamp.
Where a blank period is required between two slides a blank

slide should be inserted. This should be in a rigid material.
Squares of card will curl and eventually jam the slidechange mechanism. For the same reason, card mounts
should be avoided.
Projected colour is most effective against a dark background.
For this reason book illustrations should be framed by black
card before they are photographed for slide-making. Handdrawn graphs and diagrams should be prepared as blackand-white negative slides, so that lines and lettering are in
white on a black background. Lines can be selectively
47
or to be left shining inconsequentially and distractingly.

Nervousness will amplify the slightest tremble. An optical
pointer should be mounted on trunnions for steadiness; its
surface should not overheat and it should be arranged to
swing away from the screen and switch off automatically
when released.
An overhead projector should be stage-right of the lecturer
(or, ideally, stage-left of a left-handed lecturer) to minimise
the likelihood of the left shoulder obscuring the projected
image. The risk is reduced by raising the OHP, but this
promotes the projector into an obstruction in its own right.
The well-known keystone effect is averted by the use of a
tilted screen, implying that the OHP requires a different
screen from the slide projector.
Figure A1.1 Correct slide markings.
colour-washed by brush-on tints normally sold for tinting

grey photographs. Low-transmittance violet and dark-blue
tints are too dark to show up well. Within one lecture colour
conventions should be consistent.
The advantages of the overhead projector (OHP) over the
slide projector lie in its immediacy, and in the fact that it
can be used in a room which already has reasonable levels
of light for note-taking. The audience can watch a drawing
or a word taking shape under the lecturers pen.
Although at first sight the OHP seems to obviate the need
for a separate pointer the shadow of the lecturers finger
is projected with the transparency a lecturer should be
encouraged to point at the screen, not at the OHP tray. This
strengthens the rapport between lecturer and audience. For
the same reason a stick may be preferable to an optical
pointer. The stick should have a black tip, and needs a
stable parking-place when not in use, to prevent it clattering
to the ground during the lecture. Optical pointers are more
used with slides than with OHPs. Their image must be bright
enough to claim attention on a well-lit screen even at
oblique incidence; battery-operated pointers often fail in
this respect. Laser beams are very effective. Unless the
lecturer is careful the spot is apt to jump all over the screen,
48
Photocopying processes now enable printed pages to be

reproduced on transparent sheets. Unfortunately a page of
a textbook is not ideal for projection; 18 point lettering is
the smallest recommended, though even typewritten lecture
notes may be tolerable at a pinch. If a lecturer proposes to
use OHP transparencies it is best to prepare the artwork on
A4 paper and photocopy it onto an acetate sheet. This is
easier to correct than a drawing or a sentence written
directly on the transparency.
Many fibre-tip pens can draw only a fugitive line on a
transparent sheet. Lecturers should therefore equip themselves with appropriate markers. These are available in two
forms:
Water-based markers which can be erased by rubbing

or by a damp cloth.
Spirit-based markers which can be erased only by special

solvents.
The choice will depend on the conflicting demands of

permanence and correctability.
Acetate is available in rolls or in pre-cut sheets, and in
various weights. The thinnest (and therefore cheapest)
sheets are suitable for use on just one occasion. They would
not normally be wiped clean and re-used. Unless it is the
intention to erase and re-use each roll of acetate, it is wise
to order thin rolls, If a transparency is designed for repeated
use it should be prepared on thicker material. Card mounts
are available for OHP sheets. These should be used only for
formal lectures. They do not fit A4 filing cabinets or normal
briefcases.
Appendix 2 Dimming systems and equipment

A2.1 Dimming systems
The usual method of dimming lamps nowadays is to use
solid state devices such as thyristors or triacs. These are, in
essence, very fast operating electronic switches. Both have
a main current path which becomes conducting on the
application of a pulse signal to the control gate. The advantage of the triac over the thyristor is that it will pass current
in both directions. The thyristor passes current in one
direction only and two devices must be connected in inverse
parallel if they are to operate over the full AC cycle.
Great care has to be exercised when specifying a dimmer

size as the load has to be calculated using circuit watts, not
just tube watts. To avoid confusion, always specify the
quantity of tubes connected to a dimmer together with their
rating and length. The dimmer size should be calculated in
amps, based upon the specified uncorrected current of the
ballast used. In practice, it is sufficient to use the tube
manufacturers design current for rating purposes. Power
factor correction (PFC) makes no difference to the dimmer
size required. PFC capacitors are connected across the fixed
level output of the dimmer and therefore have no effect on
the current flowing through the thyristors.
By regulating the timing of the gate opening, the amount

of power passed by the device is controlled. This regulation
forms the basis of all modern dimmers.
The power control device used in the smaller domestic
environments, such as switch plate dimmers, is generally a
triac. In larger commercial equipment, it is usual to employ
a pair of thyristors in a back-to-back configuration. Thyristors are inherently more robust than triacs. For all inductive
loads, dimmers incorporating thyristors must be employed
if satisfactory operation is to be achieved.
All dimmers must be fully protected by quick acting fuses for
overload protection. Sub-circuit protection can be provided
with either quick acting fuses or circuit breakers (MCBs) to
choice.
Since the power dissipated in thyristors and the control
circuit is very small, the dimmer efficiency can be as high
as 98%. The output waveform is heavily distorted producing
mains harmonics and appropriate filter networks must be
incorporated to minimise radio interference and meet the
requirements of BS 800(17).
It should be noted that any dimming system, incandescent
and fluorescent alike, is apt to produce radio-frequency
interference which may upset other electronic apparatus in
the vicinity, and particularly sound amplifying systems.
Dimming equipment and the wiring associated with this
should be designed to keep radio-frequency emission to the
minimum and other electronic apparatus should be carefully
screened to prevent interference being picked up.
Table A2.1
Maximum load ratings for dimmers
A2.2 lighting equipment

A2.2.1 Tungsten lamps mains voltage
Mains voltage tungsten lamps including tungsten halogen

may be simply connected in series with the dimmer unit
with no further modification,
A2.2.2 low voltage tungsten
Due to the inductive nature of the transformers necessary

to operate low volt tungsten lamps, only dimmers specifically
designed for inductive loads may be used; these will usually
be described as being universal or suitable for inductive
loads. The term hard-firing is also used to describe the
operation of such units; this refers to the mode of operation
of the back-to-back thyristors so that the need for load
resistors is eliminated. Care must be taken when operating
both mains and low voltage halogen lamps dimmed for
extended periods as the operation point may be below the
threshold of the halogen cycle, leading to short life and
premature lamp blackening. The lamps can be cleared by
running them for a period at full power until all of the
deposited tungsten is re-evaporated. Note that, in no circumstances, may lamps operating on electronic transformers be
connected to dimmers.
A2.2.3 Fluorescent lamps
Provided that a fluorescent system is properly designed,

installed and maintained, satisfactory dimming from full
brightness to a level of about 10% of full brightness may be
obtained; below that level tubes tend to start flickering.
High frequency systems (20-40 kHz) are a good deal better
than mains frequency systems. However, it should be noted
that fluorescent dimming systems are expensive to install
since in some cases extra wiring is required to each lamp.
Nearly all sizes and types of fluorescent tubes below 2.4 m
in length may be dimmed, some more successfully than
others. The full range of 38 mm diameter argon filled tubes
up to 1800 mm in length all dim well, especially the
1200 mm size. The latest 26 mm diameter krypton filled
lamps can also be dimmed using the universal dimming
transformer circuit. This device provides a level of continuous cathode heating together with about 10 mA of high
49
frequency current (35 kHz) superimposed on the 50 Hz

lamp current fed from the dimmer. The result is the ability
to dim smoothly all sizes up to 1800 mm 70 W.
Note that some compact single-ended lamps, specially designated as only suitable for operation on high frequency
electronic ballasts, are not suitable for dimming with conventional circuits, Equally, those miniature fluorescent
tubes with integral starter switches are not suitable for
dimming.
The introduction of high frequency electronic ballasts for
the operation of fluorescent lamps has led to the development of controllable ballasts where the output can be varied
between 25% and full-up. This control is obtained without
the use of external thyristor dimmers, all dimming being
achieved electronically within the ballast, using external
control signals within 0-10 V DC or of a pulse width
modulation coded signal, again on a low voltage supply.
A2.2.4.7 Manual control
At the simplest level, manual control can be either a rotary

or slider fader. Mastering of a number of channels can be
easily achieved by a specially wired control plate with an
additional master fader.
Take-control facilities can be supplied in a multi-plate
installation. Any number of manual dimmers can be transferred by one button per plate.
A2.2.4.2 Automatic control
This control method provides a number of light levels which

are preset by the user. Momentary action of the appropriate
preset button on the control plate causes the dimmer to
change (up or down as required) form its existing light level
to the new preset level. Control can be from either a single
plate or any number of remote plates wired in parallel.
A2.2.5 Luminaires
A2.2.4 Controls
Dimming systems are usually available with a range of

control options.
50
All fluorescent luminaires must be fitted with the appropriate dimming control gear in no circumstances may
unmodified luminaires be used.
Appendix 3 Theatrical presentations in lecture theatres and

conference rooms
Lecture theatres and conference rooms are sometimes used
as venues for theatrical presentations. The paragraphs below
describe the additional provisions that should be made if
the room is to be easily adaptable for these purposes. It is
stressed that these are additional, and it is necessary that
the requirements of Sections 2, 4, 9 and 10 are first met.
When such rooms are used for theatrical purposes, they will
almost certainly be subject to local authority bye-laws: for
more information on emergency lighting see Section 8.
Publications on the subject and general advice are available
from the Association of British Theatre Technicians, and
detailed advice and planning from members of the Society of
Theatre Consultants, both contactable at 4 Great Pulteney
Street, London W1R 3DF.
The additional provisions needed in the audience area are:
The lighting must be dimmable smoothly and without
flicker to 1% of its maximum level.
Exit signs as required by local safety code. Luminance

and spill light should be restricted to avoid glare and
interference with stage lighting effects.
Light and sound traps on all entrance doors (or at least

those used by latecomers and for access to toilets).
Lighting within a light trap should be primarily from
the dimmed houselight system, but a low power light
from the external system may also be needed, and
possibly a maintained emergency light.
Provision for theatrical lighting installation using professional spotlights rigged on standard 48 mm OD scaffold tube and connected using industry standard 15A
BS 546(9) plugs and sockets. Essential locations are
above the seating parallel to the front curtain at approximately 45 elevation from 1.8 m above the front of the
stage, Steeper and shallower positions will also be useful
as will positions on the side walls at 45 in plan to centre
stage. Safe access for adjustment and re-lamping must
be anticipated, Each socket should be wired individually
to a 10A theatre dimmer with remote control from the
lighting control room.
The additional provisions needed in the stage area are:

At least 2 m wing space either side of the stage.
Adequate headroom to allow overhead stage lighting to

be hidden from sight, i.e. at least 1 m from the upper
sightline.
Access to both sides of the stage, not through the

auditorium, with sound and light traps and silent closing
doors.
Access to dressing rooms.

Access to the auditorium, not via the stage.
Access for scenery from delivery vans.
Provision for front curtain with winch mechanism.
Provision for side and rear masking curtains to hide
performers awaiting entrance.
Over-stage rigging for hanging scenery and top

masking. This can be basic exposed rolled steel joists
(RSJs) and scaffold pipes, with manual or motorised
winches, or fully counterweighted flying systems
requiring two to three times the visible stage height.
Work-lights at both sides, rear and over main stage for

setting and changing scenery with local switching and
master switch at stage manager position, Fluorescent
battens with protective trough reflectors and wire guards
are usually used for work-lights. Instant operation is
essential. Dim, shielded lights are also required for used
during performance but these can be rigged as required
if full theatrical standards are not specified.
Provision for theatrical lighting installation using professional spotlights rigged on standard 48 mm OD scaffold tube and connected using industry standard 15A
BS 546(9) plugs and sockets. Essential locations are
above the stage parallel to the front curtain immediately
behind the curtain line, 1 m in front of rear wall and
between at 1 m to 1.5 m intervals. Each socket should
be wired individually to a 10A theatre dimmer remote
control from the lighting control room.
Control of the lighting and sound systems may be effected

from the projection room or separate lighting and sound
control rooms. The lighting in those rooms should be similar
to that for a projection room and the rooms should be
sound-proofed. A good view of the stage is essential in
each case. Loudspeaker reproduction of platform sound is
essential, and if a headset communication system is used
appropriate wiring should be provided.
All systems should be arranged so that they can be operated
by a single person if necessary. The control rooms should
be of sufficient size; as many as forty dimmer circuits
may be involved. The sound control room should have
connections to tie-lines for microphones and loudspeakers
both on stage and in the audience area, and also be connected to the headset communication system, the dressing
room sound system and the audience deaf-aid system if one
is installed.
References
1 Code for Interior Lighting (London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers)( 1984)
2 Department of Education and Science Building Bulletin No.9 (London:
HMSO)
3 Department of Education and Science Architects and Building Branch
Design Note 17: Guidelines for environmental design and fuel conservation
(London: HMSO)(1981)
4 CIBSE Guide Section A3: Thermal properties of building structures
(London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers)(1980)
5 Building Research Establishment Environmental Design Manual
(Building Research Establishment)(1988)
6 Lighting Guide LG3: Areas for visual display terminals (London:
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers)(1989)
7 IS0 2603 Booths for simultaneous interpretation; general characteristics
and equipment (International Standards Organisation)(1983)
51

8 Lighting Guide LG4: Sports (London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers)(1990)
9 BS 546 Specification. Two-pole and earthing-pin plugs, socket-outlets and
socket-outlet adaptors (London: British Standards Institution)(1950)
10 The Fire Precautions Act (London: HMSO)(1971)
11 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act (London: HMSO)(1974)
12 BS 5266: Part I: 1975 Code of Practice for the emergency lighting of
premises used for entertainment (London: British Standards Institution)(1975)
13 Technical Memoranda TM12: Emergency lighting (London: Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers)(1986)
14 BS 5499: Fire safety signs (London: British Standards Institution)(1984)
15 BS 4727: Part 4: 1971/2 Glossary of terms particular to lighting and
colour (London: British Standards Institution)(1972)
16 CIE 17.4: International Lighting Vocabulary : 4th Edition (Vienna:
Commission Internationale de lEclairage)(1987)
17 BS 800: Specification for limits and methods of measurement of radio
interference characteristics of household electrical appliances, portable tools
and similar electrical apparatus (London: British Standards Institution)(1988)
Glossary of terms used
of high correlated colour temperature as having a cool

appearance.
colour rendering
A general expression for the colour appearance of objects

when illuminated by light from a given source compared,
consciously or unconsciously, with their appearance under
light from some reference source. Good colour rendering
implies similarity of appearance to that under an acceptable
light source, such as daylight. The colour rendering properties of the lamp relate to this effect under specified conditions.
committee rooms
Rooms used for meetings capable of seating up to roughly

30 persons.
contrast
A term which, when used subjectively, describes the differThe definitions and explanations given in this glossary are
intended to help readers to understand the Guide. They are
based on British Standard 4727: Part 4: Glossary of terms
particular to lighting and colour (15), and on the fourth edition
of the International Lighting Vocabulary (16) issued jointly
by the Commission Internationale de lEclairage and the
International Electrotechnical Commission. These documents should be consulted if more precise definitions are
needed. The terms are arranged in alphabetical order.
adaptation
The process which takes place as the eye adjusts to the

brightness or the colour of the visual field. The term is also
used, usually qualified, to denote the final state of the
process. For example, dark adaptation denotes the state of
the eye when it has become adapted to very low brightness.
adjoining spaces
Foyers, ante-rooms, lobbies and corridors immediately

adjoining those spaces listed above.
ballast
ence in appearance of two parts of a visual field seen

simultaneously or successively. The difference may be
brightness or colour or both. Objectively, the term expresses
numerically the luminance difference by various formulae.
contrast rendering factor
The ratio of the contrast of a task under a given lighting

installation to its contrast under reference lighting conditions.
correlated colour temperature
The temperature of a full radiator that emits radiation

having a chromaticity (colour quantity defined by an
accepted system) nearest to that of the light source being
considered. The unit is the kelvin, K. As an example, the
colour of a full radiator at 3500 K is the nearest match to
that of a white fluorescent lamp, which is therefore said to
have a correlated colour temperature of 3500 K.
diffused lighting
Lighting in which the flux comes from many directions,

none of which predominates.
Equipment used with discharge lamps for stabilising the

discharge.
direct lighting
booth
Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches a

surface directly, i.e. without reflection from other surfaces.
A small projection room in the centre of a lecture theatre.

Booths are not recommended.
directional lighting
colour appearance
Lighting designed to illuminate an object or surface predominately from some preferred direction.
A term used of a light source. Objectively the colour of a

truly white surface illuminated by the source. Subjectively,
the degree of warmth associated with the source colour.
Lamps of low correlated colour temperature are usually
described as having a warm colour appearance and lamps
52
emergency lighting
Lighting provided for use when the supply to normal

lighting fails.
escape lighting
indirect lighting
The part of emergency lighting which is provided to ensure

that the escape route is illuminated at all material times.
Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches a

surface only after reflection at other surfaces and particularly at the roof or ceiling.
flicker
Impression of regular fluctuations of brightness or colour.

Flicker is associated especially with the light from discharge
lamps and occurs when the frequency of variation lies
between a few hertz and the fusion frequency of the images.
The latter is the frequency above which the variations are
too rapid to be registered by the eye.
general lighting
Lighting designed to illuminate the whole of an area without

provision for special local requirements.
intensity
See luminous intensity.

keystone effect
The distortion of an image caused by projection onto a

surface not at right angles to the projector beam. It commonly occurs when a slide or overhead projector is tilted
upwards to throw an image on a vertical screen, causing
the top of the image to become more highly magnified than
the bottom.
lamps
glare
The discomfort or impairment of vision experienced when

part of the visual field (e.g. sky or lamps) are excessively
bright in relation to the general surroundings. There are
several forms of glare.
Disability glare: glare which impairs the ability to see

detail without necessarily causing visual discomfort.
Discomfort glare: glare which causes visual discomfort
without necessarily impairing the ability to see detail.
Direct glare: glare caused when excessively bright parts
of the visual field are seen directly. e.g. lamps which
are inadequately shielded.
Reflected glare: a term used to describe various visual
effects, including reduction of contrast, discomfort and
distraction, produced by the reflection of light sources
or other bright areas in glossy or smooth surfaces; gloss
paint and water surfaces are examples of such surfaces.
high pressure lamps
See lamps.
illuminance
The luminous flux incident on unit area of a surface. The

unit is the lux which is one lumen per square metre.
Discharge lamp: a lamp in which the light is produced

either directly or by the excitation of phosphors by
an electrical discharge through a metal vapour (e.g.
mercury, sodium), gas (e.g. xenon), or a mixture of
several gases and vapours.
Incandescent lamp: a lamp in which light is produced

by a filament heated to incandescence by the passage
of an electric current through it. The filament is
enclosed in a glass bulb which is either evacuated or,
more usually, filled with an inert gas at low pressure.
A tungsten filament is used in most incandescent lamps
which are consequently known as tungsten lamps.
large conference rooms
Rooms used mainly for conferences and meetings at which

people may address the audience from almost any point in
the room. Such rooms will usually have a seating capacity
of more than 60.
lecture rooms
Rooms used mainly for the delivery of formal lectures, with

basically flat floors and fixed seating. This category includes
rooms with a raised step or podium for the lecturer, and
rooms with one or two raised steps towards the rear of the
seating.
lecture theatres
illumination
The process of lighting an object or surface.

illumination vector
A term used to describe the directional characteristics of

light at a point. Its magnitude is the difference in illuminance on opposite sides of a flat surface, which is so orientated
that this difference is a maximum. Its direction is normal
to this surface; the positive direction of the vector is from
the higher illuminance to the lower illuminance (lux).
Rooms used for the delivery of formal lectures with raked

floors and/or balconies or galleries and with fixed seating.
local lighting
Lighting designed to illuminate a particular small area.

localised lighting
Lighting designed to illuminate a general area, such as a

sports hall, and at the same time provide higher illuminance
53
over a particular part of the area, e.g. the tables in table

tennis.
luminance
A term which expresses the intensity of the light emitted

in a given direction by unit area of a luminous or reflecting
surface. It is the physical equivalent of what subjectively is
called brightness. The unit most commonly used is the
candela per square metre (cd/m2).
Where l is the length of the room, w is the width of the

room and h the height of the luminaires above the floor or
other relevant horizontal plane. Consistent units should be
used for the dimensions.
rooms for practical work
Rooms used regularly for class teaching purposes, without

large permanent pieces of apparatus set up. Such rooms
will usually have a seating capacity of less than 60. This
category will include many teaching laboratories.
luminaire
Formerly known as a lighting fitting. The apparatus which

controls the distribution of flux from a lamp or lamps, and
which includes all the components necessary for fixing and
protecting the lamps and for connecting them to the local
supply circuit. Floodlights and some other luminaires retain
their individual names.
mounting height
The vertical distance between the luminaire and the ground

or floor, or between the luminaire and some other specified
plane such as the top of a table tennis table.
scalar illuminance
The average illuminance over the whole surface of a very

small sphere located at a given point (lux).
spacing/height ratio
The ratio of the average distance between luminaires to

their average height above the ground or other specified
horizontal surface.
standby lighting
multi-purpose rooms
Rooms used for a wide variety of purposes, such as school

halls, assembly rooms, function rooms, church halls.
The part of emergency lighting which may be provided to

enable normal activities to continue.
stroboscopic effect
reflectance (reflection factor)
The ratio of the flux reflected from a surface to the flux

incident on it. Except for matt surfaces the reflectance
depends on how the surface is illuminated, and especially
on the direction of the incident light and its colour. The
value is always less than unity.
reflector
A device for controlling the flux from a lamp by reflection

at suitably shaped surfaces. These may be either specular
(e.g. mirrored glass or polished aluminium) or diffuse (e.g.
vitreous enamel). In the former, the light is reflected in
accordance with the laws of optical reflection. In the latter
the light is diffused, largely without reference to any particular direction.
The apparent change of motion of an object when illuminated by periodically varying light of appropriate frequency.
This periodic motion is especially noticeable in the light
from discharge lamps with clear bulbs operating on alternating current. (See Section 3.5.)
teaching rooms
Rooms used mainly for class teaching purposes, with flat

floors and no fixed furniture except possibly chalkboards
and projection screens. Such rooms will usually have a
seating capacity of less than 60.
uniformity ratio
response time
In this Guide, the ratio of the minimum illuminance over

a given area to the average illuminance.
Emergency lighting as described in this Guide should be

provided within 5 seconds of failure of the normal lighting
supply.
vector/scalar ratio
room index
An index related to the dimensions of a room, and used when

calculating the utilisation factor and other characteristics of
a lighting installation,
lw
Room index = h(l + w)
54
The ratio of the magnitude of the illumination vector to

the scalar illuminance.
visual field
The full extent of what can be seen when looking in a given

fixed direction.
Index
References to pages 52 to 54 indicate terms in
the Glossary.
Access
Acetate
Ante-rooms
Art rooms
Attendants
Audience area
Audio-visual aids
Ballast
Blinds
17
48
33
21
42
2, 12
15, 47
52
10
8, 22
Chalkboard
30, 32
Chandeliers
34
Checklist - adjoining spaces
29
- committee rooms
39
- emergency lighting
28
- large conference rooms
- lecture theatres and lecture
19
rooms
41
- maintenance
46
- management
32
- multi-purpose rooms
- teaching rooms
25
12
Choice of colours
33
Circulation
40
Cleanliness
52
Colour appearance
2, 52
Colour rendering
28, 52
Committee rooms
44
Communication
25
Conference rooms
Contrast
52
52
Contrast rendering factor
13, 31, 44, 49
Controls
52
Correlated colour temperature
32, 33
Corridors
21
Craft rooms
22
Cross-ventilation
23
Curtains
6
Curved rows
Daylight
Daylight factor
Decoration
Demonstration area
Demonstrations
DES guidelines
Desks
10, 21, 22, 28

21
12, 23, 26
4
45
22
22
Diffused lighting
Dimmers
Direct glare
Direct lighting
Directional lighting
Disability glare
Discharge lamp
Discomfort glare
Display lighting
Downlighters
52
13, 49
52
52
52
53
7, 31, 53
52
31
26, 17
Emergency lighting
Energy
Equipment rooms
Escape lighting
Exit signs
34, 52
3, 4, 31
45
35, 53
17, 35
Fixed lecture bench

Flicker
Fluorescent lamps
Furnishings
6
31, 49, 53
49
12
General lighting
Glare
Glossary
53
7, 53
52
High pressure sodium lamps
31
Illuminance
Illumination vector
Incandescent lamp
Indirect lighting
Intensity
53
53
53
53
53
Keystone effect
Laboratories
Lamps
Large conference rooms
Lecture rooms
Lecture theatre
Light trap
Lobbies
Local lighting
Localised lighting
Low voltage tungsten
Luminaire
Luminance
Maintenance
Management
Markers
Mounting height
Multi-purpose rooms
15, 53
21, 44
53
53
2, 6, 53
2, 53
11
33
53
53
49
54
54
40
41
48
54
30, 54
Overhead projectors
Phototropic effect
Pilot lights
Preparation rooms
Projection rooms
Raked lecture theatres
Raked room
References
Reflectance
Reflected glare
Reflection factor
Reflector
Response time
Room index
Rooms for practical work
Scalar illuminance
Sightline
Signs
Skylights
Slides
Smoking
Socket outlets
Spacing/height ratio
Stage lighting
Standby lighting
Stroboscopic effect
Surface finishes
Suspension points
Switches
Teaching rooms
Teaching space
Telephones
Theatrical presentations
Tidiness
Transparencies
Uniformity ratio
15, 47
33
14
45
45
5, 40
7
51
54
53
54
54
36, 54
54
23
54
5, 7
35, 40
11
47
40
26
54
51
37, 54
24, 31, 54
29
31
13, 31, 44, 49
21, 54
22
44
17, 51
40
47
54
Vector/scalar ratio
Veiling reflections
Visual field
22, 54
11
54
Waiting areas
Wallpaper
Whiteboard
Windows
Wiring
Workshops
33
12
8
10, 21
31
23
55

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LIGHTING GUIDE

THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT IN

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

The rights of publication or of translation are reserved.

Typeset and printed in Great Britain by UNWIN BROTHERS LTD.

Lecture theatres and lecture rooms

Adjoining spaces - corridors, lobbies, ante-rooms etc.

Visual and lighting needs

Basic lighting and visual needs

Lighting and visual needs

Large conference rooms

Basic lighting and visual needs

The classification of teaching and conference spaces

Escape route signs

10 The management of lecture and conference spaces

The preparation and use of slides and overhead

Dimming systems and equipment

Theatrical presentations in lecture theatres and

1.1 The classification of

1.1.1 lecture theatres

CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

1.1.2 lecture rooms

1.1.3 Teaching rooms

1.1.4 Rooms used for

1.1.5 large conference

1.1.6 Committee rooms

Rooms used for meetings capable of seating up to roughly 30 persons.

1.1.7 Multi-purpose rooms

1.1.8 Adjoining spaces

Foyers, ante-rooms, lobbies and corridors immediately adjoining those spaces

2 Lecture theatres and lecture rooms

2.1 Basic lighting and

2.2 Lecture theatres

LECTURE, TEACHING AND CONFERENCE ROOMS

Whatever type of lighting is used, the luminaires must be positioned so as

Figure 2.1 Luminaires at positions such as A,B

Ribs in a ceiling used to act as glare shields.

CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Example of a large lecture theatre.

LECTURE, TEACHING AND CONFERENCE ROOMS

Lectern embodying shielded lighting.

CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Figure 2.6 Fan shaped lecture theatre.

2.3 lecture rooms

Because of the smaller dimensions, the audience area lighting in lecture

The general lighting should be arranged to produce an illuminance above

LECTURE, TEACHING AND CONFERENCE ROOMS

2.3.2 Sightlines and glare

Sightlines in a lecture room with a flat floor.

The sightlines may be improved by raising the lecturer on a step.

Good lecture room layout.

CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE

Glare to the lecturer caused by inappropriate luminaires.

2.4 Chalkboards and

LECTURE, TEACHING AND CONFERENCE ROOMS

Reflection of a light source in a chalkboard.