The Cell

Introduction:
All these plants and animals are made of the building blocks we call cells. Like these
examples, many living things consist of vast numbers of cells working in concert with
one another. Other forms of life, however, are made of only a single cell, such as the
many species of bacteria and protozoa. Cells, whether living on their own or as part of a
multicellular organism. And also these organisms are too small to see by a naked eye.
We have to use microscope in order to see these little tiny creatures that build up life.

Entomology
The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and
biological unit of all known living organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life that can
replicate independently, and are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of
cells is called cell biology.
Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many
biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids Organisms can be classified as
unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including
plants and animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals varies from
species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion (1013) cells. Most plant and
animal cells are visible only under the microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100
micrometres
The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, Cell theory, first developed in 1839
by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are
composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and
function in all living organisms, that all cells come from preexisting cells, and that all
cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for
transmitting information to the next generation of cells

Cell Theory

The cell theory or cell doctrine was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann in 1839
describe that all organisms are composed of similar units of organisation, called cells.
In 1838 Matthias Schleiden found that all plant cells have basically similar structure.

T. Schwann(1839) observed that animal cells differ from plant cells in lacking cell wall
but are otherwise similar amongst themselves. He declared that all animals and plants
are made up of cells.
Schleiden (1838) summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells:
1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.
2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the
construction of organisms.
3. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous
generation).

Rudolph Virchow(1858) states that "Omnis cellula e cellula"-that the new cells arise
from pre-existing cells only. The main features of cell theory as known nowadays are
1.All living organism are composed of cells. Therefore cell is structural unit of living
organisms.
2. All cells arise from the pre-existing cells of similar type. Thus cell is a unit of heredity.
3. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolism activities.
4.The function of an organism as a whole is the result of the activities and interactions
of its cells.

The two types of Cell:

1. Prokaryotic Cell: Any of various microorganisms of the domains Archaea

and Bacteria, characterized by the absence of a distinct membrane-bound
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles and by the simultaneous
occurrence of DNA transcription and protein synthesis at the same site, in
contrast to eukaryotes
Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital
biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler
and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the
nucleus. Prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA
of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the
cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes
are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 m in diameter.

A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:

On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are
structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and
communication between cells.

Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope generally consisting of a cell wall covering a
plasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called a
capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from
its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most prokaryotes have a cell wall,
there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea). The
cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against
exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (cytolysis) from
osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and
fungal cells) also have a cell wall.

Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and
various sorts of inclusions. The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are
usually circular. Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of
spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia
burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is
condensed in a
nucleoid.
Plasmids encode
additional genes,
such as antibiotic
resistance
genes.

Fig. 1.1: A Prokaryotic Cell

2. Eukaryotic Cells : A cell containing a membrane-bound nucleus with

chromosomes of DNA and proteins, generally large (10-100 mcm), with cell
division involving a form of mitosis in which mitotic spindles (or some
microtubule arrangement) are involved; mitochondria are present, and, in
photosynthetic species, plastids are found; undulipodia (cilia or flagella) are of
the complex 9+2 organization of microtubules and various proteins.
Possession of an eukaryote type of cell characterizes the four kingdoms
above the Monera or prokaryote level of complexity: Protoctista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia, combined into the superkingdom Eukaryotae.
Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic.
These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be
as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing
feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization:
the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which
specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is a cell
nucleus, an organelle that houses the cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the
eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel (nucleus)". Other differences
include:

The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor

differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called
chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA
is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.
Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important
roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may
thus be "viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number
of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility
or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."
Motile cells of eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are
absent in conifers and flowering plants. Eukaryotic flagella are less complex than
those of prokaryotes.

Figure 1.2 Animal Cell, A Eukaryotic Cell

Figure 1.3 Plant Cell, Another example of a Eukaryotic Cell

Parts and Functions:

Animal Cell
Organelle
Cell Membrane

Description
Animal - outer layer;
cholesterol
Double layer of
phospholipids with
proteins
Selectively
permeable

Figure 1.4
Cell Membrane

Nucleus

Biological Use
Support
Protection
Controls movement
of materials in/out of
cell
Barrier between cell
and its environment

Nucleus is spherical
body containing
many organelles,
including the
nucleolus

Figure 1.5
The Nucleus

Maintains
homeostasis
The nucleus
controls many of the
functions of the cell
(by controlling
protein synthesis)
and contains DNA
(in chromosomes).
The nucleus is
surrounded by the
nuclear membrane.
Controls cell
activities

Nuclear Membrane

Surrounds nucleus
Double membrane
Selectively
permeable

Contains the
hereditary material
of the cell
Controls movement
of materials in/out of
nucleus

Figure 1.6
Nuclear Membrane

Cytoplasm

Clear, thick, jellylike

material (cytosol)
Organelles found
inside cell
membrane
Contains the
cytoskeleton fibers

Supports and
protects cell
organelles

Network of tubes or
membranes
Smooth w/o
ribosomes
Rough with
embedded
ribosomes
Connects to nuclear
envelope & cell
membrane

Carries materials
through cell
Aids in making
proteins

a vast system of
interconnected,
membranous,
infolded and
convoluted sacks
that are located in
the cell's cytoplasm
(the ER is
continuous with the
outer nuclear

Rough ER
transports materials
through the cell and
produces proteins in
sacks called
cisternae (which are
sent to the Golgi
body, or inserted
into the cell
membrane).

Figure 1.7
Cytoplasm

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Figure 1.8
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough (E.R)

membrane). Rough
ER is covered with
ribosomes that give
it a rough
appearance

Figure 1.8.1
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Smooth (E.R)

a vast system of
interconnected,
membranous,
infolded and
convoluted tubes
that are located in
the cell's cytoplasm
(the ER is
continuous with the
outer nuclear
membrane). The
space within the ER
is called the ER
lumen.

Smooth ER
transports materials
through the cell. It
contains enzymes
and produces and
digests lipids (fats)
and membrane
proteins; smooth ER
buds off from rough
ER, moving the
newly-made
proteins and lipids
to the Golgi body,
lysosomes, and
membranes.

Small bodies free or

attached to ER
Made of RNA &
protein

Synthesizes
proteins

Figure 1.8.2
Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Ribosome

Figure 1.9
Ribosome

Mitochondrion

Peanut shaped
Double membrane
Outer membrane
smooth
Inner membrane
folded into cristae

Breaks down sugar

(glucose) molecules
to release energy
Site of aerobic
cellular respiration

fluid-filled,
membranesurrounded cavities
inside a cell.

Store food, water,

metabolic & toxic
wastes
Store large amounts
of food or sugars in
plants

Small and round

with a single
membrane
round organelles
surrounded by a
membrane and
containing digestive
enzymes.

Breaks down larger

food molecules into
smaller molecules
Digests old cell
parts

Found inside the

cell's nucleus
May have more
than one
Disappear during
cell division

Make ribosomes
it is where
ribosomal RNA is
produced

Figure 1.10
Mitochondrion

Vacuole

Figure 1.11
Vacuole

Lysosome

Figure 1.12
Lysosome

Nucleolus

Figure 1.13
Nucleolus

Golgi Apparatus

a flattened, layered,
sac-like organelle
that looks like a
stack of pancakes
and is located near
the nucleus

Figure 1.14
Golgi Apparatus

Cilia

Have a 9-2
arrangement of
microtubules
Short, but
numerous

It produces the
membranes that
surround the
lysosomes.
The Golgi body
packages proteins
and carbohydrates
into membranebound vesicles for
export from the
cell.
Movement

Figure 1.15
Cilia

Centrioles

Paired structures
near the nucleus
Made of a cylinder
of microtubule pairs

Separate
chromosome pairs
during mitosis

an organelle near
the nucleus of a cell
that contains the
centrioles

from which the

spindle fibers
develop in cell
division.

Figure 1.16
Centrioles

Centrosome

Figure 1.17
Centrosome

Cytoskeleton

Made of
microtubules 7
microfilaments

Figure 1.18
Cytoskeleton

Figure 1.19

Strengthen cell &

maintains the shape
Moves organelles
within the cell

Cross Section of Animal Cell

Plant Cell:
Organelle
Amyloplasts

Description
a microscopic
sac, bound by a
double
membrane, that
is found inside
plant cells

Biological Use
contains starch
granules

The thin layer of

protein and fat
that surrounds
the cell, but is
inside the cell
wall.

The cell
membrane is
semipermeable,
allowing some
substances to
pass into the cell
and blocking
others.

a thick, rigid
membrane that
surrounds a plant
cell

This layer of
cellulose fiber
gives the cell
most of its
support and
structure.
Also bonds with
other cell walls to
form the structure
of the plant.
is where
microtubules are
made
the centrosome
divides and the
two parts move to

Figure 2.1
Amyloplasts

Cell Membrane

Figure 2.2
Cell Membrane

Cell Wall

Figure 2.3
Cell Wall

Centrosome

a small body
located near the
nucleus - it has a
dense center and
radiating tubules
Unlike the

centrosomes in
animal cells,
plant cell
centrosomes do
not have
centrioles..

opposite sides of
the dividing cell.

Figure 2.4
Centrosome

Chlorophyll

Figure 2.5
Chlorophyll in Plant Cell

A green pigment,
present in all
green plants and
in cyanobacteria,
responsible for
the absorption of
light to provide
energy for
photosynthesis.

Uses light energy

from sunlight to
turn water and
carbon dioxide
gas into sugar
and oxygen (this
process is called
photosynthesis).

an elongated or
disc-shaped
organelle
containing
chlorophyll.

Photosynthesis
(in which energy
from sunlight is
converted into
chemical energy food) takes place
in the
chloroplasts.

Figure 2.5.1
Chlorophyll Molecule

Chloroplasts

Figure 2.6

Chloroplast

Cytoplasm

The jellylike
material outside
the cell nucleus
in which the
organelles are
located.

Supports and
protects cell
organelles

a flattened,
layered, sac-like
organelle that
looks like a stack
of pancakes and
is located near
the nucleus

The golgi body

packages
proteins and
carbohydrates
into membranebound vesicles for
"export" from the
cell.

spherical to rodshaped
organelles with a
double
membrane.
The inner
membrane is
infolded many
times, forming a
series of
projections
(called cristae)
the membrane
that surrounds
the nucleus.

The
mitochondrion
converts the
energy stored in
glucose into ATP
(adenosine
triphosphate) for
the cell.

Figure 2.7
Cytoplasm

Golgi Body

Figure 2.8
Golgi Body/ Golgi Apparatus

Mitochondrion

Figure 2.9
Mitochondrion

Nuclear Membrane

acts as a barrier
separating the
nuclear contents
from the
surrounding
cytoplasm.

Figure 2.10
Nuclear Membrane

Nucleolus

an organelle
within the
nucleus

it is where
ribosomal RNA is
produced.

Spherical body
containing many
organelles,
including the
nucleolus.
The nucleus is
surrounded by
the nuclear
membrane

The nucleus
controls many of
the functions of
the cell (by
controlling protein
synthesis)
Contains DNA (in
chromosomes).

Small bodies free

or attached to ER
Made of RNA &
protein

sites of protein
synthesis.

a vast system of
interconnected,
membranous,
infolded and
convoluted sacks
that are located

Rough ER
transport
materials through
the cell and
produces proteins
in sacks called

Figure 2.11
Nucleolus

Nucleus

Figure 2.12
Nucleus

Ribosomes

Figure 2.13
Ribosomes

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Figure 2.14
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Figure 2.15
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

in the cell's
cytoplasm (the
ER is continuous
with the outer
nuclear
membrane).
Rough ER is
covered with
ribosomes that
give it a rough
appearance.
a vast system of
interconnected,
membranous,
infolded and
convoluted tubes
that are located
in the cell's
cytoplasm (the
ER is continuous
with the outer
nuclear
membrane).

cisternae (which
are sent to the
Golgi body, or
inserted into the
cell membrane).

Smooth ER
transport
materials through
the cell.
It contains
enzymes and
produces and
digests lipids
(fats) and
membrane
proteins; smooth
ER buds off from
rough ER, moving
the newly-made
proteins and lipids
to the Golgi body
and membranes

Figure

2.16

Cross
of Plant

Section
Cell

Cell Division:
Cell Division Functions in Reproduction, Growth, and Repair
Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic material, DNA, to two
daughters cells. What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed
along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next.

Two types of Cell Division

Mitosis- nuclear/chemical events resulting in two daughter nuclei which have identical
genetic material to each other and to the mother cell

Stages:
Interphase

Is the "resting" or non-mitotic portion of the cell cycle.

It is comprised of G1, S, and G2 stages of the cell cycle.
DNA is replicated during the S phase of Interphase
Prophase

The chromosomes condense and become visible

The centrioles form and move toward opposite ends of the cell ("the poles")
The nuclear membrane dissolves
The mitotic spindle forms (from the centrioles in animal cells)
Spindle fibers from each centriole attach to each sister chromatid at the
kinetochore

Metaphase

The Centrioles complete their migration to the poles

The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell ("the equator")
Compare Metaphase to the Metaphase I and to the Metaphase II stages of
mitosis.
Anaphase

Spindles attached to kinetochores begin to shorten.

This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart.
Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling chromatids to opposite poles.
This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes

Telophase

The chromosomes decondense

The nuclear envelope forms
Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two daughter cells
Compare Telophase to the Telophase I and to the Telophase II stages of mitosis.

Figure 3.1
Stages of Mitosis

Meiosis- is a specialized type of cell division which reduces the chromosome number
by half. This process occurs in all sexually reproducing single-celled and multi-celled
eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and fungi.

Figure 3.2 Stages of Meiosis

Eukaryotic Cell and Prokaryotic Cell. The Difference

Organelle
Nucleus

Lysosomes and
peroxisomes
Microtubules

Eukaryotic
True nucleus,
consisting of
nuclear membrane
& nucleoli
Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
Ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus
Chloroplast

Prokaryotic
No nuclear
membrane or
nucleoli (nucleoid)

Absent

Present

Absent or Rare

Present

Absent

Present
Present
Larger
Present
Present ( In plants)

Absent
Maybe Absent
Smaller
Absent
Absent

Cell Wall

Only in plant cells

and fungi
(chemically simpler)

Usually chemically
complexed

Here are some other differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
Other Differences
Number of chromosomes

Eukaryotic
More than one

Prokaryotic
One-but not true
chromosome:
Plasmids
Usually unicellular
(some
cyanobacteria may
be multicellular)
Absent

Cell Type

Usually multicellular

True Membrane bound

Nucleus
Genetic Recombination

Present

DNA wrapping on proteins.

Meiosis and fusion

of game
Eukaryotes wrap
their DNA around
proteins called
histones.

Flagella

Permeability of Nuclear
Membrane
Plasma membrane with
steroid
Cell size

Microscopic in size;
membrane bound;
usually arranged as
nine doublets
surrounding two
singlets
Selective

Not Present

Yes

Usually No

10-100um

1-10um

Partial, undirectional
transfers DNA
Multiple proteins act
together to fold and
condense
prokaryotic DNA.
Folded DNA is then
organized into a
variety of
conformations that
are supercoiled and
wound around
tetramers of the HU
protein.
Submicroscopic in
size, composed of
only one fiber

Figure 4.1
Bacteria, a prokaryotic cell,
Uses its tail like organelles for movement

The Cell Membrane:

The cell membrane is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the
cytoplasm of a cell, enclosing its contents. Its function is to protect the integrity of
the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping
other substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton
in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane also
serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape.
The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. While
lipids help to give membranes their flexibility, proteins monitor and maintain the
cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the
membrane.

Figure 5.1
Cross Section of Cell Membrane

Functions of Cell Membrane

-

The cell membrane (or plasma membrane or plasmalemma) surrounds the

cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from
the extracellular environment. Fungi, bacteria and plants also have a cell wall in
addition, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the
passage of larger molecules. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring
the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular
matrix and other cells to help group cells together to form tissues.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and
exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival.

1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such
as carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), can move across the plasma
membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the
membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in
different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Such a concentration
gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the
water.
2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Nutrients, such as sugars or
amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave

the cell. Such molecules diffuse passively through protein channels such as
aquaporins (in the case of water (H2O)) in facilitated diffusion or are pumped
across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins,
also called permeases, are usually quite specific, recognizing and transporting
only a limited food group of chemical substances, often even only a single
substance.
3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by
engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward,
called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured. The
deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell,
creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway
for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating" or phagocytosis), small molecules
and ions ("cell drinking" or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis
requires energy and is thus a form of active transport.
4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and
formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma
membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process
of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues
of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as
hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a
cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste-containing
food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved
by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane
comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two
bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A
passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its
contents outside the cell.

Figure 5.2
Cell Membrane (More Detailed)

Parts and Functions of Cell Membrane

Parts
Protein Channel

Globular proteins

Biological Function
Channel proteins facilitate
the transport of substances
across a cell membrane.
They do this through the
process of either facilitated
diffusion or active transport
depending on the
concentration gradient, or
the difference in the
concentration of substances
inside and outside the cell
membrane
Globular proteins or
spheroproteins are spherical
("globe-like") proteins and
are one of the common
protein types (the others
being fibrous, disordered
and membrane proteins).

Globular proteins are

somewhat water-soluble
(forming colloids in water),
unlike the fibrous or
membrane proteins.
Cholesterol

Glycolipid

Cholesterol is found in every

cell of your body. It is
especially abundant in the
membranes of these cells,
where it helps maintain the
integrity of these
membranes, and plays a
role in facilitating cell
signaling-- meaning the
ability of your cells to
communicate with each
other so you function as a
human, rather than a pile of
cells.
Glycolipids are lipids with a
carbohydrate attached. Their
role is to provide energy and
also serve as markers for
cellular recognition.

Figure 5.4
Chemical Structure of Glycolipid

Peripheral Protein

Peripheral membrane
proteins are proteins that
adhere only temporarily to
the biological membrane
with which they are
associated.

Glycoprotein

Integral Protein

Alpha Helix Protein

Glycoproteins are proteins

that contain oligosaccharide
chains (glycans) covalently
attached to polypeptide sidechains. The carbohydrate is
attached to the protein in a
cotranslational or
posttranslational
modification. This process is
known as glycosylation.
Secreted extracellular
proteins are often
glycosylated. In proteins that
have segments extending
extracellularly, the
extracellular segments are
also glycosylated.
Glycoproteins are often
important integral membrane
proteins, where they play a
role in cellcell interactions.
Integral membrane function
as transporters, channels
(see Potassium Channel),
linkers, receptors, proteins
involved in accumulation
energy, and proteins
responsible for cell
adhesion.
The alpha helix (-helix) is
a common secondary
structure of proteins and is a
righthand-coiled or spiral
conformation (helix) in which
every backbone N-H group
donates a hydrogen bond to
the backbone C=O group of
the amino

acid four residues earlier (

hydrogen
bonding).

Figure 5.5
A-Helix

Carbohydrates

Hydrophilic Heads

Hydrophobic Tails
Phospholipid Bilayer

Figure 5.6
Phospholipid Bilayer

Phospholipid Molecule

Carbohydrates covalently
linked to proteins
(glycoproteins) or lipids
(glycolipids) are also a part
of cell membranes, and
function as adhesion and
address loci for cells
Hydrophilic areas of a
phospholipid, or a protein
are 'attracted' to water
hydrophobic regions are
repelled by water.
The phospholipid bilayer
which the cell membrane is
an example of, is composed
of various cholesterol,
phospholipids, glycolipids
and proteins.
Phospholipids in cells is to
form membranes.
Membranes in cells are
phospholipid bilayers, which
are barriers that prevent
charged particles and large
molecules from moving
across them. The outer skin
of the cell is a phospholipid

bilayer.

Six Levels of Structural and Functional Organization

1. Chemical Level- Composed of Chemical Substances that are formed of atoms

and molecules

Figure 6.1
Atom, Basic unit of a chemical element

2. Cellular Level- Basic Structural and Functional unit of an organism

Figure 6.2
Cell, Basic unit of life

3. Tissue Level- Aggregation of similar cell that perform similar function

Figure 6.3
Connective Tissue

4. Organ Level- Composed of two or more tissues that work together to perform
one common function

Figure 6.4
Cross Section of Heart

5. System Level- Coordinated Function group of organs in the body which perform
specific function

Figure 6.5
Human Organ

6. Organismic Level- Complex of an organ system that are mutually dependent on

one another

Figure 6.6
Human Organism

The Biological Functions of Cell

1. Energy Transport
2. Reproduction

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Growth
Nutrition
Protein Synthesis
Photosynthesis in Plants
Metabolism
Replication
Movement or Motility

10. Digestion
11. Rehydration
12.Sexual Reproduction

Links and References

http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/what-is-a-cell-14023083
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)

http://www.bing.com/images/search?
q=prokaryotic+cell+picture+with+labels+&view=detailv2&&id=8420AB210176643C30E83
69F8D7D71274E7CE130&selectedIndex=5&ccid=EU5O5bH
%2f&simid=607995072978616628&thid=OIP.M114e4ee5b1ff603c38c483e3176dd6a0H0&aj
axhist=0
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Prokaryotic+cell
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Eukaryotic+cells
http://www.biologyjunction.com/cell_functions.htm
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/animals/cell/
http://www.peoi.org/Courses/Coursesen/bot/frame2.html
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/plants/cell/
http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/03/nuclear-envelope.html
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/lect16.htm
https://www.bing.com/images/search?
q=meiosis+stages&id=AE9795A4077E577BE7F871C7F41D3BCB00FBD339&FORM=IQFRBA
http://www.diffen.com/difference/Eukaryotic_Cell_vs_Prokaryotic_Cell
http://biology.about.com/od/biologydictionary/g/cell-membrane.htm

http://www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Cholesterol-Cell-Membrane.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolipid
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Enzyme_Catalytic_Mechanism/Int
egral_Membrane_Protein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helix
http://202.114.65.51/fzjx/wsw/website/cellb/chapter2/membrane.html#HYDRO
Worktext in General Zoology p. 33 Chapter 3- The Chemistry of Life.

Bicol University
College of Nursing
Legazpi City

RESEARCH WORK
IN BIOCHEMISTRY

THE CELL
Submitted By:
Jandrew Dimapasoc
BSN 1-B

Submitted to:
Dr. Noemi R. Madrid