Chapter 2

Instructions: Language of the

Computer

The repertoire of instructions of a

computer
Different computers have different
instruction sets

But with many aspects in common

Early computers had very simple

instruction sets

2.1 Introduction

Instruction Set

Simplified implementation

Many modern computers also have simple

instruction sets
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 2

The MIPS Instruction Set

Used as the example throughout the book

Stanford MIPS commercialized by MIPS
Technologies (www.mips.com)
Large share of embedded core market

Applications in consumer electronics, network/storage

equipment, cameras, printers,

Typical of many modern ISAs

See MIPS Reference Data tear-out card, and

Appendixes B and E

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 3

Add and subtract, three operands

Two sources and one destination

add a, b, c # a gets b + c
All arithmetic operations have this form
Design Principle 1: Simplicity favours
regularity

2.2 Operations of the Computer Hardware

Arithmetic Operations

Regularity makes implementation simpler

Simplicity enables higher performance at
lower cost
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 4

Arithmetic Example

C code:
f = (g + h) - (i + j);

Compiled MIPS code:

add t0, g, h
add t1, i, j
sub f, t0, t1

# temp t0 = g + h
# temp t1 = i + j
# f = t0 - t1

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 5

Arithmetic instructions use register

operands
MIPS has a 32 32-bit register file

Assembler names

Use for frequently accessed data

Numbered 0 to 31
32-bit data called a word
$t0, $t1, , $t9 for temporary values
$s0, $s1, , $s7 for saved variables

2.3 Operands of the Computer Hardware

Register Operands

Design Principle 2: Smaller is faster

c.f. main memory: millions of locations

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 6

Register Operand Example

C code:
f = (g + h) - (i + j);

f, , j in $s0, , $s4

Compiled MIPS code:

add $t0, $s1, $s2
add $t1, $s3, $s4
sub $s0, $t0, $t1

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 7

Memory Operands

Main memory used for composite data

To apply arithmetic operations

Each address identifies an 8-bit byte

Words are aligned in memory

Load values from memory into registers

Store result from register to memory

Memory is byte addressed

Arrays, structures, dynamic data

Address must be a multiple of 4

MIPS is Big Endian

Most-significant byte at least address of a word

c.f. Little Endian: least-significant byte at least address
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 8

Memory Operand Example 1

C code:
g = h + A[8];

g in $s1, h in $s2, base address of A in $s3

Compiled MIPS code:

Index 8 requires offset of 32

4 bytes per word

lw $t0, 32($s3)
add $s1, $s2, $t0
offset

# load word

base register

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 9

Memory Operand Example 2

C code:
A[12] = h + A[8];

h in $s2, base address of A in $s3

Compiled MIPS code:

Index 8 requires offset of 32
lw $t0, 32($s3)
# load word
add $t0, $s2, $t0
sw $t0, 48($s3)
# store word

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 10

Registers vs. Memory

Registers are faster to access than

memory
Operating on memory data requires loads
and stores

More instructions to be executed

Compiler must use registers for variables

as much as possible

Only spill to memory for less frequently used

variables
Register optimization is important!
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 11

Immediate Operands

Constant data specified in an instruction

addi $s3, $s3, 4

No subtract immediate instruction

Just use a negative constant

addi $s2, $s1, -1

Design Principle 3: Make the common

case fast

Small constants are common

Immediate operand avoids a load instruction
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 12

The Constant Zero

MIPS register 0 ($zero) is the constant 0

Cannot be overwritten

Useful for common operations

E.g., move between registers

add $t2, $s1, $zero

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 13

Given an n-bit number

n 1

x = x n1 2

+ x n2 2

+ L + x1 2 + x 0 2

Range: 0 to +2n 1
Example

n2

2.4 Signed and Unsigned Numbers

Unsigned Binary Integers

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 10112

= 0 + + 123 + 022 +121 +120
= 0 + + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 1110

Using 32 bits

0 to +4,294,967,295
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 14

2s-Complement Signed Integers

Given an n-bit number

n 1

x = x n1 2

+ x n2 2

+ L + x1 2 + x 0 2

Range: 2n 1 to +2n 1 1
Example

n2

1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 11002

= 1231 + 1230 + + 122 +021 +020
= 2,147,483,648 + 2,147,483,644 = 410

Using 32 bits

2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 15

2s-Complement Signed Integers

Bit 31 is sign bit

1 for negative numbers

0 for non-negative numbers

(2n 1) cant be represented

Non-negative numbers have the same unsigned
and 2s-complement representation
Some specific numbers

0: 0000 0000 0000

1: 1111 1111 1111
Most-negative: 1000 0000 0000
Most-positive: 0111 1111 1111

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 16

Signed Negation

Complement and add 1

Complement means 1 0, 0 1
x + x = 1111...1112 = 1
x + 1 = x

Example: negate +2

+2 = 0000 0000 00102

2 = 1111 1111 11012 + 1
= 1111 1111 11102
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 17

Sign Extension

Representing a number using more bits

In MIPS instruction set

addi: extend immediate value

lb, lh: extend loaded byte/halfword
beq, bne: extend the displacement

Replicate the sign bit to the left

Preserve the numeric value

c.f. unsigned values: extend with 0s

Examples: 8-bit to 16-bit

+2: 0000 0010 => 0000 0000 0000 0010

2: 1111 1110 => 1111 1111 1111 1110
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 18

Instructions are encoded in binary

MIPS instructions

Called machine code

Encoded as 32-bit instruction words
Small number of formats encoding operation code
(opcode), register numbers,
Regularity!

Register numbers

$t0 $t7 are regs 8 15

$t8 $t9 are regs 24 25
$s0 $s7 are regs 16 23

2.5 Representing Instructions in the Computer

Representing Instructions

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 19

MIPS R-format Instructions

op

rs

rt

rd

shamt

funct

6 bits

5 bits

5 bits

5 bits

5 bits

6 bits

Instruction fields

op: operation code (opcode)

rs: first source register number
rt: second source register number
rd: destination register number
shamt: shift amount (00000 for now)
funct: function code (extends opcode)
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 20

R-format Example
op

rs

rt

rd

shamt

funct

6 bits

5 bits

5 bits

5 bits

5 bits

6 bits

add $t0, $s1, $s2

special

$s1

$s2

$t0

add

17

18

32

000000

10001

10010

01000

00000

100000

000000100011001001000000001000002 = 0232402016
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 21

Hexadecimal

Base 16

0
1
2
3

Compact representation of bit strings

4 bits per hex digit
0000
0001
0010
0011

4
5
6
7

0100
0101
0110
0111

8
9
a
b

1000
1001
1010
1011

c
d
e
f

1100
1101
1110
1111

Example: eca8 6420

1110 1100 1010 1000 0110 0100 0010 0000

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 22

MIPS I-format Instructions

rs

rt

constant or address

6 bits

5 bits

5 bits

16 bits

Immediate arithmetic and load/store instructions

op

rt: destination or source register number

Constant: 215 to +215 1
Address: offset added to base address in rs

Design Principle 4: Good design demands good

compromises

Different formats complicate decoding, but allow 32-bit

instructions uniformly
Keep formats as similar as possible
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 23

Stored Program Computers

The BIG Picture

Instructions represented in
binary, just like data
Instructions and data stored
in memory
Programs can operate on
programs

e.g., compilers, linkers,

Binary compatibility allows

compiled programs to work
on different computers

Standardized ISAs

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 24

Instructions for bitwise manipulation

Operation

Java

MIPS

Shift left

<<

<<

sll

Shift right

>>

>>>

srl

Bitwise AND

&

&

and, andi

Bitwise OR

or, ori

Bitwise NOT

nor

2.6 Logical Operations

Logical Operations

Useful for extracting and inserting

groups of bits in a word
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 25

Shift Operations

rs

rt

rd

shamt

funct

6 bits

5 bits

5 bits

5 bits

5 bits

6 bits

shamt: how many positions to shift

Shift left logical

op

Shift left and fill with 0 bits

sll by i bits multiplies by 2i

Shift right logical

Shift right and fill with 0 bits

srl by i bits divides by 2i (unsigned only)
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 26

AND Operations

Useful to mask bits in a word

Select some bits, clear others to 0

and $t0, $t1, $t2

$t2

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101 1100 0000

$t1

0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000

$t0

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100 0000 0000

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 27

OR Operations

Useful to include bits in a word

Set some bits to 1, leave others unchanged

or $t0, $t1, $t2

$t2

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101 1100 0000

$t1

0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000

$t0

0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1101 1100 0000

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 28

NOT Operations

Useful to invert bits in a word

Change 0 to 1, and 1 to 0

MIPS has NOR 3-operand instruction

a NOR b == NOT ( a OR b )

nor $t0, $t1, $zero

Register 0: always
read as zero

$t1

0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000

$t0

1111 1111 1111 1111 1100 0011 1111 1111

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 29

Branch to a labeled instruction if a

condition is true

beq rs, rt, L1

if (rs == rt) branch to instruction labeled L1;

bne rs, rt, L1

Otherwise, continue sequentially

2.7 Instructions for Making Decisions

Conditional Operations

if (rs != rt) branch to instruction labeled L1;

j L1

unconditional jump to instruction labeled L1

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 30

Compiling If Statements

C code:
if (i==j) f = g+h;
else f = g-h;

f, g, in $s0, $s1,

Compiled MIPS code:

bne
add
j
Else: sub
Exit:

$s3, $s4, Else

$s0, $s1, $s2
Exit
$s0, $s1, $s2
Assembler calculates addresses
Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 31

Compiling Loop Statements

C code:
while (save[i] == k) i += 1;

i in $s3, k in $s5, address of save in $s6

Compiled MIPS code:

Loop: sll
add
lw
bne
addi
j
Exit:

$t1,
$t1,
$t0,
$t0,
$s3,
Loop

$s3, 2
$t1, $s6
0($t1)
$s5, Exit
$s3, 1

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 32

Basic Blocks

A basic block is a sequence of instructions

with

No embedded branches (except at end)

No branch targets (except at beginning)

A compiler identifies basic

blocks for optimization
An advanced processor
can accelerate execution
of basic blocks

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 33

More Conditional Operations

Set result to 1 if a condition is true

slt rd, rs, rt

if (rs < rt) rd = 1; else rd = 0;

slti rt, rs, constant

Otherwise, set to 0

if (rs < constant) rt = 1; else rt = 0;

Use in combination with beq, bne

slt $t0, $s1, $s2
bne $t0, $zero, L

# if ($s1 < $s2)

#
branch to L

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 34

Branch Instruction Design

Why not blt, bge, etc?

Hardware for <, , slower than =,

Combining with branch involves more work

per instruction, requiring a slower clock
All instructions penalized!

beq and bne are the common case

This is a good design compromise

Chapter 2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 35