Mcs 2015 Lithi

94
LITHIUM
(Data in metric tons of lithium content unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The only lithium mine operating in the United States was a brine operation in
Nevada. Two companies produced a large array of downstream lithium compounds in the United States from
domestic or South American lithium carbonate, lithium chloride, and lithium hydroxide. Domestic production was not
published to protect proprietary data. A U.S. recycling company produced a small quantity of lithium carbonate from
solutions recovered during the recycling of lithium-ion batteries.
Although lithium markets vary by location, global end-use markets are estimated as follows: ceramics and glass, 35%;
batteries, 31%; lubricating greases, 8%; continuous casting mold flux powders, 6%; air treatment, 5%; polymer
production, 5%; primary aluminum production, 1%; and other uses, 9%. Lithium consumption for batteries has
increased significantly in recent years because rechargeable lithium batteries are used extensively in the growing
market for portable electronic devices and increasingly are used in electric tools, electric vehicles, and grid storage
applications. Lithium minerals were used directly as ore concentrates in ceramics and glass applications worldwide.
Salient StatisticsUnited States:
Production
Imports for consumption
Exports
Consumption:
Apparent
Estimated
Price, annual average, battery-grade lithium
3
carbonate, dollars per metric ton
Employment, mine and mill, number
4
Net import reliance as a percentage of
apparent consumption
2010
W
1,960
1,410
W
1,100
2011
W
2,850
1,310
W
2,000
2012
W
2,760
1,300
2013
1
870
2,210
1,230
W
2,000
W
1,800
2014
W
2,100
1,300
W
2,000
5,180
70
5,180
70
6,060
70
6,800
70
6,600
70
>50%
>80%
>60%
>50%
>50%
Recycling: Historically, lithium recycling has been insignificant but has increased steadily owing to the growth in
consumption of lithium batteries. One U.S. company has recycled lithium metal and lithium-ion batteries since 1992 at
its facility in British Columbia, Canada. In 2009, the U.S. Department of Energy awarded the company $9.5 million to
construct the first U.S. recycling facility for lithium-ion batteries, which was still under construction in 2014.
Import Sources (201013): Chile, 50%; Argentina, 46%; China, 3%; and other, 1%.
Tariff: Item
Other alkali metals
Lithium oxide and hydroxide
Lithium carbonate:
U.S.P. grade
Other
Number
2805.19.9000
2825.20.0000
Normal Trade Relations

123114
5.5% ad val.
3.7% ad val.
2836.91.0010
2836.91.0050
3.7% ad val.
3.7% ad val.
Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Worldwide lithium production increased by about 6% in 2014. Production from
Argentina and Chile increased approximately 15% each in response to increased lithium demand for battery
applications. Also, in 2013, weather-related complications had reduced production for Argentinas major lithium
producer. Lithium production in Australia and China also increased. Major lithium producers expected worldwide
consumption of lithium in 2014 to be approximately 33,000 tons, an increase of 10% from that of 2013. Despite the
increased lithium demand in 2014, worldwide lithium prices, on average, remained unchanged owing to the near
balanced increase in worldwide lithium consumption and supply. Industrial Minerals reported a slight decrease in
United States lithium carbonate prices.
In the late 1990s, subsurface brines became the dominant raw material for lithium carbonate production worldwide
because of lower production costs compared with the mining and processing of hard-rock ores. Owing to growing
lithium demand from China in the past several years, however, mineral-sourced lithium regained market share and
was estimated to account for one-half of the worlds lithium supply in 2014. Two brine operations in Chile and a
spodumene operation in Australia accounted for the majority of world production. Argentina produced lithium
Prepared by Brian W. Jaskula [(703) 6484908, bjaskula@usgs.gov]
95
LITHIUM
carbonate and lithium chloride from brines. China produced lithium carbonate, lithium chloride, and lithium hydroxide
from domestic brines and, increasingly, domestic and imported spodumene. In the United States, the brine operation
in Nevada doubled production capacity in 2013. A new brine operation in Argentina was expected to be
commissioned by yearend 2014.
Recent years have seen consolidation among the handful of major lithium producers. In 2013, Chinas leading lithium
chemical producer acquired Australias leading spodumene producing facility, having a capacity of 110,000 tons per
year of lithium carbonate equivalent. In 2014, the United States-based parent company of one of Chiles brine
operations acquired 49% of the Australian spodumene operation from the Chinese chemical producer, and effectively
became the worlds leading lithium producer. Later in 2014, a U.S. bromine products manufacturer agreed to
purchase the U.S. lithium producer for $6.2 billion to create one of the worlds largest speciality chemicals
businesses.
Lithium supply security has become a top priority for Asian technology companies. Strategic alliances and joint
ventures have been, and are continuing to be, established with lithium exploration companies to ensure a reliable,
diversified supply of lithium for Asias battery suppliers and vehicle manufacturers. Several brine operations were
under development in Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile; spodumene mining operations were under development in
Australia, Canada, China, and Finland; and a jadarite mining operation was under development in Serbia. Additional
exploration for lithium continued, with numerous claims having been leased or staked worldwide.
Rechargeable batteries was the largest potential growth area for lithium compounds. Demand for rechargeable lithium
batteries exceeds that of other rechargeable batteries. Automobile companies were developing lithium batteries for
electric and hybrid electric vehicles. A leading electric car manufacturer announced plans to construct an immense
lithium-ion battery plant in the United States capable of producing up to 500,000 lithium-ion vehicle batteries per year
by 2020. The plant was expected to be vertically integrated, capable of producing finished battery packs directly from
raw materials.
World Mine Production and Reserves: The reserves estimates for Australia and Brazil have been revised based on
new information from Government and industry sources.
United States
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Chile
China
Portugal
Zimbabwe
World total (rounded)
Mine production
e
2013
2014
870
W
2,500
2,900
12,700
13,000
400
400
11,200
12,900
4,700
5,000
570
570
1,000
1,000
6
34,000
36,000
Reserves
38,000
850,000
1,500,000
48,000
7,500,000
3,500,000
60,000
23,000
13,500,000
World Resources: Identified lithium resources in the United States total 5.5 million tons and approximately 34 million
tons in other countries. Identified lithium resources for Bolivia and Chile are 9 million tons and more than 7.5 million
tons, respectively. Identified lithium resources for major producing countries are: Argentina, 6.5 million tons; Australia,
1.7 million tons; and China, 5.4 million tons. In addition, Canada, Congo (Kinshasa), Russia, and Serbia have
resources of approximately 1 million tons each. Identified lithium resources for Brazil total 180,000 tons.
Substitutes: Substitution for lithium compounds is possible in batteries, ceramics, greases, and manufactured glass.
Examples are calcium and aluminum soaps as substitutes for stearates in greases; calcium, magnesium, mercury,
and zinc as anode material in primary batteries; and sodic and potassic fluxes in ceramics and glass manufacture.
Lithium carbonate is not considered to be an essential ingredient in aluminum potlines. Substitutes for aluminumlithium alloys in structural materials are composite materials consisting of boron, glass, or polymer fibers in resins.
e
Estimated. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Source: Rockwood Holdings, Inc., 2013 annual report: Princeton, NJ, Rockwood Holdings, Inc., p. 16.
2
Rounded to one significant figure to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
3
Source: Industrial Minerals, IM prices: Lithium carbonate, large contracts, delivered continental United States, annual average.
4
Defined as imports exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
5
See Appendix C for resource/reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.
6
Excludes U.S. production.
1
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2015

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94

Normal Trade Relations

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Estimated. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2015

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