2007 Minerals Yearbook

LITHIUM

U.S. Department of the Interior May 2010

U.S. Geological Survey
 LITHIUM
By Brian W. Jaskula
Domestic survey data and tables were prepared by Susan M. Weaver, statistical assistant, and the world production table
was prepared by Lisa D. Miller, international data coordinator.

In 2007, lithium consumption in the United States was NC. Chemetall Foote’s subsidiary in Chile, Sociedad Chilena de
estimated to be 2,200 metric tons (t) of contained lithium, Litio Ltda. produces lithium carbonate from a brine deposit.
12% less than the estimates for 2006 and 2005. Decreased FMC Corp.’s Lithium Division produced a full range of
U.S. consumption was likely the result of the tight worldwide downstream compounds, lithium metal, and organic lithium
supply of lithium during the first half of 2007. Increased compounds at its facilities in Bessemer City, NC, and Bayport,
demand for lithium from foreign battery manufactures further TX. FMC met its lithium carbonate requirements with material
reduced material available for U.S. consumption. Lithium produced at its Argentine operation. FMC’s long-term contract
carbonate consumed and used as a raw material for other lithium with Chilean producer Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile
compounds in the United States was produced at a domestic S.A. (SQM) to supply FMC with lithium carbonate was thought
brine operation in Nevada and was imported from Argentina and to have expired in mid-2007 (Sociedad Química y Minera de
Chile. Chile S.A., 2007; Evans, 2008). FMC also produced lithium
Chile has been the world’s leading producer of lithium chloride in Argentina in 2007.
carbonate since 1997, the year that it first surpassed the Western Lithium Corp. (a proposed subsidiary of Canada-
United States in production. Production in Chile was from two based Western Uranium Corp.) tested composite core drill
lithium brine operations on the Salar de Atacama in the Andes samples of lithium-rich hectorite clay at its Kings Valley
Mountains. Concentrated brines were processed at two lithium location in Nevada. Based on previous exploration of the area
carbonate plants in Antofagasta. In the United States, production performed by Chevron Resources Co. in the 1980s, Western
continued at a lithium brine operation with an associated lithium Lithium Corp. estimated that 25 billion pounds of total lithium
carbonate plant in Nevada. Lithium carbonate and lithium carbonate resources was available (Western Uranium Corp.,
chloride also were produced from brines from the Salar del 2008).
Hombre Muerto in the Andes Mountains in Argentina. In China,
lithium carbonate was produced from brines from the Zabayu Consumption
Salt Lake in western Tibet and the Taijinaier Salt Lake in
Qinghai Province. Details on the sources of other production in Lithium is sold as brines, compounds, metal, or
China were not available. mineral concentrates depending on the end use. Lithium’s
Australia was, by far, the leading producer of lithium electrochemical reactivity and other unique properties have
concentrates, and Brazil, Canada, Portugal, and Zimbabwe resulted in many commercial lithium products. For many years,
also produced significant quantities. A large percentage of the the majority of lithium compounds and minerals were used
lithium carbonate produced in South America was exported to in the production of ceramics, glass, and primary aluminum.
the United States for consumption in industrial applications Growth in lithium battery use and decreased use of lithium
and as feed material for the production of downstream lithium in aluminum production has resulted in batteries gaining
compounds, such as lithium hydroxide monohydrate, lithium market share. In 2007, batteries became the leading end use
metal, and organic lithium compounds. for lithium for the first time. SQM listed the main markets for
lithium as follows—batteries, 25%; ceramics and glass, 18%;
Production lubricating greases, 12%; pharmaceuticals and polymers, 7%;
air conditioning, 6%; primary aluminum production, 4%;
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) collects domestic continuous casting, 3%; chemical processing, 3%; and other
production data for lithium from a voluntary canvass of uses, 22% (Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A., 2008a,
U.S. operations. The single U.S. lithium carbonate producer, p. 37). The “other uses” category represents several smaller
Chemetall Foote Corp. (a subsidiary of the German company end uses including alloys, construction, dyestuffs, industrial
Chemetall GmbH, which is owned by Rockwood Holdings, Inc., bleaching and sanitation, pool chemicals, and specialty
of Princeton, NJ) responded to the survey, representing 100% of inorganics (FMC Corp., 2008a). These figures represent global
total production. Production and stock data were withheld from markets; domestic end uses for lithium materials may not
publication to avoid disclosing company proprietary data directly correspond to worldwide consumption, but the data
(table 1). necessary for making more reliable estimates were not available.
Chemetall Foote produced lithium carbonate from brines The recent decline in lithium consumption can be attributed
near Silver Peak, NV. The company’s other U.S. lithium to decreased consumption in most end uses owing to tight
operations included a lithium hydroxide plant in Silver Peak; a lithium supply and increased consumption by foreign battery
butyllithium plant in New Johnsonville, TN; and facilities for manufacturers. If lithium concentrates are included in lithium
producing downstream lithium compounds in Kings Mountain, consumption estimates, the leading use of lithium in the United

LITHIUM—2007 44.1
States may be in ceramics and glass manufacturing processes. the second half of 2007 when Chinese producers increased their
No lithium concentrates were produced in the United States production and released excess inventory of spodumene-based
for direct application in ceramics and glass manufacture, and lithium carbonate, thereby easing some of the supply tightness
import statistics do not specifically identify lithium ore imports, (FMC Corp., 2008b; Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile
making it difficult to determine definitive end-use estimates. The S.A., 2008b). Lithium hydroxide was reported to have reached
production of ceramics and glass was the only commercial use $10,000 per ton (Admiralty Resources NL, 2008a, p. 22).
for lithium mineral concentrates.
Most lithium batteries were manufactured in Asia. Many Foreign Trade
major battery manufacturers marketed some type of lithium
battery, exploiting the many advantages of lithium batteries In 2007, total exports of lithium compounds from the United
compared with older battery technologies. Battery experts States decreased 3% compared with those of 2006. About 60%
have been working to develop lithium batteries for decades of all U.S. exports of lithium compounds went to Germany and
because lithium’s natural properties make it the most attractive Japan. The remainder was divided among many other countries
battery material of all the elements. Lithium battery production (table 2).
represented 66% of the total rechargeable battery market Imports of lithium compounds decreased by 9% in 2007 from
worldwide, and growth was expected to continue (Rockwood those of 2006. Of the 16,000 t of lithium compounds imported,
Holdings, Inc., 2007, p. 100). Worldwide, rechargeable lithium 59% of lithium chemical imports came from Chile, 38% came
batteries power more than 60% of cellular telephones and 90% from Argentina, and 3% from other countries (table 3). Lithium
of laptop computers (FMC Corp., 2008a). Several automakers concentrates from Australia, Canada, and Zimbabwe may have
were working on lithium batteries for hybrid electric vehicles entered the United States, but because these materials have no
(HEVs). unique import code, no import data were available.
The use of lithium in primary aluminum production decreased
steadily from 2000 to 2006 in the United States, as domestic World Review
aluminum production declined. In 2007, however, domestic
aluminum production and lithium consumption in that end use A small number of countries throughout the world produced
increased considerably when idle aluminum smelters were lithium concentrates and brine. Argentina, Chile, China, and the
restarted (Bray, 2008). United States were the leading producers of lithium carbonate.
An explanation of additional lithium end uses may be found Significant quantities of lithium compounds and concentrates
in the lithium chapter of the 2006 U.S. Geological Survey also were produced in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada,
Minerals Yearbook, volume I, Metals and minerals. Portugal, Russia, and Zimbabwe. Congo (Kinshasa), Namibia,
Rwanda, and South Africa have produced concentrates in the
Prices past. A spodumene mining operation was under development
in Finland. Production figures for lithium carbonate, lithium
In recent years, customs values for lithium carbonate imports chloride, and lithium mineral concentrates are listed in table
to the United States seemed to be a good indication of the trends 4. Pegmatites containing lithium minerals have been identified
in lithium pricing, although they never exactly reflected the in Afghanistan, Austria, France, India, Ireland, Mozambique,
producers’ prices for lithium carbonate. Import data indicated Spain, Sweden, and Zaire, but economic conditions have
that lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide prices increased not favored development of the deposits. Lithium has been
significantly in 2007. The average customs unit value for identified in subsurface brines in Bolivia, China, and Israel.
imported lithium carbonate, calculated by dividing the total Companies in France, Germany, Japan, the Republic of Korea,
value of imports by the total kilograms, was $3.45 per kilogram, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom produced downstream lithium
about 49% higher than in 2006, a result of increased global compounds from imported lithium carbonate.
demand, especially for lithium batteries. The average unit value Total world lithium market consumption was estimated to
of exported lithium carbonate was 37% higher than in 2006 and be 16,300 t of lithium contained in minerals and compounds in
more than 31% higher than the average unit value of imported 2007, based on estimated growth of 4% per year since 2005,
carbonate. This suggests that the material exported from the the latest year for which this type of information was available
United States was higher quality lithium carbonate than what (Roskill Information Services Ltd., 2006, p. 89). Using earlier
was imported. information that estimated the lithium chemical market as
Admiralty Resources NL (Melbourne, Australia), which about 80% of the entire lithium consumption, an estimated
was developing a second lithium brine operation in Argentina, 13,000 t was consumed in chemicals and the remainder as
reported that the price of lithium carbonate increased to $6,000 mineral concentrates in the ceramics and glass industry in 2007
per metric ton in 2007 from $5,500 per ton in 2006 as a result (Ebensperger and others, 2005). SQM estimated total lithium
of increased demand for lithium use in batteries (Admiralty market consumption for 2007 to be 17,500 t, with a compound
Resources NL, 2007, p. 32). Established producers were unable annual growth rate of 7.5% for the past 10 years (Sociedad
to entirely satisfy the expanded demand, causing the escalation Quimica y Minera de Chile S.A., 2008a, p. 34).
of lithium carbonate prices. Japan reported lithium carbonate Argentina.—FMC has been operating its Argentine
import prices near $7,000 per ton during the first quarter of 2007 facility at the Salar de Hombre Muerto since 1998. It was
(Roskill’s Letters from Japan, 2007). Prices decreased during designed to produce about 12,000 metric tons per year (t/yr)

44.2 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2007

of lithium carbonate and about 5,500 t/yr of lithium chloride Corp. completed a 12-hole diamond drilling program at a
(North American Mineral News, 1998). Lithium chloride pegmatite deposit near Moblan, Quebec. The company was
capacity expanded to 7,250 t/yr in 2003 (Minera-Net, 2003). exploring the possibility of producing spodumene and other
Production of both compounds reached record levels in 2007. minerals for use in the ceramics and glass industry. Their next
Lithium chloride production has exceeded capacity since steps include assaying the core, finalizing a resource estimate,
2005, indicating that perhaps a further expansion was made to and investigating market opportunities (GlobeStar Mining
lithium chloride capacity to reach about 8,500 t/yr. Although Corp., 2008, p. 12).
lithium carbonate production remained below design capacity, Chile.—SQM reported strong revenues from its lithium
production has increased steadily since 2002 when production products as a result of higher prices in 2007. Sales volume was
was first reported, and was estimated to be about 8,500 t in 6% lower than in 2006, at 28,600 t, but the value of sales was
2007. up by 39% to $179.8 million as a result of increased prices. The
Work at Admiralty Resources’ lithium brine project at company reported that its share of the world lithium carbonate
the Salar del Rincón in Salta Province progressed. In 2007, market is 31%. (Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A.,
the company made substantial progress in development of a 2008a, p. 34, 49). The company’s expansion of its lithium
process to recover high-grade lithium carbonate with reduced carbonate capacity to 42,000 t/yr was expected to be completed
evaporation lead times, and completion of the hydrologic study in mid-2008 (Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A., 2008c).
of the salar to better understand its porosity and transmissibility Based on Chemetall Foote’s previously published capacity
characteristics (Admiralty Resources NL, 2008a, p. 11; 2008d). data and an approximated capacity expansion in 2006 and
At yearend 2007, construction of Admiralty’s pilot plant was 2007, current lithium carbonate capacity for Chemetall’s
completed and put into active service, with the first unrefined plant in Antofagasta was estimated to be 23,000 t/yr (Roskill
lithium carbonate produced in January 2008. Four pilot Information Services Ltd., 2006, p. 42; Seeking Alpha, 2008).
evaporation ponds were filled, and continuous production of The capacity was expected to increase an additional 20% by
10 t per month of lithium carbonate was expected to begin in 2008-09 (Moores, 2007). The plant used this lithium carbonate
April 2008. Full plant production was scheduled for mid-2009 as feedstock for some of its downstream chemical production
(Admiralty Resources NL, 2008b; 2008c). At full capacity, in the United States and supplied the operations of Chemetall in
Admiralty was designed to produce 10,000 t lithium carbonate, Germany and Taiwan (Chemetall GmbH, undated).
4,000 t lithium hydroxide, and 3,000 t lithium chloride. China.—China is the only country that continued to produce
Admiralty announced a plan to spin off its Salar del Rincón large quantities of lithium carbonate from spodumene. China
lithium operation into a separate, wholly owned entity, Rincón Xinjuang Nonferrous Metals Corporation of Mingyaun
Lithium Ltd. The transaction was scheduled for April 2008 (Jiangsu Province) produced lithium carbonate from domestic
(Industrial Minerals, 2007; Admiralty Resources NL, 2008c). and imported Australian ore (Ebensperger and others, 2005).
Australia.—In 2007, the assets of Sons of Gwalia Ltd.’s Additional lithium carbonate was imported into China from
Advanced Minerals Division were sold to a consortium of Chile. Lithium brines were thought to be the largest lithium
investors led by mining specialist Resource Capital Fund L.P. resources in China, containing 80% of the country’s reserves
(RCF). The new company formed to operate the Greenbushes (Crossley, 2003).
spodumene mine was Talison Minerals Pty, Ltd. About 60% of The Tibet Lithium New Technology Development Co. began
the world’s supply of lithium minerals was produced by Talison operating a 5,000-t/yr lithium carbonate plant at the Zabayu
in 2007. The company reported that its deposit is the largest Salt Lake in western Tibet in 2005. Capacity was expected
spodumene deposit in the world (Department of Industry and to eventually increase to 20,000 t/yr. CITIC Guoan Lithium
Resources, 2007, p. 37). Throughout the company restructuring Science & Technology Co., Ltd.’s 35,000-t/yr lithium carbonate
process, spodumene production continued at record pace. plant was brought online in 2007 at the Taijinaier Salt Lake in
Spodumene concentrates were sold worldwide for consumption Qinghai Province. It was the largest lithium carbonate plant in
in ceramics and glass and were exported to China, where it is China (Tahil, 2007, p. 10, 13). The Qinghai Salt Lake Industry
used in glass and as a raw material for the production of lithium Group Co., Ltd. began construction of a 10,000-t/yr lithium
carbonate. To help fill the lithium carbonate supply gap in 2007, carbonate project in the Chahar Salt Lake zone in Qinghai
Talison and other spodumene producers operated at or close to Province. The project was expected to come online in early
capacity to supply Chinese lithium carbonate producers with 2008 (Free Library, The, 2007).
spodumene (Talison Minerals Pty, Ltd., 2007). Finland.—Norwegian mining company Nordic Mining ASA
Canada.—Tantalum Mining Corp. of Canada Ltd. (a purchased a controlling stake in Finnish spodumene mining
subsidiary of Hudson Bay Mining Co.) has operated a company Keliber Oy. The company received an environmental
spodumene mine and concentrating plant at Bernic Lake, permit to produce 6,000 t/yr of lithium carbonate. Keliber
Manitoba, on a commercial scale since 1986. Having worked planned to begin construction of the processing plant in the
toward developing the Separation Rapids petalite deposit spring of 2008, and lithium carbonate production was scheduled
near Kenora, Ontario, since 1998, Avalon Ventures Ltd., to begin in early 2010. Keliber would be the first European
in 2007, began investigating the possibility of applying producer of lithium carbonate from domestic ore (Metals Place,
hydrometallurgical extraction technology to recover a lithium 2008; Keliber Oy, undated).
product suitable for the lithium ion battery market (Avalon
Ventures Ltd., 2007). In December 2007, GlobeStar Mining

LITHIUM—2007 44.3
Outlook Major automobile manufacturers have also formed partnerships
with established Japanese electronics manufacturers to build
Although traditional markets are still important to the lithium hybrid battery plants and begin mass production of lithium-ion
industry, batteries have rapidly gained in importance. Batteries batteries as early as 2009. In addition, interest was increasing
are currently, for the first time, the major market for lithium in plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) that would have a greater
materials of all kinds. pure-electric driving range, meaning that the batteries would be
The global market for lithium batteries has been increasing by significantly larger than those in the HEVs that were operating
more than 20% per year in the last few years. Lithium-ion and in 2007.
lithium-polymer batteries appear to have the greatest potential Several automobile manufacturers have developed hybrid fuel
for growth. The world market for these rechargeable batteries cell powered vehicles using lithium-ion batteries and hydrogen
was estimated to be $5.2 billion in 2007 (Klein, 2007, p. 4). fuel cells. The vehicles are powered directly by a lithium
Other lithium markets are increasing also, but at lower rates than battery, which is recharged by the fuel cells when needed. It
batteries. Lithium producers had diverse opinions on what other is anticipated that this lithium hybrid approach will reduce
areas offer the most potential for growth. One producer reported the size, weight, cost, and complexity of a conventional fuel
growth in construction uses, especially in fast-setting concrete. cell-only system by approximately 50%, as well as double the
Another company experienced its largest growth in the use of lifetime of the fuel cell stack (Ford Motor Company, 2007).
organic lithium compounds used as pharmaceutical catalysts. The use of lithium-ion batteries in HEVs and PHEVs could
Lithium bromide consumption for air conditioning was greatly increase demand for lithium. As demand and prices rise,
reported to be increasing by some producers, but on the decline, spodumene and other lithium resources that had been considered
especially in the United States, by another. Better estimates of uneconomic might once again yield economically feasible raw
actual markets were not possible because details that closely materials for the production of lithium carbonate.
define these markets were not publicly available.
Research in nanotechnology, the understanding and control References Cited
of matter at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers, has
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Australia, Admiralty Resources NL, November, 40 p. (Accessed
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output power, lifespan, and stability, while decreasing the time Admiralty Resources NL, 70 p.
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Honda Motor Co., Ltd. and Toyota Motor Corp., that have 59 p.
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April 24, 2008, at http://www.fmclithium.com.)
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44.4 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2007

Ford Motor Co., 2007, Ford unveils world’s first drivable fuel cell hybrid seekingalpha.com/article/65222-rockwood-holdings-inc-q4-2007-earnings-
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LITHIUM—2007 44.5
 TABLE 1
SALIENT LITHIUM STATISTICS1

(Metric tons of contained lithium)

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

United States:
Production W W W W W
Exports2 1,520 1,690 1,720 1,500 1,440
Imports2 2,200 2,910 3,580 3,260 2,970
Consumption, estimated 1,400 1,900 2,500 2,500 2,200
r
Rest of world, production3 17,200 r 18,400 r 21,500 r
24,400 25,800
r
Revised. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
1
Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits.
2
Compounds. Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
3
Mineral concentrate and lithium carbonate.

44.6 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2007

 TABLE 2
U.S. EXPORTS OF LITHIUM CHEMICALS, BY COMPOUND AND COUNTRY1

2006 2007
Gross weight Value2 Gross weight Value2
Compound and country (metric tons) (thousands) (metric tons) (thousands)
Lithium carbonate:
Canada 57 $212 161 $593
China 60 215 1 3
Germany 956 2,910 972 3,290
India 10 47 54 295
Japan 1,310 4,440 790 4,440
Korea, Republic of 45 222 59 463
Malaysia 76 257 114 640
Netherlands 194 543 73 289
United Kingdom 320 1,060 75 428
r r
Other 66 324 96 429
Total 3,100 10,200 2,400 10,900
Lithium carbonate, U.S.P.:3
Argentina -- -- 36 22
China 17 56 -- --
Saudi Arabia -- -- 13 38
United Kingdom 2 32 94 536
Other 12 r 201 r 11 275
Total 31 r 289 r 154 871
Lithium hydroxide:
Argentina 91 456 140 1,520
Australia 68 353 54 406
Canada 189 774 259 1,060
China 55 300 118 746
Colombia 79 438 129 934
Egypt 80 407 102 674
Germany 1,040 3,720 904 4,470
Hong Kong -- -- 100 540
India 91 684 10 71
Japan 1,990 11,300 2,340 17,000
Korea, Republic of 263 1,470 313 2,490
Mexico 67 421 75 607
Netherlands 196 774 226 1,110
Russia 424 1,950 378 2,460
Saudi Arabia 56 225 15 70
South Africa 125 1,000 79 823
Sweden 131 506 48 182
Thailand 231 1,290 187 1,210
United Kingdom 116 398 205 2,650
Venezuela 64 263 17 146
r
Other 179 1,110 r 140 1,540
Total 5,540 27,900 5,840 40,700
r
Revised. -- Zero.
1
Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Free alongside ship values.
3
Pharmaceutical-grade lithium carbonate.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

LITHIUM—2007 44.7
 TABLE 3
U.S. IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION OF LITHIUM CHEMICALS BY COMPOUND AND COUNTRY1

2006 2007
Gross weight Value2 Gross weight Value2
Compound and country (metric tons) (thousands) (metric tons) (thousands)
Lithium carbonate:
Argentina 6,540 $19,100 6,100 $23,300
Chile 9,840 18,700 8,510 27,100
Other 94 292 r 36 170
Total 16,500 38,200 14,600 50,600
Lithium hydroxide:
Belgium 2 4 13 302
Chile 591 3,650 865 5,560
China 49 305 296 1,320
Germany 24 316 5 46
India 265 1,510 75 596
Norway 49 94 13 26
Romania -- -- 16 45
United Kingdom 11 62 25 139
Other 8 105 r (3) 12
r
Total 999 6,040 1,310 8,050
r
Revised. -- Zero.
1
Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Customs value.
3
Less than ½ unit.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

TABLE 4
LITHIUM MINERALS AND BRINE: WORLD PRODUCTION, BY COUNTRY1, 2

(Metric tons)

Country3 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007e

4
Argentina:
e r
Lithium carbonate 2,850 4,970 7,300 8,240 8,500
e r
Lithium chloride 4,700 6,303 8,400 8,320 8,500
r
Australia, spodumene 124,410 118,451 173,635 222,101 220,000
r r r r
Brazil, concentrates 9,755 9,084 8,924 8,950 9,000
Canada, spodumenee, 5 22,500 22,500 22,500 22,500 22,500
Chile:4
Lithim carbonate from subsurface brine 41,667 43,971 43,595 50,035 r 55,500
Lithium chloride -- 494 681 1,166 4,200
China, carbonate e 13,500 14,000 15,000 15,000 16,000
Portugal, lepidolite 24,606 r 28,696 r 26,185 r 28,497 r 28,500
6 r r r
Russia, minerals not specified -- -- -- -- r --
United States, subsurface brine W W W W W
Zimbabwe, amblygonite, eucryptite, lepidolite, petalite, and spodumene 12,131 13,710 37,499 30,000 15,000
e
Estimated rRevised. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. -- Zero.
1
Table includes data available through April 23, 2008.
2
Estimated data are rounded to no more than three significant digits.
3
In addition to the countries listed, other nations may produce small quantities of lithium minerals, but output is not reported, and no valid basis is
available for estimating production levels.
4
New information was available from Argentine and Chilean sources, prompting major revisions in how lithium production was reported.
5
Based on all Canada’s spodumene concentrates (Tantalum Mining Corp. of Canada Ltd.’s Tanco property).
6
Based on new information from a Russian source, Lithium production was discontinued in Russia during the early 1990s. Other countries from the
Commonwealth of Independent States, including Uzbekistan, could have produced or could be producing lithium, but information is not available for
estimating production levels.

44.8 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2007