11

: 2,3 '
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2. B A S I C T H E O R E T I C A L N O T I O N S
We need to represent pulse code modulated ( PCM ) binary digits by means of electrical pulses in
order to transmit them through a baseband channel.
Digital data as baseband signals can be represented in a number of ways, which differ primarily in
the levels, and the waveforms used. Figure 1.1 illustrates the most commonly used pulse code
modulated (PCM) signals. The various waveforms can be classified into following groups:
1. Non return to zero (NRZ)
2. Return to zero (RZ)
3. Phase encoded
4. Multilevel binary

Figure 1.1 Pulse code modulated signals

The NRZ group is the most commonly used PCM waveforms. It can be partitioned into following
subgroups: NRZ-L (L for level), NRZ-M (M for mark), NRZ-S (S for space).

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NRZ-L is used extensively in digital logic. A binary one is represented by one level and a binary
zero is represented by another level. The level changes whenever the data changes from one to
zero or from zero to one. Any change in level occurs at the positive transition of clock-signal.
With NRZ-M, the one, or mark, is represented by a change in level, and the zero, or space, is
represented by no change in level. NRZ-M is used primarily in magnetic tape recording. NRZ-S is the
complement of NRZ-M : a one is represented by no change in level, and a zero is represented by a
change in level.
Figure 1.2 illustrates a circuit to decoding NRZ-L waveforms.
input signal

NRZ waveform

data
D-flip-flop

receiver
clock

clock

Figure 1.2

The RZ waveforms consist of unipolar-RZ, bipoloar-RZ, and RZ-AMI. With unipolar RZ, a half-bitwide pulse represents a one, and a zero is represented by absence of pulse. With bipolar RZ
opposite-level pulses that are one-half-bit wide represent the ones and zeros. There is a pulse
present in each bit interval. RZ-AMI (AMI for alternate mark inversion) is the coding most often used
in telemetry systems. Equal-amplitude alternating pulses represent the ones. The zeros are
represented by absence of pulses.
Gating the basic NRZ-L signal with clock-signal can generate the RZ-L waveforms.
Figure 1.3 illustrates RZ-L waveforms and circuits for coder and decoder.
CLOCK SIGNAL

DATA SIGNAL
0

DATA SEQUENCE

a) RZ waveforms
NRZ in

RZ out

Clock in
b) RZ encoder
RZ in
Data Data

Receiver clock

D Flip-FlopD Flip-Flop

Monostable
multivibrator

Clock Clock

Tb/4
c) RZ decoder
Figure 1.3

NRZ out

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A typical encodes circuit for RZ-AMI and typical waveforms generated during the encoder circuit
operation are shown in Fig. 1.4. The encoder uses a memory element, the JK flip-flop, - to remember
the polarity of the last transmitted one and thereby determine the polarity of the current one.

Figure 1.4 Typical AMI encoding circuit

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Figure 1.4.b AMI coder waveforms

First rectifying, to obtain the equivalent RZ form, and then decoding by means of the RZ decoder
circuit carry out the decoding of AMI waveforms. A typical AMI decoder is shown in Fig.1.5.
RZ waveform
AMI signal

Full-wave
Rectifier

NRZ data

D-flip-flop
Regenerated
Clock

Multivibrator

Clock

Figure 1.5 Typical AMI decoder

The phase-encoded group consists of Bi--L ( bi-phase-level ), which known as Manchester
coding; Bi--M (bi-phase-mark); Bi--S ( bi-phase-space ); and delay modulation (DM), or Miller
coding. The phase-encoding schemes are used in magnetic recording systems and optical
communications and in some satellite telemetry links. With Bi--L, a one is represented by a half-bitwidth pulse positioned during the first half of the bit interval; a half-bit-wide pulse positioned during the
second half of the bit interval represents a zero. With Bi--M, a transition occurs at the beginning of
every bit interval. A one is represented by a second transition one-half-bit interval later; a zero is
represented by no second transition. With Bi--S , a transitions also occur at the beginning of every bit
interval. A one is represented by no second transition; a zero is represented by a second transition
one-half-bit interval later. With Delay modulation, a one is represented by a transition at the midpoint

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of the bit interval. A zero is represented by no transition, unless it is followed by another zero. In
this case, a transition is placed at the end of bit interval of the first zero.
A typical encoder/decoder circuit is shown in Fig. 1.6.
clock signal
data sequence 1

data signal
a) Bi-phase waveforms
data input

output

clock input
b) Be-phase encoder / dec

oder

Figure 1.6 Bi-phase codin

Some of waveforms use three levels to encode the binary data. Bipolar RZ and RZ-AMI belong to this
group. The group also contains formats called Dicode and Duobinary. With Dicode-NRZ , the oneto zero or zero-to one data transition changes the pulse polarity; without a data transition, the zero
level is sent. With Dicode-RZ, the one-to zero or zero-to-one transition produces a half-duration
polarity change; otherwise, a zero level is sent. Three-level duobinary signaling will be learned in next
laboratory work.
A way to reduce bandwidth is to use multilevel signaling. Consider a binary PCM bit stream with
data rate R bits per second. Instead of transmitting a pulse waveforms for each bit, we first partition the
data into k-bit group. We then use M 2 k -level pulses for transmission. Each pulse waveforms can
now represent a k-bit symbol in a symbol stream of rate R/k symbols per second.
As an example, let us analyze a four-level system (Fig.1.7). The transmitter consist of a shift register, in
this case having one stage, followed by an encoder, which encodes two bits at a time (the bit stored in
the shift register and the bit presently applied to the transmitter input). The encoder outputs symbols
with duration of two input bit intervals; therefore the output symbol rate is half the input bit rate. Note
that the information transfer rate remains constant. Transmitter imposes a delay of one bit between
input and output sequences.
The receiver decodes the received sequence by detecting the voltage range occupied by incoming
signal at the sampling instant, and generating a two-bit word which corresponds to the symbol whose
nominal level is contained in the previously mentioned voltage range. These voltage ranges can be
identified in Figure 1.7, waveforms D.

A
Clock

Divider (:2)
C

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One-bit
shift
register

Input
Sequence
(NRZ)

D
Encoder

to transmission
channel

1) Transmitter block diagram

Data

B
C
(11)
D
(10)
(01)
(00)
b) Typical waveforms
Figure 1.7 multilevel signaling
The common criteria used for comparing PCM waveforms and for selecting one waveforms type from
many available are:
1. DC component. Eliminating the dc energy from the signals power spectrum enables the system
to be ac coupled. Magnetic recording systems, or systems using transformer coupling, has little
sensitivity to very low frequency signal components. Thus low-frequency information could be
lost.
2. Self - Clocking. Symbol or bit synchronization is required for any digital communication system.
Some PCM coding schemes have inherent synchronizing or clocking features that aid in the
recovery of clock- signal. For example, the Manchester code has a transition in the middle of
every bit interval whether a one or a zero is being sent.
3. Error detection. Some schemes, such as duobinary, provide the means of detecting data error
without introducing additional error- detection bits into the data sequence.
4. Bandwidth compression. Some schemes, such as multilevel codes, increase the efficiency of
bandwidth utilization by allowing a reduction in required bandwidth for a given data rate.
5.
Differential encoding. This technique is useful because it allows the polarity of differentially
encoded waveforms to be inverted without affecting the data detection. In communication
systems where waveforms sometimes experience inversion, this is a great advantage.

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6.

Noise immunity. The various PCM waveform types can be characterized by probability of bit
error versus signal-to-noise ratio. Some of the schemes are more immune than other to noise. For
example, the NRZ waveforms have better error performance than does the unipolar RZ
waveforms.

The important characteristic of signal is spectral characteristic. The spectral characteristic of PCM
waveforms establishes the required system bandwidth and indicates how efficiently the bandwidth is
being used. Figure 1.8 shows the spectral characteristics of some of the most popular PCM waveforms.
The figure plots power spectral density in watts/hertz versus normalized bandwidth (frequency times
pulse width).

3. E X P E R I M E N T A L W O R K
NRZ code, RZ code, AMI code, Bi--code, multilevel coding
3.1 Familiarization with pseudo-random sequence generator

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.
1.

Select a data rate of 8 kb/sec, with sequence length of 2 4 -1.

b. Connect channel 1 of oscilloscope to the DATA OUT of the data generator and channel 2 to the 8
kHz CLOCK AND CARRIER output. Connect the external trigger input of the oscilloscope to the
SYNC OUT. Adjust the trigger controls to obtain a stable, clear display. Draw timing diagrams of
data sequence and clock signal, record bit sequence.
3. Repeat steps a. and b. and observe form of data sequence for data rate from 16 to 64 kb/sec.
Note that clock signal must be matching to data rate.
4.

Set data rate of 16 kb/sec with sequence length of 2 8 -1. Observe the form of data sequence.
The longer sequence can be conveniently examined by expanding the horizontal display.

3.2 NRZ (non return to zero) CODE

Pseudo-random sequence generator generates data sequence in NRZ form ( NRZ-encoded).
A basic characteristics of data sequence represented by baseband codes are: duration and shape of
signal which represents one or zero, number of signals levels, average of DC component, number
of transitions. In addition, to select baseband code we must pay attention to communication reliability
and equipment complexity.
CODE CHARACTERISTICS
a. Select a data rate of 16 kb/sec.
2. Use the oscilloscope to observe the phase relationship between the 16 kHz clock signal and NRZencoded signal.
c. Measure the average DC component accompanying the data signal for both the 2 4 -1 and 2 8 -1
sequences.
NRZ REGENERATION
a. Connect the data signal with data rate of 8 kb/sec to the DATA IN of NRZ regenerator and 8 kHz
clock signal to CK IN of NRZ regenerator.
b. Compare the data waveforms appearing at the NRZ OUT of regenerator with the original data
sequence.
3. Connect the data signal (DATA OUT of data generator) to DATA IN of BASEBAND LOWPASS
FILTER, than connect the DATA OUT of low-pass filter to DATA IN of NRZ regenerator.
Observe and draw timing diagrams for all connection points on the pass of signal (from source of
data sequence to output of regenerator). Pay attention on phase relations.
d. Repeat step c. for data rate from 16 to 64 kb/sec. Pay attention on output signal of low pass
filter, which imitates a communication channel. Draw timing diagrams.

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e. Select the data rate of 8 kb/sec. Turn switch of noise generator to on. Set level of noise by
means of potentiometer equal to 0.5 V rms. Observe timing diagrams on pass of signal.
6.

Repeat step e. for data rate from 16 to 64 kb/sec.

g. Set level of noise equal to 1.5-2 V rms and repeat steps e. and f.
To obtain proper regeneration, it may be necessary to use clock-signal inversed by phase.
1.1.

RZ (return to zero) code

CODE CHARACTERISTICS
1.

Select a data rate of 8 kb/sec.

2.

Connect the data signal to NRZ IN of the RZ encoder and appropriated clock-signal to CK
IN of RZ encoder.

3. Use the oscilloscope to compare the NRZ and RZ waveforms, draw timing diagrams.
d. Measure the average DC component of RZ encoded sequence.
RZ DECODING
1. Assemble the setup shown in Fig. 1.9
2.

Select a data rate of 8 kb/sec.

c. Observe waveforms on pass of signal from data generator to output of RZ/NRZ

regenerator. Draw waveforms.
d. Repeat step c. for data rate from 16 to 64 kb/sec. Pay attention on output signal of lowpass filter and to phase relations between signal from source and output signal of regenerator.
5.

Data

Turn switch of noise generator to on. Observe influence of noise on waveforms at all
points of signal pass.

NRZ

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Generator
(data out)

RZ
encoder

Baseband
Low pass
Filter

clock

RZ / NRZ
Regenerator

NRZ
f
Clock &
Carrier
Generator

90

Phase
Shifter

2f
Figure 1.9. RZ coding and decoding
Data
Generator
NRZ
(data out)

Clock
and
Carrier
Generator

90

Phase
Shifter

2f
Figure 1.10 AMI encoder
Attention! The clock frequency must be equal to bit rate.

1.2.

AMI (alternate mark inversion) code

CODE CHARACTERISTICS

Clock

AMI
Encoder

AMI

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1.

Select a data rate of 8 kb/sec

2.

Assemble the setup shown in Fig.1.10

c. Check the operation of the 90 0 phase shifter (Unit DIGICOM I / I ). Draw the
corresponding timing diagram.
4.

Use the oscilloscope to compare the NRZ and AMI waveforms, draw timing diagram.

5.

Measure the average DC component of AMI encoded sequence.

AMI DECODING
1.

Select a data rate of 16 kb/sec.

2.

Put the AMI-encoded sequence to AMI IN of the AMI regenerator ( Unit

DIGICOM I/2). Connect the CK IN of regenerator to 16 kHz output of clock and
carrier generator (put clock signal of negative polarity. It is marked by 16 ).
Draw timing diagram, showing the waveforms at all interconnection points on the
pass of signal from the signal source to output of regenerator.

3.

3.5 BI-PHASE (Manchester I I ) CODE

CODE CHARACTERISTICS
a. Select a data rate of 8 kb/sec.
2.

Connect the data signal to NRZ IN of the bi-phase encoder (contained on unit
DIGICOM I / I.). Put clock signal to CK IN of the bi phase encoder.

3.

Compare the NRZ and bi-phase waveforms, draw timing diagrams.

4.

Measure the average DC component of BI-PHASE encoded sequence.

BI - PHASE DECODING
1.

Connect the BI- IN(put) of decoder to the output of the encoder. Connect
appropriate clock signal to CK IN(put) of decoder.

2.

Draw timing diagrams of NRZ-sequence from source, sequence of clock-signals, BI encoded sequence, BI- decoded sequence. Pay attention on phase relations.

3.6 MULTI-LEVEL BASEBAND CODE

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FOUR-LEVEL ENCODER
Select a data rate of 16 kb/sec and a sequence length of 2 4 -1 bits.
1.
1.

1.

Connect DATA OUT of data generator to DATA IN of four-level encoder contained

on unit DIGICOM-1 / 3. Connect 16 kHz clock-signal to CK IN of encoder.
Use the oscilloscope to compare the NRZ and the four- level waveforms. Draw
timing diagram of NRZ and FOUR -LEVEL encoding sequences. Pay special
attention to the average time between the zero crossing of four-level waveforms. For
comparison we needs in twice time of NRZ sequence.
Measure the average DC component of the four-level encoding sequence.

FOUR - LEVEL DECODER

1.
1.

Connect the 4- LEVEL OUT of the encoder to input of the four-level regenerator.
Connect 8 kHz clock signal to the CK/2 IN and 16 kHz clock signal to the CK IN of
regenerator.
Make decoding of the sequence. Put into accordance every level of four level encoded
signals to pair of bits from signal source. Draw timing diagrams. Pay attention to
phase relations.

: ''

Control questions:
1. Principles of baseband coding.
2. Explain what are demands for code elements. Give examples for representation of
binary code elements.
3. NRZ codes. Common properties.
4. NRZ-L code. Frame diagrams of devices which produce coding and decoding.
5. RZ codes. Common properties.
6. Time diagram of RZ-L coded sequence. Frame diagram of devices produced RZ-L
coding and decoding.
7. AMI codes. Common characteristics.
8. Group of phase encoded baseband signals. Common properties.
9. Bi-Phase-L coding. Waveforms, encoder, decoder.
10. Multilevel coding. Common characteristics of multilevel codes.

.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6

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11.
1.

What is criterion to compare a baseband codes.

Compare NRZ, RZ, AMI, BI-PHASE and MULTI-LEVEL codes with regard to
basically characteristics.
1. Analyze the influence of a communication channel without noise (low pass filter)
on the signal waveforms and on decoding.