direct injection

In internal combustion engines, (is a variant of fuel injection employed in modern two- and four-
stroke petrol engines. The petrol/gasoline is highly pressurised, and injected via a common rail
fuel line directly into the combustion chamber of each cylinder, as opposed to conventional
multi-point fuel injection that happens in the intake tract, or cylinder port.

In some applications, gasoline direct injection enables a stratified fuel charge (ultra lean burn)
combustion for improved fuel efficiency, and reduced emission levels at low load.

Contents
 1 Theory of operation
 2 History
o 2.1 Early systems
o 2.2 Later systems
 3 In two-stroke engines
 4 Future
o 4.1 Twin-fuel engines
o 4.2 Formula One
 5 See also
 6 References
 7 External links

Theory of operation
The major advantages of a GDI engine are increased fuel efficiency and high power output. In
addition, the cooling effect of the injected fuel and the more evenly dispersed mixtures allow for
more aggressive ignition timing curves. Emissions levels can also be more accurately controlled
with the GDI system. The cited gains are achieved by the precise control over the amount of fuel
and injection timings which are varied according to the load conditions. In addition, there are no
throttling losses in some GDI engines, when compared to a conventional fuel injected or
carbureted engine, which greatly improves efficiency, and reduces 'pumping losses' in engines
without a throttle plate. Engine speed is controlled by the engine control unit/engine management
system (EMS), which regulates fuel injection function and ignition timing, instead of having a
throttle plate which restricts the incoming air supply. Adding this function to the EMS requires
considerable enhancement of its processing and memory, as direct injection plus the engine
speed management must have very precise algorithms for good performance and driveability.

The engine management system continually chooses among three combustion modes: ultra lean
burn, stoichiometric, and full power output. Each mode is characterized by the air-fuel ratio. The
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for petrol (gasoline) is 14.7:1 by weight, but ultra lean mode can
involve ratios as high as 65:1 (or even higher in some engines, for very limited periods). These
mixtures are much leaner than in a conventional engine and reduce fuel consumption
considerably.

 Ultra lean burn mode is used for light-load running conditions, at constant or reducing
road speeds, where no acceleration is required. The fuel is not injected at the intake
stroke but rather at the latter stages of the compression stroke, so that the small amount of
air-fuel mixture is optimally placed near the spark plug. This stratified charge is
surrounded mostly by air which keeps the fuel and the flame away from the cylinder
walls for lowest emissions and heat losses. The combustion takes place in a toroidal
(donut-shaped) cavity on the piston's surface.[citation needed] This technique enables the use of
ultra-lean mixtures impossible with carburetors or conventional fuel injection.
 Stoichiometric mode is used for moderate load conditions. Fuel is injected during the
intake stroke, creating a homogenous fuel-air mixture in the cylinder. From the
stoichiometric ratio, an optimum burn results in a clean exhaust emission, further cleaned
by the catalytic converter.
 Full power mode is used for rapid acceleration and heavy loads (as when climbing a
hill). The air-fuel mixture is homogenous and the ratio is slightly richer than
stoichiometric, which helps prevent knock (pinging). The fuel is injected during the
intake stroke.

Direct injection may also be accompanied by other engine technologies such as variable valve
timing (VVT) and tuned/multi path or variable length intake manifolding (VLIM, or VIM).
Water injection or (more commonly) exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) may help reduce the high
nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions which can result from burning ultra lean mixtures.

It is also possible to inject more than once during a single cycle. After the first fuel charge has
been ignited, it is possible to add fuel as the piston descends. The benefits are more power and
economy, but certain octane fuels have been seen to cause exhaust valve erosion. For this reason,
most companies have ceased to use the Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) operation during normal
running.

Tuning up an early generation FSI power plant to generate higher power is difficult, since the
only time it is possible to inject fuel is during the induction phase. Conventional injection
engines can inject throughout the 4 stroke sequence, as the injector squirts onto the back of a
closed valve. A direct injection engine, where the injector injects directly into the cylinder, is
limited to the suction stroke of the piston. As the RPM increases, the time available to inject fuel
decreases. Newer FSI systems that have sufficient fuel pressure to inject even late in
compression phase do not suffer to the same extent; however, they still do not inject during the
exhaust cycle (they could but it would just waste fuel). Hence, all other factors being equal, an
FSI engine needs higher-capacity injectors to achieve the same power as a conventional engine.

History
Early systems
The first use of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish
engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925.[1][2] Hesselman engines used the ultra lean burn principle and
injected the fuel in the end of the compression stroke and then ignited it with a spark plug, it was
often started on gasoline and then switched over to run on diesel or kerosene. The hesselman
engine was a low compression design constructed to run on heavy fuel oils.

Direct gasoline injection was used on production aircraft during WWII, with German (Junkers
Jumo 210, Daimler-Benz DB 601, both 1937), Soviet (Shvetsov ASh-82, 1943, Chemical
Automatics Design Bureau - KB Khimavtomatika) and US (Wright R-3350, 1944) designs. The
first automotive direct injection system used to run on gasoline was developed by Bosch, and
was introduced by Goliath and Gutbrod in 1952. The 1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL, the first
sports car to use fuel injection,[citation needed] used direct injection. The Bosch fuel injectors were
placed into the bores on the cylinder wall used by the spark plugs in other Mercedes-Benz six-
cylinder engines (the spark plugs were relocated to the cylinder head). Later, more mainstream
applications of fuel injection favoured less expensive indirect injection methods.

During the late 1970s, the Ford Motor Company developed a stratified-charge engine they called
"ProCo" (programmed combustion),[3][4] utilizing a unique high pressure pump and direct
injectors. One hundred Crown Victoria cars were built at Ford's Atlanta Assembly in Hapeville,
Georgia utilizing a ProCo V8 engine. The project was canceled for several reasons: electronic
controls, a key element, were in their infancy; pump and injector costs were extremely high; and
lean combustion produced nitrogen oxides in excess of near future United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) limits. Also, the three way catalytic converter was proven to be a more
cost effective solution.

Later systems

In 1996 gasoline direct injection reappeared in the automotive market. Mitsubishi was the first
with a GDI engine in the Japanese market with its Galant/Legnum's 4G93 1.8 L inline-four.[5] It
was subsequently brought to Europe in 1997 in the Carisma,[6] although Europe's then high-
sulphur unleaded fuel led to emissions problems, and fuel efficiency was less than expected.[7] It
also developed the first six cylinder GDI powerplant, the 6G74 3.5 L V6, in 1997.[8] Mitsubishi
applied this technology widely, producing over one million GDI engines in four families by
2001.[9]

In 1997 Nissan released the Leopard featuring the VQ30DD equipped with direct injection.[10]

In 1998, Toyota's D4 direct injection system first appeared on various Japanese market vehicles
equipped with the SZ and NZ engines.[11][12][13] Toyota later introduced its D4 system to European
markets with the 1AZ-FSE engine found in the 2001 Avensis.[14] and US markets in 2005 with the
3GR-FSE engine found in the Lexus GS 300. Toyota's 2GR-FSE V6 uses a more advanced direct
injection system, which combines both direct and indirect injection using two fuel injectors per
cylinder, a traditional port fuel injector (low pressure) and a direct fuel injector (high pressure) in
a system known as D4-S.[15]
In 1999, Renault introduced the 2.0 IDE (Injection Direct Essence),[16] first on the Megane.
Rather than following the lean burn approach, Renault's design uses high ratios of exhaust gas
recirculation to improve economy at low engine loads, with direct injection allowing the fuel to
be concentrated around the spark.[17] Later gasoline direct injection engines have been tuned and
marketed for their high performance as well as increased fuel efficiency. PSA Peugeot Citroën,
Hyundai and Volvo licensed Mitsubishi's GDI technology in 1999, with Hyundai building the
first GDI V8.[18][19] Although other companies have since developed gasoline direct injection
engines, the acronym 'GDI' (with an uppercase final "I") remains a registered trademark of
Mitsubishi Motors.[20]

In 2000, the Volkswagen Group introduced its gasoline direct injection engine in the
Volkswagen Lupo, a 1.4 litre inline-four unit, under the product name "Fuel Stratified Injection"
(FSI). The technology was adapted from Audi's Le Mans prototype race car R8. Volkswagen
Group marques use direct injection in its 2.0 L FSI turbocharged and naturally-aspirated four-
cylinder engines. Later, a 2.0 litre inline-four unit was introduced in the model year 2003 Audi
A4. PSA Peugeot Citroën introduced its first GDi (HPi) engine in 2000 in the Citroën C5 and
Peugeot 406. It was a 2.0-liter 16-valve EW10 D unit with 140 hp (104 kW), the system was
licensed from Mitsubishi.[18]

In 2001, Ford introduced its first European Ford engine to use direct injection technology,
badged SCi (Smart Charge injection) for Direct-Injection-Spark-Ignition (DISI).[21] The range
will include some turbocharged derivatives, including the 1.1-litre, three-cylinder turbocharged
unit showcased at the 2002 Geneva Show.[21] This new 1.8-litre Duratec SCi naturally aspirated
engine made its production debut in the Ford Mondeo in 2003.[21]

In 2002, the Alfa Romeo 156 with a direct-injection engine, the JTS (Jet Thrust Stoichiometric)
went on sale[22] and today the technology is used on almost every Alfa Romeo engine.

In 2003, BMW introduced a low-pressure gasoline direct injection N73 V12.[23] This initial
BMW setup could not enter lean-burn mode, but the company introduced its second-generation
High Precision Injection (HPI) system on the updated N52 straight-6 in 2006 which used high-
pressure injectors.[24] This system surpasses many others with a wider envelope of lean-burn
time, increasing overall efficiency.[25] PSA is cooperating with BMW on a new line of engines
which made its first appearance in the 2007 MINI Cooper S. Honda released their own direct
injection system on the Stream sold in Japan.[26] Honda's fuel injector is placed directly atop the
cylinder at a 90 degree angle rather than a slanted angle.[26]

Since 2004, General Motors has released three such direct injected engines: in 2004, a 155 hp
(116 kW) version of the 2.2 L Ecotec used in the Opel/Vauxhall Vectra and Signum in 2005, a
2.0 L turbocharged Ecotec for the new Opel GT, Pontiac Solstice GXP, and the Saturn Sky Red
Line, in 2007 the same engine was used in the Super Sport versions of the Chevrolet Cobalt and
the HHR. Also in 2007, the 3.6 L LLT became available in the redesigned Cadillac CTS and
STS. The 3.6 L was added to the 2009 model GMC Acadia, Chevrolet Traverse, Saturn Outlook,
Buick Enclave and the 2010 Chevy Camaro. In 2004 Isuzu produced the first GDi engine sold in
a mainstream American vehicle, standard on the 2004 Axiom and optional on the 2004 Rodeo.
Isuzu claimed the benefit of GDi is that the vaporizing fuel has a cooling effect, allowing a
higher compression ratio (10.3:1 versus 9.1:1) that boosts output by 20 hp (15 kW), and that 0-
to-60 mph times drop from 8.9 to just 7.5 seconds, with the quarter-mile being cut from 16.5 to
15.8 seconds.[27]

In 2005, Mazda began to use their own version of direct-injection in the Mazdaspeed6 and later
on the CX-7 sport-utility, and the new Mazdaspeed3 in the US and European market. It is
referred to as Direct Injection Spark Ignition (DISI).

In 2006, BMW released the new N54 twin-turbo-charged direct injection inline-six engine for its
335i Coupe and later for the 335i Sedan, 535i series and the 135i models.[28][29] Mercedes-Benz
released its direct injection system (Charged Gasoline Injection, or "CGI") on the CLS 350 CGI
featuring common rail, piezo-electric direct fuel injectors. The CLS 350 CGI offers 292 BHP
versus 272 BHP for the CLS 350, with reduced carbon dioxide emissions and improved fuel
economy.[30]

In 2007, Ford introduced its new Ford EcoBoost engine technology designed for a range of
global vehicles (from small cars to large trucks). The engine first appeared in the 2007 Lincoln
MKR Concept under the name TwinForce.[31] The new global EcoBoost family of 4-cylinder and
6-cylinder engines features turbocharging and direct injection technology (GTDI - Gasoline
Turbocharged Direct Injection).[31] A 2.0-litre version was unveiled in the 2008 Ford Explorer
America Concept.[31]

In 2008, BMW released the X6 xDrive50i equipped with a direct injected twin turbo N63 V8
engine.[32]

In 2009, Ferrari began selling the front-engine California with a direct injection system, and
announced that its new 458 Italia car will also feature a direct injection system, a first for Ferrari
mid-rear engine setups.[33] Porsche also began selling the 997 and Cayman equipped with direct
injection. Ford produced the new generation Taurus SHO and Flex with a 3.5 L twin-turbo
EcoBoost V-6 with direct injection.[34] Holden has also added two direct injection engines as
standard on the V6 variant Commodore's under the name of SIDI or Spark Ignition Direct
Injection.[citation needed] The Infiniti Essence concept car is powered by a direct injected twin turbo
V6.[35] The Jaguar Land Rover AJ-V8 Gen III 5.0-litre engine (introduced in August 2009 for the
2010 model year) features spray-guided direct injection.

In 2010 Infiniti will produce the M56 which includes DI.[citation needed]

Also in 2010: Motus Motorcycles is developing, with Katech Engines, a direct-injected V4

2010: Hyundai Sonata 2011 model will come with GDI engines, based on previous GDi
technology from Mitsubishi.

In two-stroke engines
The benefits of direct injection are even more pronounced in two-stroke engines, because it
eliminates much of the pollution they cause. In conventional two-strokes, the exhaust and intake
ports are both open at the same time, at the bottom of the piston stroke. A large portion of the
fuel/air mixture entering the cylinder from the crankcase through the intake ports goes directly
out, unburned, through the exhaust port. With direct injection, only air comes from the
crankcase, and fuel is not injected until the piston rises and all ports are closed.

Two types of GDi are used in two-strokes: low-pressure air-assisted, and high pressure. The
former, developed by Orbital Engine Corporation of Australia (now Orbital Corporation) injects
a mixture of fuel and compressed air into the combustion chamber. When the air expands it
atomizes the fuel. The Orbital system is used in motor scooters manufactured by Aprilia,
Piaggio, Peugeot and Kymco, in outboard motors manufactured by Mercury and Tohatsu, and in
personal watercraft manufactured by Bombardier Recreational Products (BRP).

In the early 1990s, Ficht GmbH of Kirchseeon, Germany developed a high-pressure direct
injector for use with two stroke engines. Outboard Marine Corporation (OMC) licensed the
technology in 1995 and introduced it on a production outboard engine in 1996.[37][38] OMC
purchased a controlling interest in Ficht in 1998.[39] Beset by extensive warranty claims for its
Ficht outboards and prior and concurrent management-financial problems, OMC declared
bankruptcy in December 2000 and the engine manufacturing portion and brands (Evinrude
Outboard Motors and Johnson Outboards), including the Ficht technology, were purchased by
BRP in 2001.[40][41]

Evinrude introduced the E-Tec system, an improvement to the Ficht fuel injection, in 2003,
based on U.S. patent 6,398,511. In 2004, Evinrude received the EPA Clean Air Excellence
Award for their outboards utilizing the E-Tec system.[42] The E-Tec system has recently also been
adapted for use in performance two-stroke snowmobiles.

Yamaha also has a high-pressure direct injection (HPDI) system for two-stroke outboards. It
differs from the Ficht/E-Tec and Orbital direct injection systems because it uses a separate, belt
driven, high pressure, mechanical fuel pump to generate the pressure necessary for injection in a
closed chamber. This is similar to most current 4-stroke automotive designs.

EnviroFit, a non-profit corporation sponsored by Colorado State University, has developed direct
injection retrofit kits for two-stroke motorcycles in a project to reduce air pollution in Southeast
Asia, using technology developed by Orbital Corporation of Australia.[43] The World Health
Organization says air pollution in Southeast Asia and the Pacific causes 537,000 premature
deaths each year. The 100-million two-stroke taxis and motorcycles in that part

Future
Twin-fuel engines

Code named Bobcat, the new twin-fuel engine from Ford is based on a 5.0L V8 engine block but
uses E85 cylinder injection and gasoline port injection. The engine was co-developed with
Ethanol Boosting Systems, LLC of Cambridge, Massachusetts, which calls its trademarked
process DI Octane Boost. The direct injection of ethanol increases the octane of regular gasoline
from 88-91 octane to more than 150 octane. The Bobcat project was unveiled to the United
States Department of Energy and the