Financial Management 2

INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT SCIENCE
Financial Management
Notes
Unit 9: Capital Budgeting

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
9.1
Capital Budgeting Characterization
9.2
Capital Budgeting Process
9.3
Methods of Analyze Capital Budgeting Decisions
9.4
9.3.1
Traditional Techniques of Evaluation
9.3.2
Discounted Cash Flow Methods
Comparison NPV and IRR Methods

9.4.1
Net Present Value vs Profitability Index
9.4.2
Interrelation between Payback, Net Present Value, IRR and

Profitability Index
9.4.3
The Concept of Project IRR
9.4.4
Capital Rationing
9.4.5
Break-Even Time and Capital Budgeting for New Products
9.4.6
BET vs. Payback Method
9.5
Financial Data for Sample Problem
9.6
Capital Decision under Risk and Uncertainty
9.7
Conventional Techniques to Handle Risk

9.7.1
Payback
9.7.2
Risk Adjusted Discount Rate Approach (RAD)
9.7.3
Certainty Equivalent Approach
9.7.4
Probability Distribution Approach
9.7.5
DecisionTrees Approach (DT)
9.7.6
Applied Utility Theory
9.8
Statistical Techniques to Handle Risk
9.9
Summary
9.10 Keywords
9.11 Review Questions
9.12 Further Readings
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Notes
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning and process of Capital budgeting
Describe the methods of analyzing capital budgeting decisions
Define the conception of capital rationing
Discuss capital decision under risk and uncertainty
Introduction
As part of long range planning process decision is taken on the programme, the organization
will undertake and the appropriate resources that will be allocated to each programme over the
next few years. Hence, managements decision to expand or diversify emerges from the exercise
of strategic planning. The techniques of capital budgeting are used to take such decisions.
9.1 Capital Budgeting Characterization

Definition
Capital budgeting may be defined as the decision-making process by which firms evaluate the
purchase of major fixed assets such as machinery, equipment, buildings, acquisition of other
firms either through the purchase of equity shares or group of assets to conduct an on-going
business. Capital budgeting describes the firms formal planning process for the acquisition and
investment of capital and results in a capital budget i.e., the firms formal plan outlay for
purchase of fixed assets.
Importance
Preparation of the firms formal capital budget is necessary for a number of reasons:
1.
It affects profitability: Capital budgeting decisions affect the profitability of the firm.
They also have a bearing on the competitive position of the firm. They determine the
future destiny of the company. An opportune investment decision can yield spectacular
returns. On the other hand, an ill-advised and incorrect investment decision can endanger
the very survival even of the large sized firms.
2.
Effects are felt over long time periods: The effects of capital spending decisions will be felt
by the firm over extended periods of time, e.g., construction of a factory affects the
companys future cost structure.
3.
It involves substantial expenditures: Capital expenditure may range from a single piece
equipment costing thousands of rupees to complete. Profit and other physical facilities
costing crores of rupees.
4.
Not easily reversible: Capital investment decisions once made, are not easily reversible
without much financial loss to the firm, since there may be no market for second hand
plant and equipment, or conversion to other uses may not be financially feasible.
5.
Based on long-term policy decisions: Capital budgeting decisions should be based on longterm policy decisions and should rest firmly on organisation policies on growth, marketing,
industry share, social responsibility and other matters and not taken on ad hoc basis.
6.
Scarce capital resources: Capital investment involves cost and the majority of the firms
resources are limited. This underlines the need for thoughtful and correct investment decisions.
7.
Difficulties in evaluation: Evaluation of capital investment proposals is difficult since the

benefits from investment are received in some future period. Hence there is a substantial
155
Notes
risk involved in estimation of the future benefits. Added to this, the possibility of shifts in
consumer preferences, the actions of competitors, technological developments and changes
in the economic and political environment. Even to quantify the future benefits in rupees
is not an easy task.
Notes Kinds of Proposals

One can identify five types of proposals:
1.
Replacement: As fixed assets are used they wear out or become outdated by new
technology. Money may be budgeted to replace worn out or obsolete equipment.
2.
Expansion: A firm has to grow, and therefore production facilities are to be added
by way of single machinery or group of machines either for the same products or
new products in the same area.
3.
Diversification: A business can reduce the risk by operating in several markets

rather than a single market. Firms seeking the facilities to enter new markets will
consider proposals for the purchase of new machinery and facilities to handle the
new products.
4.
Research and development: Firms in industries where technology is rapidly changing

will expend large sums of money for research and development of new products. If
large sums of money are needed for equipment these proposals will normally be
included in the capital budget.
5.
Miscellaneous: A firm will frequently have proposals that do not directly help achieve
profit-oriented goals, e.g., installation of pollution control equipment. Safety items,
such as automatic sprinkling systems to protect against fire, may involve considerable
expenditures.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1.
..describes the firms formal planning process for the acquisition and
investment of capital.
2.
Capital investment decisions once made, are not easily .without much
financial loss to the firm
9.2 Capital Budgeting Process

A capital budgeting decision is a two-sided process:
156
1.
Calculation of likely or expected return from the proposal. Here the focus is cash outflow
at the beginning of the project and a stream of cash flow flowing into the firm over the life
of the project. The calculation of expected return from cash outflow and cash inflows may
be done by different methods discussed later.
2.
To select a required return that a project must achieve before it is acceptable. The focus is
the relationship between risk and return. Two methods may be used weighted average
cost of capital (if project risk is identical to firms current risk) or capital asset pricing
model (if project risk differs from firms current risk).
The concept of cash outflow vs. cash inflows: The following general rules to be followed:
1.
Only cash flow is relevant: Cash flow should be differentiated with accounting profits.
2.
Estimate cash flows on an incremented basis that follow from project acceptance.
3.
Estimate cash flows before interest basis. This is essential since capital budgeting is an
evaluation technique based on discounting future cash flows by cost of capital. Estimate
cash flows on an after tax basis. Some firms do not deduct tax payments.
Notes
!
Caution While working out cash flows debit or charge in account of interest and cut of
capital should not be considered.
4.
They try to offset this mistake by discounting the cash flows before taxes at a rate higher
than the opportunity cost of capital. Unfortunately, there is no reliable formula for making
such adjustments to the discount rate.
5.
Do not confuse average with incremental profits: Most managers hesitate to throw good
money after bad e.g., they are reluctant to invest more money in a loosing division. But
occasionally, you will find turnaround opportunities in a looser are strongly positive.
6.
Cash flows should be recorded only when they occur and not when the work is undertaken
or the liability incurred.
7.
Include all incidental effects: It is important to include all incidental effects on the remainder
of the business.
Example: a branch line for a railroad may have negative net inflows when considered
in isolation, but shall be a worthwhile investment when one allows for additional
traffic that it brings to the main line.
8.
Include working capital requirements: Most projects require additional investment in

working capital on a continuous basis with increase in sales. This increase in working
capital should be considered as a cash outflow in the relevant period. Similarly, when the
project comes to an end, you can usually recover some of the investment, which will no
longer be required, which will be treated as a cash inflow.
9.
Forget sunk costs: They are past and irreversible outflows. Because sunk costs are by
gones, they cannot be affected by the decision to accept or reject the proposal and so they
should be ignored.
10.
Include opportunity costs: The cost of a resource may be relevant to the investment
decision even no cash changes hands. For example, suppose a new manufacturing operation
uses land which otherwise could be sold for 10,00,000. This resource has an opportunity
cost, which is the cash it could generate for the company, if the project is not taken up, and
the resource sold or put to some other productive use.
11.
Beware of allocated overhead costs: If the amount of overhead changes as a result of the
investment decision, then they are relevant and should be included.
12.
Effect of depreciation: Depreciation is a non-cash expense; it is important because it reduces

taxable income. According to the income tax rules in India, depreciation is charged on the
basis of the written down value method at the rates prescribed by Income Tax Rules.
Hence, book profit has to be adjusted by the difference in depreciation (depreciation
charged in books as per Companies Act and depreciation charged as per Income Tax
Rules) to arrive at taxable income. Hence depreciation provides an annual tax shield equal
to the product of depreciation and the marginal tax rate.
157
Notes
13.
Treat inflation inconsistently: If the discount rate is stated in nominal terms, then
consistency requires that cash flows be estimated in nominal terms, taking account of
trends in selling price, labour and material costs, etc. This calls for more than simply
applying a single assumed inflation rate to all components of cash flow. Tax shields on
depreciation do not increase with inflation. They are constant in nominal terms because
tax law in India allows only the original cost of assets to be depreciated.
14.
Effect on other projects: Cash flow effects of the project under consideration. If it is not
economically independent on other existing projects of the firm it must be taken into
consideration.
Example: If the company is considering the production of a new product that competes
with the existing products in the firms product line, it is likely that as a result of the
new proposal, the cash flows related to the old product will be effected.
15.
Tax effect from investment tax credit: An investment tax credit is a tax benefit allowed to
business purchasing capital assets. The firm may claim a specified percentage of new
capital investments as credit against income tax in the current year. This is in line with
investment allowance provided in the Income Tax Act, 1961 earlier.
Conversion of Incremental Accounting Profit to Cash Inflow for Project Evaluation:
Year wise Incremental
Cash Inflow = Year Wise Incremental Accounting Profit of any project (whether it
be for new product or replacement of old Machinery with new
machinery etc.) after tax, but, before interest + Depreciation + all
other non-cash expenses.
Non-cash revenue i.e., profit on sale of asset after the end of the
project.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
3.
A capital budgeting decision is a process.
4.
It is important to include all ..effects on the remainder of the business.
9.3 Methods of Analyze Capital Budgeting Decisions

9.3.1
Traditional Techniques of Evaluation
Payback Period
Sometimes called the payout method i.e., a computationally simple project evaluation approach
that has been used for many years. The procedure is to determine how long it takes a project to
return the cost of the original investment.
Example: A project costing 20 lakhs yields annually a profit of 3 lakhs after depreciation
@12.5% (straight line method) but before tax 50%. In this case cash inflow = Profit after tax +
Depreciation = 3,00,000 Tax 1,50,000 + Depre. 2,00,000 = 4,00,000 p.a.
Payback period =
158
1,60,000 10,000 Cost of the project

20,00,000
=
= 5 years.
15
Annual cash inflow 4,00,000
The project with a lower payback period will be preferred. Sometimes, the management lays
down policy guidelines regarding payback period.
Notes
Merits
1.
This method is quite simple and easy to understand; it has the advantage of making it clear
that there is no profit of any project unless the payback is over. When funds are limited it
is always better to select projects having shorter payback periods. This method is suitable
to industries where the risks of obsolescence are very high.
2.
The payback period can be compared to a break-even point, the point at which costs are
fully recovered, but profits are yet to commence.
3.
The risk associated with a project arises due to uncertainty associated with the cash inflows.
A shorter payback period means less uncertainty towards risk.
Limitations
1.
The method does not give any considerations to time value of money. Cash flows occurring
at all points of time are simply added.
2.
This method becomes a very inadequate measure of evaluating two projects where cash
inflows are uneven.
3.
It stresses capital recovery rather than profitability. It does not take into account the
returns from a project after its payback period. Therefore, this method may not be a good
measure to evaluate where the comparison is between two projects one involving a long
gestation period and other yielding quick results only for a short period.
The Payback Reciprocal

A simple method of calculating the internal rate of return is the payback reciprocal which is 1
divided by the payback period.
Example: A project has an initial cash outlay of 2,00,000 followed by 10 years of annual
cash savings of 50,000. The payback period is 2,00,000/ 50,000 = 4 years and the payback
reciprocal is
1
Playback period
1
= 25%
4
A major drawback of the payback reciprocal that it does not indicate any cutoff period for the
purpose of investment decision. It is, however, argued that the reciprocal of the payback would
be a close approximation of the internal rate of return if the life of the project is at least twice the
payback period and the project generates equal amount of the annual, cash inflows.
Accounting Rate of Return (ARR)

The accounting rate of return (ARR) method of evaluating capital budgeting projects is so
named because it parallels traditional accounting concepts of income and investment. A project
is evaluated by computing a rate of return on the investment, using accounting measures of net
income. The formula for the accounting rate of return is:
ARR =
Annual revenue from project Annual exp. of project

100
Project investment
159
Notes
This rate is compared with the rate expected on other projects, had the same funds been invested
alternatively in those projects. Sometimes, the management compares this rate with the minimum
rate (called cut of rate) they may have in mind.
Merits: This method is quite simple and popular because it is easy to understand and includes
income from the project throughout its life.
Limitations:
1.
This method ignores the timing of cash flows, the duration of cash flows and the time
value of money.
2.
It is based upon a crude average of profits of the future years. It ignores the effect of
fluctuations in profits from year to year.
Conclusion: The traditional techniques of appraising capital investment decision have two major
drawbacks:
1.
They do not consider total benefits throughout the life of the project and
2.
timing of cash inflows is not considered.
Hence, two essential ingredients of a theoretically sound appraisal method are that:
1.
it should be based on total cash stream through the project life and
2.
it should consider the time value of money of cash flows in each period of a projects life.
Did u know? The discounted cash flows techniques also known as time adjusted techniques
satisfy these requirements and provide a more objective basis for selecting and evaluating
investment projects.
9.3.2
Discounted Cash Flow Methods
Discounted cash flow refers to the fact that all projected cash inflows and outflows for a capital
budgeting project are discounted to their present value using an approximate interest rate.
Three discounted cash flow methods are generally used in capital budgeting. One is called Net
Present Value Method (NPV); the other is called Profitability Index or Desirability factor and the
third Internal Rate of Return (lRR). All the three methods focus on the timing of cash flows over
the entire life of the project. The spotlight is on the cash flows as opposed to accounting measures
of revenue and expense.
All discounted cash flow methods are based on the time value of money, which means that an
amount of money received now is worth more than an equal amount of money received in
future. Money in hand can be invested to earn a return.
To simplify the process of evaluating proposals using discounted cash flows, the assumption is
often made that cash flow or cash savings from a project occur at the end of accounting period
since the results are not materially different from mere precise calculations.
Net Present Value (NPV)

nder this method, all cash inflows and outflow are discounted at a minimum acceptable rate of
return, usually the firms cost of capital. If the present value of the cash inflows is greater than
the present value of the cash outflows, the project is acceptable i.e., NPV > 0, accept and NPV <
0, reject. In other words, a positive NPV means the project earns a rate of return higher than the
firms cost of capital.
160
Example: JP Company wants to buy a machine with a cost of 33,522 and annual cash
savings of 10,000 for each of 5 years. JP Companys cost of capital is 12%. With uniform cash
flows, the present value (PV) is computed using the present value of and annuity of 5 payments
of 10,000 each at 12%, the NPV is calculated as follows:
PV of Cash inflows = 10,000 3,605 (PV 1 5 years @ 12%)
36,050
Less: Present Value of Cash outflows
33,522
Net present value of the project
Notes
2,528
Since NPV is positive, the project is acceptable since the net value of earnings exceeds by
the amount paid for the use of the funds to finance the investment.
2,528
The net present value relies on the time value of money and the timings of cash flows in
evaluating projects. All cash flows are discounted at the cost of capital and NPV assumes that all
cash inflows from projects are re-invested at the cost of capital.
As a decision criterion, this method can be used to make a choice between mutually exclusive
projects. The project with the highest NPV would be assigned the first rank, followed by others
in the descending order.
Merits:
1.
It recognises the time value of money.
2.
The whole stream of cash flows throughout the project life is considered.
3.
A changing discount rate can be built into the NPV calculations by altering the denominator.
4.
NPV can be seen as the addition to the wealth of shareholders. The criterion of NPV is,
thus, in conformity with basic financial objectives.
5.
This method is useful for selection of mutually exclusive projects.
6.
An NPV uses the discounted cash flows i.e., expresses cash flows in terms of current
rupees. The NPVs of different projects therefore, can be added/compared. This is called
the value additive principle, implying that NPVs of separate projects can be added. It
implies that each project can be evaluated independent of others on its own merit.
Limitations:
1.
It is difficult to calculate as well as understand and use in comparison with the payback
method or even the ARR method.
2.
The calculation of discount rate presents serious problems. In fact, there is difference of
opinion even regarding the exact method of calculating it.
3.
PV method is an absolute measure. Prima facie between the two projects, this method will
favour the project, which has Higher Present Value (or NPV). But it is likely that this
project may also involve a larger initial outlay. Thus, in case of projects involving different
outlays, the present value method may not give dependable results.
4.
This method may not give satisfactory results in case of projects having different effective
lives.
Desirability Factor/Profitability Index (PI)

NPV of a project is a function of the discount rate, the timings of the cash flow and the size of the
cash flows. Other things being equal, large investment proposals yield larger net present values.
161
Notes
Logic tells, cash flows of the larger machine are merely a multiple of cash flows of the smaller
machines. To adjust, the size of the cash flows, we can calculate a profitability index, which is the
ratio of the present value of cash inflows to the present value of the cash outflows. Thus,
profitability index
(PI) =
P.V. of cash inf low

P.V. of cash outflow
The higher the PI, the more desirable the project in terms of return per rupees of investment. A
PI of I.O. is the cut-off point for accepting projects and is equivalent to being NPV positive. A PI
of less than 1.0 indicates negative net present value for the project.
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

Internal rate of return is the interest rate that discounts an investments future cash flows to the
present so that the present value of cash inflows exactly equals the present value of the cash
outflows i.e., at that interest rate the net present value equals zero.
The discount rate i.e., cost of capital is considered in determination of the net present value
while in the internal rate of return calculation, the net present value is set equal to zero and the
discount rate which satisfies this condition is determined and is called Internal Rate of Return.
Any investment that yields a rate of return greater than the cost of capital should be accepted
because the project will increase the value of the firm.
Did u know? Unlike, the NPV method, calculating the value of IRR is more difficult. The
procedure depends on whether the cash flows are annuity (equal year wise) or nonuniform.
The following steps are taken in determining IRR for an annuity (equal cash flows):
1.
Determine the payback period of the proposed investment.
2.
From the table of Present value of Annuity, look for year that is equal to or closer to the
life of the project.
3.
From the year column, find two Present Value or discount factors closest to payback
period, one larger and other smaller than it.
4.
From the top row of the table note, the two interest rates corresponding to these Present
values as in (3) above.
5.
Determine IRR by interpolation
When cash flows are not uniform, an interest rate cannot be found using annuity tables.
Instead trial and error methods or a computer can be used to find the IRR. If the IRR is computed
manually, the first step is to select an interest rate that seems reasonable (this can be done by
calculating average annual cash flows by the annuity method as mentioned earlier) and then
compute the present value of the individual cash flows using that rate.
If the net present value is positive, then the interest rate used is low, i.e., IRR is higher than the
interest rate selected. A higher interest rate is then chosen and the present value of the cash flows
is computed again. If the new interest rates yield a negative net present value, then a lower
interest rate is to be selected. The process is repeated until the present value of cash inflow is
equal to the present value of the cash outflows. Finding the rate of return using trial and error
methods can be tedious, but a computer can accomplish the task quite easily.
162
Notes
Advantages
1.
It possesses the advantages, which are offered by the NPV criterion such as it considers
time value of money and takes into account the total cash inflows and outflows.
2.
IRR is easier to understand. Business executives and non-technical people understand the
concept of IRR much more readily that they understand the concepts of NPV.
3.
It does not use the concept of the required cost of return (or the cost of capital). It itself
provides a rate of return which is indicative of the profitability of the proposal. The cost of
capital enters the calculation, later on.
4.
It is consistent with the overall objective of maximizing shareholders wealth since the
acceptance or otherwise of a project is based on comparison of the IRR with the required
rate of return.
Limitations
1.
It involves tedious calculations.
2.
It produces multiple rates, which can be confusing.
3.
In evaluating mutually exclusive proposals, the project with the highest IRR would be
picked up to the exclusion of all others. However, in practice, it may not turn out to be one
that is the most profitable and consistent with the objectives of the firm i.e., maximization
of the wealth of the shareholders.
4.
Under IRR method, it is assumed that, all intermediate cash flows are reinvested at the IRR
rate. It is not logical to think that the same firm has the ability to re-invest, the cash flows
at different rates. In order to have correct and reliable results it is obvious, therefore, that
they should be based on realistic estimates of the interest rate at which the income will be
re-invested.
5.
The IRR rule requires comparing the projects IRR with the opportunity cost of capital. But,
sometimes, there is an opportunity cost of capital for 1 year cash flows, a different cost of
capital for 2-year cash flows and so on. In these cases, there is no simple yardstick for
evaluating the IRR of a project.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
5.
Under Net Present Value (NPV) method, all cash inflows and outflow are discounted at a
..acceptable rate of return, usually the firms cost of capital.
6.
is the ratio of the present value of cash inflows to the present value of the
cash outflows.
7.
..is the interest rate that discounts an investments future cash flows to the
present so that the present value of cash inflows exactly equals the present value of the
cash outflows.
9.4 Comparison NPV and IRR Methods

Similarities
In respect of conventional and independent projects, the two methods give a concurrent acceptancereject decision. In case of conventional investment cash outflows are confined to the initial
163
Notes
period (i.e. in the beginning) followed by cash inflows. The independent proposals refer to
investment, the acceptance of which does not preclude the acceptance of others, so that all
profitable proposals can be accepted and there are no constraints. The decision rule is that a
proposal will be accepted if
1.
NPV exceeds zero,
2.
IRR exceeds the required rate of return.
Similarly, when NPV = Zero or the IRR = required rate of return, the project may be accepted or
rejected.
Differences
In case of mutually exclusive capital project i.e., the acceptance of an investment precludes the
acceptance of others (i.e. if there are alternative courses of action, only one can be accepted).
Mutual exclusiveness of the investment projects may be technical or financial. Technical means
projects with different profitabilities and selection of the more profitable. Financial means
resource constraints, which is also called capital rationing.
The different ranking by NPV and IRR methods can be due to the following:
1.
Size disparity
2.
Time disparity
3.
Unequal expected lives.
As stated earlier, the IRR criterion implicitly assumes that the cash flow generated by the project
will be reinvested at the internal rate of return, as opposed to companys cost of capital in case
of NPV. The assumption of the NPV method is considered to be superior since the rate can be
consistently applied to all investment proposals.
9.4.1
Net Present Value vs. Profitability Index
The investment proposal will be acceptable if:

1.
PI is greater than one.
2.
Positive Net Present Value.
Likewise, PI will be less than I when the investment proposal has a negative net present value
under the NPV method.
!
Caution While evaluating mutually exclusive investment proposals, these methods will
give different rankings. The best project is the one, which adds the most, among available
alternatives, to the shareholders wealth. The NPV method by its very definition, will
always select such projects.
9.4.2
Interrelation between Payback, Net Present Value, IRR and

Profitability Index
We have seen
Cost of the Project

Payback period = Annual cost saving/Inflows
We have also seen that investment proposal will be acceptable if PI is greater than one and Net
Present Value is positive.
164
Again, NPV = 0, when the discount rate is equal to cost of capital and PI = I and by definition IRR
is the interest rate that discounts an investments, future cash flows to the present so that present
value of inflows equals to the present value of cash outflows i.e., NPV is equal to zero. Hence,
under IRR, if interest rate is equal to cost of capital, NPV is zero and also PI = I.
Notes
The steps for determining IRR for an annuity (equal annual cash flows).
1.
Payback period, which will give the cumulative present value factor.
2.
From cumulative PV (discount) factor tables see the corresponding interest rate nearest to
that figure corresponding to the life of the project (No. of years).
From the above discussion we can conclude the following:

1.
Payback period = Cumulative Present value of Discount, based.

(equal annual cash flows) on cost of capital.
2.
At IRR rate of interest NPV = 0 i.e., Cost of the project = Cash outflows
= Present value of cash inflows
= Annual cash inflows Cumulative discount factor
(In case of equal annual cash inflows)
Example: Following are the data on a capital project being evaluated by the management
of X Ltd.
Project M
Annual cost saving
40,000
Useful life
4 years
IRR
15%
Profitability Index (PI)
1.064
NPV
Cost of capital
Cost of project
Payback
Salvage value
Find the missing values.
(Given cumulative PV 1-4 years @ 15% = 2.855)
Solution:
At 15% IRR, the sum total of cash inflows = Initial cash outlay i.e. cost of the project
Cumulative present value @ 15% for 4 years = 2.855 and Annual Cost saving
40,000
Hence, Total of Cash inflows = 40,000 2.855 = 1,14,200

Therefore, Initial Cost Outlay
i.e., Cost of the project =
Payback period =
1,14,200
Cost of the project 1,14,200

=
= 2.855
Annual cost saving
40,000
165
Notes
= 2 years 11 months
P I. = 1.064
P.V. of cash inflow

= P.V. of cash outflow i.e. Cost of the project
Hence, PV of Cash inflows = 1.064 1,14,200 = 1,21,508.8
NPV = 1,21,508.8 1,14,200 =
7,309
Current Present Value factor at Companys Cost of Capital
PV of Cash inflows
= Annual Cost Saving
1,21,509
= 3.0377
40,000
From the present value table corresponding to 4 years the discount/interest is 12%
i.e., Cost of capital = 12%.
Example: Following are the data on a capital project with equal annual cash savings
evaluated by the management of S company
Project
Cost
1,01,400
Payback
5.07 years
Annual Cost Saving
Useful life
Cost of Capital
NPV -
IRR
19 per cent
PI
1.14
Salvage Value
Required: Find the missing values.

Solution:
1.
Annual Cost Saving = Cost of Project/Payback period

=
2.
1,01,400/5.07 = 20,000
At IRR rate of discount (i.e. 19%)

Cost of the project = PV of cash inflows
=
1,01,400
Hence, Cumulative Present Value at 19%

=
166
1,01,400
= 5.07
20,000
If we refer to Cumulative Present Value @19% Cumulative Present Value of 5.07 is computed
at 19 years. Therefore, useful life =19 years.
3.
Notes
PI = 1.14 at cost of capital rate of interest; at IRR rate of discount

PI index = 1. Hence Cumulative Present Value at cost of capital rate of interest = 5.07 1.14
= 5.778. By referring to Cumulative Present Value table up to 19 years. We find at 17%
Cumulative Present Value 5,585 and at 16% = 5.877. Since 5,778 Cumulative Present value
is lying between 5.877 and 5,585 by interpolation we get,
16 + = 16 + = 34 + 16 = 16.34%
4.
NPV at IRR rate of discount = 0 when PI = I

Since PI = 1.14
Therefore, NPV = 0.14 Cost of the project = 0.14 1,01,400 = 1,41,196
9.4.3
The Concept of Project IRR
In spite of the theoretical superiority of NPV, financial managers prefer to use IRR. The preference
for IRR is due to the general preference of business people towards rates of return rather than
actual rupee returns. Because interest rates, profitability and so on are most often expressed as
annual rates of return, the use of IRR makes sense to financial decision makers. They tend to find
NPV less intuitive because it does not measure benefits relative to amount invested. The concept
of project IRR finds favour material financial undertakings and other providers of capital. It
gives an idea of how much discounting towards amount of capital, the project can sustain during
its life span. This can be explained through an example.
Example: XYZ Ltd. an infrastructural company is evaluating a proposal to build, operate
and transfer a section of 35 km of road at a project cost of 200 crores to be financed as:
Equity share capital
50 crores
Loans at the rate of interest of 15% from financial institutions
150 crores
The project after completion must be opened to the traffic and must be affected for a period of 15
years and after 15 years, it must be handed over to the highway authorities at zero value. It is
estimated that the total revenue must be 50 crore per annum and annual collection expenses
including maintenance of roads will amount to 5% of the project cost. The company considers to
write off the total cost of the project in 15 years in a straight line basis for corporate income tax,
the company is allowed to take depreciation @ 10% on NDV basis. The financial institutions are
agreeable to the repayment of the loan in 15 equal annual installments consisting of principal
and interest.
Calculate Project IRR and Equity IRR. Ignore corporate taxation. Explain the difference in project
IRR and equity IRR.
Solution:
The project cash inflows and cash outflows can be summarized as follows:
Cash outflow
Cost of the project
3 15
200
Cash inflow
Revenue for Tax
50
Less maintenance 5% of 200
167
Notes
10
40
Net.
40
40 15 years
At IRR Cost of the project equal to discounted cash inflows of

i.e., 15 years.
Now, cost of the project =
40 crores for total project life
200 crores.
Hence, 200 crores = cum discount factor 1 15 years
40 crores or cum discount factor 1-15
200
= from the rate of present value of annuity, it will be observed that at 20% cum
40
present value 1-15 years 5.09158 at 19% cum present value 1-15 years 4.87586. Hence Project IRR
years =
will be between 19% and 20%, it will be approximately 19% +
5 4.87586
0.12414
i.e.
=
5.09158 4.87568
0.21572
19 + 0.58%
Since, there is no corporate taxation, depreciation will not affect cash flow, hence depreciation;
has not been considered. Now the project is financed by 50 crores debt @ 15% p.a. i.e., yearly
interest of 7.50 crore and equity capital 150 crores. Hence profit available to equity shareholders
each year
= Net cash inflow Interest outflow
=
40 7.5 =
32.5 crores.
Hence, cum discount factor for equity shares

=
150
= 4.61538
325
If we see the present value of annuity table 1-15 years cumulative, we find
20% = 4.67547)
21% = 4.48901) Hence it will be between 20 & 21%
It will be
20% +
4.61538 4.48901
0.12607
i.e.
= 20.68%
4.67547 4.48901
0.18646
Equity IRR is more than project IRR, since the project is earning 19.58% on discounted basis,
interest is being paid @ 15% so capital is contributed by debt is interest paid is less than the
interest earned, the balance goes to equity share holders to increase their return.
9.4.4
Capital Rationing
The process of selecting the more desirable projects among many profitable investments is
called capital rationing. Like any rationing it is designed to maximize the benefit available from
using scarce resources. In this case the scarce resources are funds available for capital investments
and the benefits are returns on the investments. The objective is to select the combination of
projects, which would give maximization of the total NPV. The project selection under capital
rationing involves two stages:
168
1.
The identification of the acceptable projects,
2.
To select the combination, of projects. The acceptability of projects can be based either on
profitability/present value index or IRR.
Notes
Notes Many firms capital constraints are Soft. They reflect no imperfections in capital
markets. Instead they are provisional limits adapted by management as an aid to financial
control. Soft rationing should never cost the firm anything. If capital constraints become
tight enough to hurt in the sense that projects with significant positive NPVs are passed
up then the firm raises more money and loosens the constraint. But when it cant raise
more money, then it faces hard rationing. Hard capital rationing always reflects on
market imperfection a barrier between the firm and capital markets, which can be attributed
to non-availability of market information, investor attitude etc.
There are various ways of resorting to capital rationing. For instance, a firm may effect capital
rationing through budgets. Capital rationing may also be exercised by following the concept of
responsibility accounting, whereby management may introduce capital rationing by
authorizing a particular department to make investment only up to a specified limit, beyond
which the investment decisions are to be taken up by higher-ups.
In capital rationing, it may also be more desirable to accept small investment proposals than a
few large investment proposals so that there may be full utilization of budgeted amount. This
may result in accepting relatively less profitable investment proposals if full utilization of
budget is a primary consideration.
Similarly, capital rationing may also mean that the firm foregoes the next most profitable
investment following after the budget ceiling, even though it is estimated to yield a rate of
return much higher than the required rate of return. Thus, capital rationing does not always lead
to optimum results.
Example: S. Ltd. has 10,00,000 allocated for capital budgeting purposes. The following
proposals and associated profitability indexes have been determined:
Project
Amount
()
Profitability
Index
3,00,0.00
1.22
1,50,000
0.95
3,50,000
1.20
4,50,000
1.18
2,00,000
1.20
4,00,000
1.05
Which of the above investments should be undertaken? Assume that projects are indivisible and
there is no alternative use of the money allocated for capital budgeting:
Solution:
We should go in for projects priority-wise based on PI Index:
Project
PI
Investment
Priority
Sum Total of
Cash Inflows
1.22
3,00,000
3,66,000
66,000
1.20
3,50,000
4,20,000
70,000
1.20
2,00,000
2,40,000
40,000
1.18
4,50,000
5,31,000
81,000
1.05
4,00,000
4,20,000
20,000
NPV
169
Notes
Since there is no alternative use of money we should maximize capital spending provided
project is profitable, that is, PI is more than I and NPV is positive. Combination of project 1, 3, 5
gives NPV of 1,76,000 but 1,50,000 remains unspent, whereas combination of 3, 4, 5 gives NPV
of 1,91,000 and every amount is spent. Hence project 3, 4, 5 are to be taken.
9.4.5
Break-Even Time and Capital Budgeting for New Products
Time is being considered as a competitive weapon specifically for firms that bring a new product
to market at a very fast rate in order to gain sizeable shares of total market sales for that product.
Hence, the increased emphasis to the use of break-even time as a capital budgeting method and
as a performance measures.
Break-Even Time (BET) is the time taken from the start of the project (the initial idea date) till the
period the Cumulative Present Value of cash inflows of a project equal to present values of the
total cash outflows. Hence, product proposals with shorter BETs are preferred to longer BETs if
all other things are equal.
BET also promotes aggressive efforts by personnel on different functional areas such as product
design and manufacturing to speed up the time taken to bring the product to the market and
reap the benefits fast.
Did u know? Hewlett-Packard is a strong advocate of BET.
Example: Two products A and B are being evaluated by a Computer Manufacturing

Company. The estimated cash outflows covering research and development, product design,
manufacturing, marketing, distribution and customer services and cash inflows from sales are
given below:
( lakhs)
Product A
Year
Cash Outflows
1
2
Product B
Cash Inflows
Cash Outflows
Cash Inflows
10
14
32
22
34
17
26
13
37
10
22
The company uses a 14% required rate of return for discounting cash flows on a before tax basis.
Solution:
For Product A
Year PV Factor
170
Cash
Outflows
PV of cash
Outflows
Cum PV of
Cash Outflows
Cash
Inflows
PV of cash
Inflows
( lakhs)
Cum. PV of
cash Inflows.
0.877
7.016
7.016
0.769
4.614
11.63
14
10.766
10.766
0.675
22
14.85
26.48
34
22.95
33.716
0.592
13
7.696
34.176
37
21.904
55.62
0.519
10
5.19
39.366
22
11.418
67.038
For Product A, the present value of total cash outflows is 39.366 lakhs. At the end of 3 year, the
cumulative present value of cash inflows is 33.716 lakhs and for 4th year the present value of
cash inflows is 21.904 lakhs.
BET of Product A = 3 +
Notes
39.366 33.716
= 3.26 years
21.904
For Product B
( Lakh)
Year
PV Factor
0.877
0.769
0.675
0.592
0.519
Cash
Outflows
10
PV of cash
outflows
Cum PV of
cash outflows
Cash
inflows
PV of cash
inflows
Cum. PV of
cash inflows.
8.77
8.77
3.508
3.508
5.383
14.153
32
24.608
28.116
17
11.475
25.628
26
17.55
45.666
3.552
29.18
4.736
50.402
29.18
1.038
51.44
For Product B, the present values of the total cash outflows are 29.18 1akh. At the end of 2 year,
the cumulative present value of cash inflows is 28,116 lakhs and for 3rd year the present value
of cash inflows is 17.550.
BET for Product B =
9.4.6
29.18 28.116
= 2.06 years
17.550
BET vs. the Payback Method
Differences
1.
BET starts counting time at the start of the project, irrespective of when the cash outflows
occur whereas payback method starts counting time from the initial cash outflow.
2.
BET takes account of time value of money when cumulating cash inflows and cash outflows,
whereas payback method ignores the time value of money.
Similarity
1.
Both methods ignore cash inflows after the break-even time or the payback period.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
8.
Profitability Index will be less than I when the investment proposal has a net
present value under the NPV method.
9.
The process of selecting the more desirable projects among many profitable investments
is called ..
9.5 Financial Data for Sample Problem

From the following, calculate differential cash flow streams considering that a firm has an
existing machine and is considering the purchase of a new machine:
1.
The new machine is more efficient than the existing machine. This will increase the firms
revenue from products made by the machine from 4,00,000 to 4,50,000 and will lower
operating cost from 2,10,000 to 1,70,000.
171
Notes
2.
The new machine will cost 2,20,000. It will cost 20,000 for transportation and installation
of machine. The firm will receive 15,000 investment tax credit as a result of the purchases
and installation of the machine.
3.
The new machine will have a service life of 4 years. The existing machine will also be able
to produce goods for four more years.
4.
The new machine processes raw materials more quickly and works more efficiently on
long production runs. Thus, the firm must tie up an additional 20,000 of goods in
inventories to support the new machine.
5.
At the present time, the book value of the existing machine is 80,000 and it is being
depreciated at 20,000 per year, to a zero book value. If the existing machine is sold today,
its cash value would be 40,000. If it continues to operate for 4 more years, its cash value
would be 10,000.
6.
The new machine will be depreciated using straight-line depreciation. In four years, it
will have 40,000 book value and 30,000 cash salvage value. Take Income Tax @ 50%.
Step 1 Calculate the Net Cash Outlay: The net cash outlay is the different amount of money
that will be spent when the investment is made in year zero. It may be calculated by = Total cost
of new investment including purchase price, transportation, installation and any related charges.
Tax savings from investment tax credit +/ changes in the working capital requirements net
cash received from replacing existing machines (i.e., selling price or money received less any
costs of removing the asset) +/ either the taxes saved or additional taxes to be paid as a result
of purchasing the new asset. In our example, 2,20,000 is the purchase price plus 20,000 for
transportation and installation.
The investment tax credit produces a tax saving of 15,000. The working capital tied up is
20,000 that is treated as an outlay in year zero. It will be an inflow in year 4. The cash for the
existing machine is 40,000. The tax effect is a saving that occurs because the firm sells a
6,80,000 book value machine for 40,000, procuring non-cash or book loss. At a 50 per cent tax
rate, the loss of 40, 000 in the sale produces a 20,000 tax savings. Thus, net cash outlay (outflow)
is
2,20,000 + 20,000 15,000 + 20,000 40,000 20,000 =
1,85,000.
Step 2 Calculate the Depreciation Schedules: In practice, we use the method employed by the
firm for tax purposes since only this method affects the tax shield and cash flow using straight
line depreciation. In our example, the depreciation can be calculated with two formulas as
follows:
Depreciable Cost = Total Cost of machine Book salvage value
2,40,000 40,000 =
2,00,000
Annual Depreciation = Depreciable Cost/Years of life

= 2,00,000/4 = 50,000
With the straight-line method, 50,000 depreciation is the same for each of the four years of the
new machines estimated service life. With other methods, the amount of depreciation differs
each year.
The depreciation on the existing machine is given at 20,000 per year down to zero book value.
Since the current book value is 80,000, the annual depreciation of 20,000 will be realised for
the remaining four years of service life.
172
Step 3 Calculate Annual after Tax Cash flows: In our example, the annual cash flows will be
same each year since the revenues, costs, depreciation and taxes do not change. To compute after
tax cash flows from operations or employment of the asset there are 2 methods:
1.
We begin with revenues, deduct cash expenses and taxes, and we have the cash flow, or
2.
We can begin with revenues; deduct cash expenses, and non-cash expenses. Calculate taxes
and deduct them and then add back depreciation. The two methods are shown below:
New Machine
Accounting
Cash flow
Existing Machine
Accounting Cash flow
Annual-revenues
450,000
400,900
400,000
400,000
Less: Annual cost of operation
170,000
210,000
210,000
210,000
Before tax cash flow
280,000
190,000
190,000
190,000
Less: Annual depreciation
50,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
230,000
170,000
170,000
170,000
85,000
85,000
85,000
85,000
Less: income taxes 50%
115,000
Net income after taxes
115,000
85,000
Notes
Add: Back Depreciation
50,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
After tax cash flow
165,000
105,000
105,000
105,000
Notes Any tax shield from interest payments on debt is omitted, since the effects off
financing by different methods are considered in cost of capital calculation and are not
covered in capital budgeting so as to avoid double counting of financing effects.
Step 4 Calculate effects in final year:
In the final year two events occur:
1.
The return of the working capital tied up in year zero. In our example,
as an inflow in the final year since the money is freed for other uses.
2.
In the final year, each machine is sold in its respective cash flow stream. To get the after tax
effect, we must estimate the book and cash value and compute the net cash value from the
sale of each asset, as given below:
Book value in 4 years

Cash value in 4 years
Gain (Loss) on sale in 4 years
Tax saving (additional taxes)
Plus Cash Received
Net Cash Value
20,000 is treated
New Machine
Existing Machine
40,000
30,000
(10,000)
5,000
30,000
35,000
0
10,000
10,000
(5,000)
10,000
5,000
New Machine
Existing Machine
1,65,000
1,05,000
Thus, we have cash flow in the final year as follows:
Annual inflows from step 3

Return of working capital
20,000
Sale of machine
35,000
5,000
2,20.000
1,10.000
Final year cash flow
173
Notes
Step 5 Calculate the Differential after Tax stream: We subtract the existing machine stream
from the new machine stream as follows:
Year
New Machine
Existing Machine
Difference
(1,85,000)
(1,85,000)
1,65,000
1,05,000
60,000
1,65,000
1,05,000
60,000
1,65,000
1,05,000
60,000
2,20,000
1,10,000
1,10,000
This stream shows both the timing and amount of net cash outlay and net cash inflow over the
life of the new machine. All effects are differential the difference between having the investment
and not having it, and can be evaluated with time-value of money techniques as have been
discussed earlier.
Cost of Capital
As mentioned above, the cost of capital is an important element as basic input information in
capital investment decisions. It provides a yard stick to measure the work of investment proposals
and thus, perform the role of accept reject criterion. It is also referred to a cut-off-rate, target rate,
minimum required rate of return, standard return and so on. In the present value method of
discounted cash flow techniques, the cost of capital is used as the discount rate to calculate the NPV.
Notes The PI Index or benefit cost ratio method similarly employs to determine the
present value of future cash inflows. In case of internal rate of return method, the computed
IRR is compared with the cost of capital, and accept only the cases where they are more
than cost of capital.
In operational terms, cost of capital refers to the discount rate that would be used in determining
the present values of estimated future cash proceeds and eventually deciding whether the project
is worth accepting or not.
The cost of capital is considered as consisting of different sources of funds. The cost of each
source is called as specific cost of capital and these specific costs when combined refer to overall
cost of capital or weighted cost of capital.
Assumptions Cost of Capital

1.
That the firms business and financial risk are unaffected by the acceptance and financing
of projects.
2.
The firms financial structure is assumed to remain fixed. It implies that the additional
funds required to finance the new project are to be raised in the same proportion as the
firms existing financing.
Solved Illustrations
Illustraton 1: A project costing 5,60,000 is expected to produce annual net cash benefits of
80,000 over a period of 15 years. Estimate the IRR. Also, find the payback period and obtain the
IRR from it. How do you compare this IRR with the one directly estimated?
Solution:
Payback period =
174
5,60,000
.=7
80,000
Hence from the present value of annuity 115 years closest factors to 7 are 7.191, (at 11% rate of
discount) and 6.811 (at 12% rate of discount). Hence IRR would be somewhere between 11% and
12%.
Notes
Using interpolation IRR would be:

11% +
7.191 7
0.191
= 11% +
= 11.5%
7.191 6.811
0.380
We know that reciprocal of payback period is a good approximation of the IRR provided the life
of the project is large or at least twice the payback period and the project generates equal annual
cash inflows. Since both the conditions are satisfied. IRR would be reciprocal of the payback
period i.e., 1/7 = 14.28%.
The two IRRs are different. The second method is an approximation present value whereas the
first gives the correct IRR, since at that discount rate cash inflows equals the cost of the project or
the net present value is zero.
Illustration 2:
Valuable Products are considering purchase of a machine for its production line. Two types of
options are available deluxe model with 30,000 initial cost and economy model with 20,000
initial cost. Each model has 5 years life and no salvage value. The net cash flows after taxes
associated with each investment proposal are:
Deluxe Model
Economy Model
9,000
6,000
Net cash flows after taxes 15 years

Solution:
1.
Net Present Value Method:

Cash inflow after taxes
Total Present Value
Years
Deluxe Model
( )
Economy Model PV Factor

( )
10%
Deluxe Model
( )
Economic
Model ( )
15
9,000
6,000
34,116
22,744
Deduct initial cost
30,000
20,000
Net Present Value
4,116
2,744
3.7907
Hence, the model that gives higher NPV should be chosen i.e. Deluxe Model.
Remark: Since capital outlay was higher for Deluxe Model it has given higher NPV.
2.
Present Value Index:

Deluxe Model
Economy Model
34,116
30,000
22,744
20,000
1.1372
1.1372
Since both give same PI Index, we are indifferent as to both the models.
3.
IRR:
Deluxe Model
Economy Model
30,000
9,000
20,000
6,000
3.33 years
3.33 years
175
Notes
Decision: If the capital is adequate there are no constraints, the proposal that gives higher NPV
should be selected. In this case, the Deluxe Model.
Illustration 3:
The High Peaks Sporting Goods Stores have been plagued by numerous burglaries over the last
3 years. To keep insurance premiums at reasonable level and protect 10,00,000 inventory, the
store fixed a night watchman. The watchman has solved the burglary problem, but he costs the
firm 12,000 a year.
He is occasionally absent from work due to sickness or bad weather. A security system company
has offered to sell the store system that would eliminate the need for the night watchman. The
system has an expected useful life of 15 years. The security systems salesperson is computing
the cost of the system and will present a bid this week. The management estimates cost of capital
at 16%.
Required:
1.
What is the maximum bid the store should accept?
2.
If the bid is
3.
If the actual life of the security system is 12 years instead of 15, does it have any effect on
your answer in part (b)?
64,000 should the store accept?
Solution:
In this case there are two alternatives:
1.
To employ watchman at a salary of
12,000 a year.
2.
To buy the system that has an expected life of 15 years.
If one buys the system it will save 12,000 per year for 15 years i.e., at zero date it is equivalent
to 12,000 Cum Discount factor at 16% for 1 15 years = 12,000 5.575 = 66,900. Hence the
maximum bid the store should accept is 66,900. Any offer less than 66,900 is acceptable hence
if the bid is 64,000 the store should accept.
If the actual life of the security system is 12 years, the saving is equivalent to 12,000 Discount
factors at 16% 1 12 years = 12,000 5,197 = 62,364. Hence the maximum should be restricted
to 62.364 in this case. Therefore, the offer of 64,000 cannot be accepted in a situation where the
life of security is 12 years.
Illustration 4:
A company owns a machine, which is in current use. It was purchased at 1,60,000 and had a
projected life of 15 years with 10,000 salvage value. It has a depreciated straight line for 5 years
to date and could be sold for 1,30,000.
A new machine can be purchased at a total cost of 2,60,000 have a 10year life salvage value of
10,000 and will be depreciated straight line. It is estimated that the new machine will reduce
labour expenses of 15,000 per year and net working capital requirement of 20,000. The
income tax rate applicable to the company is 40% and its required rate is 12% on investment.
Determine whether the new machine should be purchased. The income statement of the firm
using the current machine for the current year is as follows:
Sales
176
20,00,000
Labour
7,00,000
Material
5,00,000
Depreciation
2,00,000
14,00,000
Earnings before Tax
6,00,000
Taxation @ 40%
2,40,000
Profit after tax
3,60,000
Assume that if the sale proceeds of machine exceed the depreciated value, so much of the excess
as does not exceed the difference between the costs and written down value, shall be subject to
income tax. Given cumulative present value factor 110 years at 12% 5.650 and present value
factor year 10 at 12% 0.322.
Notes
Solution:
(
Saving of labour expenses due to new machine
15,000
Less: Increase in depreciation on account of new machine

25,000
Depre. on account of existing machine
10,000 15,000
Net increase in profits
Add depreciation added back
15,000
Incremental cash inflow per year
15,000
Capital investment:
Cost of the new machine
2,60,000
Sale proceeds of old machine
() 1,30,000
Tax on account of sale of old machine:

Sale proceeds
1,30,000
Depreciated value 160,000 5 10,000
1,10,000
40% tax
Reduction in Working Capital
20,000
8,000
() 20,000
118,000
Inflow:
Saving from operations 1 - 10 years @
15,000 5,650
Sale proceeds at 10th year 10,000 0.322
84,750
3,220
Reduction in working capital

restored at the end of the project 20,000 0.322
() 6,440
Net Present Value
81,530
() 36,470
Since the net present value is negative, the new machine should not be purchased.
Illustration 5:
A company is setting up a project at a cost of 300 lakhs. It has to decide whether to locate the
plant in a Forward Area (FA) or Backward Area (BA). Locating in Backward area means a cash
subsidy of 15 lakhs from the Central Govt. Besides, the taxable profits to the extent of 20% is
exempt for 10 years. The project envisages a borrowing of 200 lakhs in either case.
The cost of borrowing will be 12% in Forward Area and 10% in Backward Area; costs are bound
to be higher in Backward Area. However, the revenue costs are bound to be higher in Backward
177
Notes
Area. The borrowings (principal) have to be repaid in 4 equal annual installments beginning
from the end of the 4th year.
With the help of following information and by using DCF technique you are required to suggest
the proper location of the project. Assume straight-line depreciation with no residual value.
Profit (Loss) before Depreciation and Interest
( Lakh)
Year
FA
BA
Present value factor

@ 15%
-6
-50
0.87
34
-20
0.76
54
10
0.66
74
20
0.57
108
45
0.5
142
100
0.43
156
155
0.38
230
190
0.33
330
230
0.28
10
430
330
0.25
Solution: Forward Area:
Year
Profit
before
Int.&
Depre.
Depre.
Interest
Profit
after
Depre.
& Int.
Tax
PAT
Cash
inflow
= PAT+
Depre
Cash
outflow
Net
cash
PV
Discount
Value of
cash flow
100
100
100
30
24
60
60
30
30
.87
26.1
34
30
24
20
20
10
10
.76
7.6
54
30
24
30
30
.66
19.8
74
30
24
20
20
50
50
108
30
18
60
60
90
50
40
.50
20
142
30
12
100
50
50
80
50
30
.43
12.9
156
30
120
60
60
90
50
40
.38
15.2
230
30
200
100
100
130
130
.33
42.6
330
30
300
150
150
180
180
.28
50.4
10
430
30
400
200
200
230
230
.25
57.5
.57
100
Notes: Year 1 and Year 2 loss of 60 and 20 respectively and Year 4 and 5 loss adjusted against the
years profit to the extent of 20 and 60 respectively.
178
Notes
Backward Area:
Year
Profit
before
Int.&
Depre.
Depre. Interest
Profit
after
Depre.
& Int
Cash
inflow
Cash
Tax PAT
= PAT+ outflow
Depre
Net
cash
flow
PV
Factor
Discount
PV
85
85*
1.0
85
0
1
50
30
20
100
100
70
70
.87
60.9
20
30
20
70
70
40
40
.76
30.4
10
30
20
40
40
10
10
.66
6.6
20
30
20
30
30
50
50
.57
28.5
45
30
15
30
50
20
.50
10.0
100
30
10
60
60
90
50
40
.43
17.2
155
30
120
120
150
50
100
.38
38
190
30
160
40
120
150
150
.33
49.5
230
30
200
80
120
150
150
.28
42.0
10
330
30
300
120
180
210
210
.25
52.5
* After adjusting cash subsidy of
15 lakhs received from the Central Government.
In the year 6 and 7, since the profits earned during the years were less than loss carried forward
there was no tax liability.
In the year 8, profits of 160 lakhs were adjusted against loss c/f i.e. 100 + 70 + 40 + 30 60 120
i.e. 60 balance profit of 100 lakhs out of which 20% was tax free and the remaining 80%
80 lakhs was subject to tax @ 50% of 40 lakhs.
In the years 9 and 10, profits to the extent of 20% were tax free, balance 80% subject to tax of 50%,
hence tax during the years were 200 0.8 0.5 i.e., 80 lakhs and 300 0.8 5 i.e., 120 lakhs
respectively.
Decision: The net present value of the project in the Forward Area is 100.2 lakhs whereas it is
negative to the extent of 22.2 lakhs in the Backward Area. Therefore, proper location of the
project is the Forward Area.
Illustration 6:
TSL Ltd. a highly profitable and tax paying company is planning to expand its present capacity
by 100%. The estimated cost of the project is 1,000 lakhs out of which 500 lakhs is to be met out
of loan funds. The company has received two offers from their bankers:
Option 1
Values of loan
500 lakhs
Option 2
US $ 14 lakhs equal to 500 lakhs
Interest
15% payable yearly
6% payable (fixed) yearly in US $
Period
5 years
5 years
Repayment
In 5 installments, First installment

is payable 1 year after draw down?
same as Option 1
Other expenses (Average)

Future exchange
rate
1 % of the value of the loan

-
1 % of USA = 36 (Average)
End of 1 year USA = 8 thereafter
to increase by 2 per annum.
The company is liable to pay Income tax at 35% and eligible for 25% depreciation of W.D. value.
You may assume that at the end of the 5th year, the company will be able to claim balance in
179
Notes
WDV for tax purposes. The company follows Accounting Standard AS - 11 for accounting changes
in Foreign Exchange Rate.
Required:
1.
Compare the total outflow of cash under the above options.
2.
Using discounted cash flow technique, evaluate the above offers.
3.
Is there any risk, which the company should take care of?
4.
In case TSL has large volume of exports would your advice be different.
The following discounting table may be adopted:

Years
Discounting factor
.921
.848
.781
.720
.663
Net
outflow
Discount
factor
Present
value
1.75
3.25
3.25
26.25
148.75
0.921
137
Solution:
Option I: Loan in Rupees:
Year
Repayment
of Principal
Interest
@ 15%
Other
expenses
Tax
savings
100
75
100
60
21
139
0.848
117.872
100
45
15.75
129.25
0.781
100.944
100
30
10.5
119.5
0.720
86.040
100
15
5.25
109.75
0.663
72.764
500
225
80.5
649.5
517.87
Option II: As per AS 11, the foreign exchange difference arising out of loan repayment in
foreign currency is to be capitalized. Similarly, the outstanding loan balances at each year-end
have to be converted at foreign exchange rate prevailing at the end of the year and the difference
has to be capitalized.
Option III: Foreign Currency Loan
Exch.
Rate
Year
Repay.
of
Principal
Interest
@ 6%
Other
charges
Total
amount
Repay.
of
Principal
(US $ in Lakhs.)
0.140
Int.
Other
charges
Total
payments
( Lakhs)
36
38
2.8
0.840
3.640
106.4
31.92
138.32
40
2.8
0.672
3.472
112
26.88
138.88
42
2.8
0.504
3.304
117.6
21.168
138.768
44
2.8
0.336
3.136
123.2
14.784
137.984
46
2.8
0.168
2.968
128.8
7.728
136.528
14
2.520
16.660
588
102.48
0.140
0.140
5.04
5.04
5.04
695.52
Tax saving on additional depreciation on fixed assets on account of increase in loan amount at
the year-end due to foreign exchange fluctuation and repayment of loan.
180
Year
Loan
amount
o/s
in US $
Lakhs
(1)
(2)
Increase in
loan due to
foreign
exchange
fluctuations.
Opening
WDV on
addition
TOTAL
Depreciation
25% on
additions (5)
(3)
(4)
(5 =3 + 4)
25% on (6)
14
32
32
11.2
22.4
24
8.4
16.8
5.6
11.2
2.8
5.6
Notes
Tax
savings
on
additions
@ 35%
Closing
WDV on
additions.
(7)
(8 = 5-6)
2.8
24
46.4
11.6
4.06
34.8
34.8
51.6
12.9
4.515
38.7
38.7
49.9
12.475
4.366
37.425
37.425
43.025
43.025*
15.059
* Assumed that full benefit will be claimed for tax purposes.
Year
Amt of
interest
and other
charges
5.040
Tax
saving
of Int.
and
other
charges
Tax savings
on Addl.
Depreciation
1.764
Total
payments
Net cash
outflow
5.04
3.276
Discount
factor
Present
value
3.276
31.92
11.172
2.8
138.32
124.348
.921
114.525
26.88
9.408
4.06
138.88
125.412
.848
106.349
21.168
7.408
4.515
138.768
126.845
.781
99.066
14.784
5.174
4.366
137.984
128.444
.720
92.480
7.728
2.704
15.059
136.528
118.765
.663
78.741
37.630
30.800
695.52
727.090
494.437
1.
The absolute and discounted value of Option II seems to be better than Option I. However,
the company has to be careful about future exchange rate, since the indicated rates are
more by rule of a thumb rather than based on any specific approach. The company should
cover possible foreign exchange fluctuations in future and then work out the value.
2.
In case the company has good volume of exports, then it may help the company to help in
future payments. In that case, the company may take a lenient view of covering foreign
exchange risk.
Illustration 7:
S Engineering Company is considering replacing or repairing a particular machine, which has
just broken down. Last year, this machine costed 20,000 to run and maintain. These costs have
been increasing in real terms in recent years with the age of the machine. A further useful life of
5 years is expected, if immediate repairs of 19,000 are carried out. If the machine is not repaired
it can be sold immediately to realize actual 5,000 (ignore loss/gain on such disposal).
Alternatively, the company can buy a new machine for 49,000 with an expected life of 10 years
with no salvage value after providing depreciation on straight-line basis. In this case, running
and maintenance costs will reduce to 14,000 each year and are not expected to increase much in
real terms for a few years at least.
S Engineering Company regards an annual return of 10% p.a. after tax as a minimum requirement
on any new investment. Considering the Capital Budgeting technique, which alternative will
you choose? Take corporate tax rate of 50% and assume that depreciation on straight-line basis
will be accepted for tax purposes also.
181
Notes
Given cumulative present value of Re. 1 p.a. @ 10% for 5 years
3,791 and for 10 years
6,145
Solution:
9,500
Repairing existing machine

Cost of repairs is 19,000 net of tax
Equivalent annual cost for 5 years
9,500 3.791
= 2506
Annual Running & Maint. cost for 10 years
10000
20,000 net of tax

Total annual cost
12506
Buying new machinery

Purchase cost
49000
Less: realization from old machine
5000
Annual equivalent cost for 10 years
44000/6145
7160
Running & Maint. cost per machine
14000/net of tax
7000
49000/10/ 50
(2450)
Tax benefit of depreciation p.a.

Total annual cost
11710
Difference in annual cost in buying
796
Since annual cost of buying is less than that of repairing, one should go for buying option.
Second solution:
1.
To repair existing machine.

Cost of repair immediately net of tax. ( 19,000 50%)
2.
9,500
Running & Maint. Cost of 5 years ( 20,000 3.791)
37,910
Total net present value of after tax cash outflows for 5 years.
47,410
Hence net equivalent cash outflows p.a. 47,410/3.791
12,506
To buy new machine

Purchase cost of new machine
Less: Sale proceeds of old machine
Tax benefit on depreciation p.a. ( 49000/1050%)
49,000
5,000
(2,450)
Running & Maint. Cost p.a. (50% of 14000)
7,000
Net cash outflow for 10 years ( 45506.145)
4,550
Net cash outflows for 10 years.

Hence net equivalent cash outflows p.a.
44,000
27,960
71,960
71,960/6.145
11,710
Since, net equivalent cash outflow p.a. for buying a new machine 11,710 is less than net
equivalent outflows of 12,506 for repairing of an existing machine. Therefore, it is advisable
that the company should go for buying a new machine.
182
Notes
!
Caution Project with Unequal Lives: Where one is considering more than one project
(mutually exclusive projects) with different project lives, one should consider the equivalent
annual value method. Under this method, work out the following:
1.
The total net present value of after tax cash flows of each project during the project
life.
2.
Divide the NAV of cash flows by the annual factor corresponding to the life of the
project at the given cost of capital, the result and figure in the equivalent annual net
present value. (EANPV).
The decision criteria, in the case of revenue expanding proposal, is the maximization of
EANPV and minimization of equivalent annual cost of in the case of cost reduction
proposal. This is illustrated in example above.
Task A machine purchased 6 years ago for 1,50,000 has been depreciated to a book
value of 90,000. It originally had a projected life of 15 years and zero salvage value. A
new machine will cost 2,50,000 and result in a reduced operating cost of 30,000 per year
for the next 9 years. The older machine could be sold for 50,000. The cost of capital is 10%.
The new machine will be depreciated on a straight-line basis over 9 years life with 25,000
salvage value. The companys tax rate is 50%; determine whether the old machine should
be replaced.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
10.
The net cash outlay is the different amount of money that will be spent when the investment
is made in year....
11.
The cost of capital is an important element as basic input information in .

decisions
9.6 Capital Decision under Risk and Uncertainty

In discussing the capital budgeting techniques, we have so far assumed that the proposed
investment projects do not involve any risk. The assumption was made simply to facilitate the
understanding of the capital budgeting techniques. In real life situations, the firm in general and
its investment projects in particular are exposed to different degrees of risk. What is risk and
how can risk be incorporated and measured in investment decisions in real world situation.
Nature of Risk
In the context of capital budgeting, the term, risk, refers to the chance that a project will prove
unacceptable that is NPV < 0 or IRR < cost of capital. More formally, risk in capital budgeting
is the degree of variability of cash flows. Projects with a small chance of acceptability and a
broad range of expected cash flows are more risky than projects that have a high chance of
acceptability and a narrow range of expected cash flows.
In the capital budgeting projects, risk stems almost entirely from cash inflows, because the
initial investment i.e., cash outflow is generally known with relative certainty. These inflows
derive from a number of variables related to revenues expenditures and taxes.
183
Notes
Example: The level of sales, the cost of raw materials, labour rates, utility costs and tax
rates.
Risk is associated with the variability of future returns of a project. The greater the variability of
the expected returns, the riskier the project. Risk can however be measured more precisely. The
most common measures of risk standard deviation and co-efficient of variations are discussed
later, in this unit.
Notes Risk Analysis in Practice in India
Most companies in India account for risk while evaluating their capital expenditure
decisions. The following factors are considered to influence the riskiness of investment
projects:
Price of raw material and other inputs
Price of product
Product demand
Government policies
Technological changes
Project life
Inflation
Out of these factors, four factors thought to be contributing most to the project
riskiness one selling price product demand, technical changes and govt. policies.
The most commonly used methods of risk analysis in practice are: sensitivity analysis,
conservative forecasts include using short payback or higher discount rate for
discounting cash flows.
Except a very few companies, most companies do not use the statistical and other
sophisticated techniques for analyzing risk in investment decisions.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks
12.
In the context of capital budgeting, the term., refers to the chance that a project will
prove unacceptable.
13.
Risk is associated with the .of future returns of a project.
9.7 Conventional Techniques to Handle Risk

The following are conventional techniques to handle risk in capital budgeting:
Payback
Risk adjusted discount rate
Certainty equivalent
These methods are simple, familiar and partially defensible on theoretical grounds.
184
9.7.1
Notes
Payback
Payback is one of the oldest and commonly used methods for explicitly recognizing risk associated
with an investment project. Business firms using this method usually prefer short payback to
longer one and often establish policies that a firm should accept guidelines with some maximum
payback period say three to five years. Apart from simplicity, payback makes an allowance for
risk by:
1.
Focusing attention on the near term future and thereby emphasizing liquidity through
early recovery of capital and
2.
By favouring short-term projects over long-term riskier projects.
9.7.2
Risk Adjusted Discount Rate Approach (RAD)
Under this method, the amount of risk inherent in a project is incorporated in the discount rate
employed in the present value calculations. The relatively risky projects (e.g. project involving
introduction of new product into the untried market) would have relatively high discount rates
and relatively safe projects would have relatively low discount rates. The rationale for using
different risk adjusted rates for different projects is as follows. The rate of discount or the cost of
capital is the minimum acceptable rate of return which the investors demand in providing
capital to the firm for that type of investment since such rate is applicable elsewhere in the
economy on assets of similar risk. If the project earns less than the rates earned in the economy
for that risk, the shareholders will earn less and the value of the companys shares will fall. A
well accepted economic premise is that the required rate of return should increase with increase
in risks. Hence, the greater the risk, the greater should be the discount rate and vice versa.
The risk-adjusted rate can be used with both the NPV and IRR methods of evaluation of capital
expenditure. If NPV were positive, the proposal would qualify for acceptance. In case of the IRR, as
a decision criterion, the internal rate of return would be compared with the risk adjusted required
rate of return and if the former exceeds the latter, the proposal would be accepted, otherwise not.
The risk in connection with future projections has two dimensions. First as already mentioned,
riskiness of the projects at a particular point of time became of the nature of proposals, e.g.,
expansion of new products. Second, the risk may be different in the case of the same project over
time e.g., risk at the end of Second year may be more than that at the end of first year.
Advantage
1.
This method is simple to calculate and easy to understand, since companies in actual
practice apply different standards of discount for different projects.
Disadvantages and Difficulties

1.
Difficulty encountered is how to express a higher risk in terms of higher discount rates. It
is doubtful if the exercise would give objective results.
2.
It does not make direct use of the information available from the probability distribution
of expected future cash. Conceptually, this approach adjusts the wrong element. It is the
future cash flow of a project, which is subject to risk and hence should be adjusted and not
the required rate of return.
3.
The process of adding the risk premium to the discount rate leads to compounding of risk
over time. In other words, this method implies increase of risk with time and therefore
proposal in which risk does not necessarily increase with the time may not be properly
evaluated by this method.
185
Notes
In brief, this method can at best be considered as a crude method of incorporating risk into the
capital budgeting analysis.
Example: Let us determine the risk adjusted net present value of the following:
A
Net cash outlays ( )
Project life
Annual cash inflow ( )
1,00,000
1,20,000
2,10,000
5 years
5 years
5 years
30,000
42,000
70,000
0.4
0.8
1.2
Co-efficient of variation
The company selects the risk-adjusted rate of discount on the basis of coefficient of variation:
Coefficient of variation
Risk adjusted rate of discount
PV factor 1 to 5 years at risk

adjusted rate of discount
0.00
10%
3.791
0.40
12%
3.605
0.8
14%
3.433
1.2
16%
3.274
1.6
18%
3.127
2.0
22%
2.864
More than 2.0
25%
2.689
Solution:
Annual
cash
inflow
PV Factor
(1-5 years)
at market
discount
Rate
12%
30,000
3,605
1,08,150
8,150
14%
42,000
3,433
1,44,186
24,186
16%
70,000
3,274
2,29,180
19,180
Project
Net cash
outflow
Coefficient
of
variation
Market
discount
rate
1,00,000
0.4
1,20,000
0.8
2,10,000
1.2
9.7.3
Discounted
cash inflow
NPV
Certainty Equivalent Approach
Under this method, risk element is compensated by adjusting cash inflows rather than adjusting
the discount rate. The risk adjustment factor is expressed in terms of certainty equivalent
coefficient i.e. the relationship between certain (riskless) cash flows and risky (uncertain) cash
flows. The certainty equivalent coefficient can assume a value between 0 and 1 and is inversely
related with risk. If risk is more, certainty is less and certainty coefficient small and vice-versa.
The coefficients can be determined by subjective or objective assessments of cash flows that will
rise certainly and cash flows that are likely to occur.
The second step under this approach after conversion of expected cash flows into certainty
equivalents, is to calculate their present values based on the risk-free rate of discount (which
appropriately reflects the time value of money). Finally, it has to be decided whether the project
would be accepted or not, based on either NPV or the IRR method.
Advantages
1.
It is simple to calculate.
2.
It incorporates risk by modifying the cash flows, which are subject to risk.
Conceptually, it is superior to the time adjusted discount rate approach.
186
Notes
Weakness and Difficulties

1.
Being a subjective estimate it cannot be objective, precise and consistent, hence conclusions
based on such estimates are open to question.
2.
It does not directly use the probability distribution of possible cash flows.
3.
It cannot be consistently applied to various projects and over time.

Example:
Cash outflows
Cash inflows
1,50,000
Year 1
70,000
Year 2
90,000
Year 3
60,000
Riskless rate of return 9%

Risk adjusted rate of return for the current project 20%
Certainty equivalent coefficients for future cash inflows:
Year 1
0.90
Year 2
0.80
Year 3
0.65
Solution:
NPV based on risk-adjusted rate of discount
= 150,000 +
70,000 90000 60000

+
+
1.20
(1.20)2 (1.20)3
= 150,000 + 58,333 + 62500 + 41667 = 150000 + 162500

= 12500, positive; hence project should be accepted
NPV based on certainty equivalent coefficient:
= 150,000 +
70,000 0.90 90000 0.80 60000 0.65

+
+
1.09
(1.09)2
(1.09)3
= 150000 + 57798 + 60601 + 30115

= 150000 + 148514 = 1486
= Negative; hence project should not be accepted.
Hence from the above illustration, it is clear that both the above methods may not yield identical
results.
9.7.4
Probability Distribution Approach
The probability distribution of cash flows over different periods provides valuable information
about expected value of return and the dispersion of probability distribution of possible returns.
On this basis, an accept-reject decision can be taken.
The application of probability distribution approach in analysing risk in capital budgeting
depends upon the behaviour of the cash flows whether the cash flows are (a) independent or
187
Notes
(b) dependent. Independent means cash flows in future years are not affected by cash flows in the
preceding or following years. On the other hand, when cash flows in one period are dependent
on cash flows in previous year, they are referred to as dependent cash flows. Let us first discuss
the application of probability theory to analyze risk in capital budgeting assumption of
independent cash flows:
n
1.
NPV =
t=1
Expected cash inflow during each period

Cash outflow
(1 + riskless rate of interest)
t = 1 (1 + riskless rate of interest)t

t = years/period
Now expected cash inflow in each period = Diff. levels of cash inflow Probability at each
level
Probability at
n
2.
each level
t=1
3.
different levels cash inflow expected cash inflow
in each period
each period
2t
(1 + riskless rate of interest)
By making use of normal probability distribution, one can analyze further. The element
of risk in capital budgeting i.e. probability of different expected values of NPV i.e. the
probability, of NPV having the value, zero or less, greater than within the range of two
values and so on. Thus, the normal probability distribution an important statistical
technique in the hands of decision makers for evaluating the extent of risk of the project.
Notes The normal probability has a number of useful properties as follows:
of
1.
The area under normal curve, representing the normal probability distribution
equal to 1 (0.5 on either side of the mean).
2.
The curve has its maximum height at its expected value i.e., mean.
3.
The probability of occurrence beyond 3 x Standard Deviation is very near zero

(0.26%).
4.
Probability of an outcome falling within plus or minus 1 standard deviation from

the mean is 0.6826 or 68.26%, Range + 2 standard deviation 95.46%. Range + 3 standard
deviation 99.74%.
Example: A company is considering an investment in a project requiring initial outlay

50,000 with expected cash inflow generated over 3 years as follows:
Year 1
188
Year 2
Year 3
Cash flow
( )
Probability
Cash Flow
( )
Probability
Cash Flow
( )
Probability
15000
0.2
20000
0.5
25000
0.1
20000
0.4
23000
0.1
30000
0.3
25000
0.3
25000
0.2
35000
0.3
30000
0.1
28000
0.2
50000
0.3
1.
Assuming the probability distributions of cash outflows for future periods are independent,
the firms cost of capital is 10% and the firm can invest in 5% treasury bills, determine the
expected NPV.
2.
Determine the standard deviation about the expected value.
3.
If the total distribution is approximately normal and assumed continuous.

(a)
What is the probability of the NPV being zero or less.
(b)
Greater than zero.
(c)
Profitability index being 1.00 or less.
(d)
At least equal to mean.
(e)
10% below mean and 10% above mean.
(f)
The probability of NPV being (a) between the range of 15000 and 25,000
(b) between the range of 10000 and 20, 000 (c) at least 35, 000 (d) at least 7000.
Notes
Solution:
Period I
Period II
Period III
Cash
inflow
( )
Probability
Cash
inflow
probability
( )
Cash
inflow
( )
Probability
Cash inflow
probability
( )
Cash
inflow
( )
ProbabIlity
Cash inflow
probability
( )
15000
0.2
3000
20000
0.5
10000
25000
0.1
2500
20,000
0.4
8000
23000
0.1
2300
30,000
0.3
9,000
25,000
0.3
7500
25000
0..2
5000
35,000
0.3
10,500
0.1
3000
28000
0.2
5600
50,000
0.3
15,000
Mean
21,500
30,000
22,900
37,000
Determination of NPV
Mean of Cash Inflow
PV factor @ 5% (riskless)
Total PV
( )
Period 1
21500
0.952
20468
Period 2
22900
0.907
20770
Period 3
37000
0.864
31968
73206
Less Cash Outflow
50000
NPV
23206
Determination of standard deviation of each period:

Period 1
Square of
Deviation of Mean
Probability
Square of Deviation of
Mean Probability
Cash inflow
( )
Deviation from
Mean
15000
-6500
42250000
0.2
8450000
20000
-1500
2250000
0.4
900000
25000
3500
12250000
0.3
3675,000
30,000
8500
72250,000
0.1
7225,000
20250000
189
Notes
Standard Deviation =
10290000 = 4500
Period 2
Cash inflow
Square of Deviation
of Mean
Probability
Mean Probability
Deviation
from mean
20000
2900
8410000
0.5
4205000
23000
100
10000
0.1
1000
25000
2100
4410000
0.2
882000
28000
5100
26010000
0.2
5202000
10290000
20250000 = 3208
Period 3
Square of
Deviation of
Mean
Probability
Mean Probability
Cash
inflow
Deviation from
Mean
25000
12000
144000000
0.1
14400000
30000
7000
49000000
0.3
14700000
35000
2000
4000000
0.3
1200000
50000
+13000
169000000
0.3
50700000
81000000
810,00,000 = 9000
Standard Deviation about expected values:

189,850
4.355
43594
(4500)2 (3208)2 (9000)2
(1.05)2 (1.05)4 (1.05)6
Probability of NPV being zero or less: Calculate the difference between the specified point and
NPV and then divide by standard deviation (NPV). This is referred to as Z. In this case
0 23206
= 2484. According to Table Z, the Probability of NPV being zero is 0.4934. but the
9342
area. For the area of the left hand side of the normal curve is equal to 0.5, the probability of he
NPV being zero or less would be 0.5 0.4934 i.e. 0.0066. It means there is 0.66% probability that
the NPV of the project will be zero or less.
Z=
Greater than zero = 100 0.66% (as per above) = 99.34%

Probability index being 1.00 or less: For PI Index to be 1.00 or less, the NPV would have to be zero
or negative. Thus, the probability would be equal to 0.66% as calculated in the earlier part.
Atleast equal to mean: i.e. Z =
23206 23206
0
9342
Reading from the normal distribution table, we get the probability corresponding to 0 as 0.
Therefore, the probability of having NPV at least equal to mean would be equivalent to the area
to the right of the curve i.e., 0.5 = 50%.
190
Notes
10% below mean, and 10% above mean:

Z =
20,885 23206
0.248
9342
According to Table Z, the probability comes to 0.0979 i.e., 9.79% similarly for 10% above mean
it comes to 9.79%.
Between the Range of
15000 and
25000
Cumulative
Probability
Distribution
1
15000
23206
25000
Outcomes
Z1 =
15000 23206
0.878
9342
Z2 =
25000 23206
0.192
9342
According to Table Z, the probability corresponding to the respective values of Z1 and Z2 are
0.3100 and 0.0761. Summing up the values we have 0.3861 i.e., 38.61%.
Between the Range of
10000 and
20000
Cumulative
Probability
Distribution
10000 20000
Outcomes
23206
191
Notes
Z1 =
10000 23206
= 1.414
9342
Z2 =
20000 23206
= 0.343
9342
According to Table Z, the probability corresponding to these values of Z is 0.4213 and 0.1341.
Since both are on the left side of the normal curve, the probability of having its value between
10,000 and 20,000 would be the difference i.e. 0.4213 0.1341 = 0.2872 i.e., 28.72%.
At least
35,000
Z =
35000 23206
= 1.262
9342
According to table Z, the probability of having the NPV values 35,000 is 0.3965. The probability
of having NPV 35,000 or more would be 0.5 0.3965 = 0.1035 or 10.35%.
At least
7000 in this case
Z =
7000 23206
= 1.735
9342
According to Table Z, the probability of having the NPV value of 7000 is 0.4586. The probability
of NPV at least equal to 7000 would be more by 0.50 (area to the right side of the mean) i.e.
0.9586 or 95.86%.
Outcomes
Cumulative
Probability
Distribution
1
700
23206
350000
Outcomes
9.7.5
DecisionTrees Approach (DT)
DT is another useful alternatives for evaluating risky investment proposals. Under this method,
every possible outcome is weighed in probabilistic terms and then evaluated. This approach is
especially useful for situations in which decisions at one point in time also affect the decisions of
the firm at some later date. Another useful application of this approach is for such projects,
which require decisions to be made in sequential parts.
A decision tree approach as the name suggests, is a pictorial representation in tree form along
with branches of the magnitude, probability and inter relationship of all possible outcomes. As
a matter of convention the decision point is denoted by the symbol and the evens are denoted by
0. The key steps in decision tree analysis are:
192
1.
Identification of the problem and alternatives
2.
Delineation of the decision tree
3.
Specification of probabilities and monetary outcome
4.
Evaluation of various decision alternatives
Notes
Example: A firm has an investment proposal, requiring an outlay of 40,000. The

investment proposed is expected to have 2 years economic life with no salvage value. In year I,
there is a 0.4 probability that cash inflow after tax will be 25000 and 0.6 probability that cash
inflow after tax will be 30,000. The probabilities assigned to cash inflows after tax for the year
II are as follows:
The cash inflow year I
25,000
30,000
The cash inflow year II
12000
Probability 0.2
20,000
Probability 0.4
16,000
Probability 0.3
25,000
Probability 0.5
22,000
Probability 0.5
30,000
Probability 0.1
The firm uses a 10% discount rate for this type of investment.
Required:
1.
Construct a decision-tree for the proposed investment project.
2.
What net present value will the project yield if worst outcome is realized? What is the
probability of occurrence of this NPV?
3.
What will be the best and probability of that occurrence?
4.
Will the project be accepted? 10%, Discount factor
1 year
0.909
2 year
0.826
Solution:
Investment
proposal,
capital Outlay
40000
Year
1
prob
Cash
(nflow
(- )
Year
2
prob.
Cash
Inflow
( )
Path
no
Expected
NPV at
10% rate
of
discount
Joint
prob
(prob
year1x
prob.
Year 2)
Expected
NPV x
Joint
Prob.
0.4
25,000
0.2
0.3
0.5
12,000
16,000
22,000
1
2
3
-7363
-4059
897
0.08
0.12
0.20
-589
-487
179
0.6
30,000
0.4
0.5
0.1
20,000
25,000
30,000
4
5
6
3,790
7,920
12,050
0.24
0.30
0.06
910
2,375
723
3112
Expected NPV:
Cash Discount + Cash Discount
Inflow
Factor
inflow
Factor
Year 1
Year 2
Path
Cash
Outlay
1 = 25000
0.909
12000
0.826
40000
= 32637 40000 = 7363
2 = 25000
0.909
16000
0.826
40000
= 35941 40000 = 4059
3 = 25000
0.909
22000
0.826
40000
= 40897 40000 = 897
193
Notes
4 = 30000
0.909
20000
0.826
40000
= 43790 40000 = + 3790
5 = 30000
0.909
25000
0.826
40000
= 47920 40000 = 7920
6 = 30000
0.909
30000
0.826
40000
= 52050 40000 = 12050
The last column shows the expected NPV, which is obtained by summing up the product of NPV
and corresponding joint probability. The term of these weighted NPV is positive and therefore,
the project would be accepted.
This DT approach has the advantage of exhibiting in a birds eye view of all the possibilities
associated with the proposed project. Management also becomes aware well in advance of the
adverse possibilities when NPV is negative. The conditional nature of cash inflow associated
with the project is clearly shown. The main limitation of the method is that decision format may
become itself complex and difficult to understand and construct if the number of years of the
expected life of the project and the number of possible outcomes for each year are of large. For
instance, if we have 3-year project, there will be 27 paths (i.e. 33) and 59,049 (31") paths if the
project life is 10 years, assuming only three possible outcomes.
9.7.6
Applied Utility Theory
If the risk factor of the top management (i.e. the group that makes decisions regarding investment)
can be translated into a utility curve, the risk factor can be incorporated in the final decision in
a fairly simple and consistent manner.
Did u know? A utility function describes a persons risk attitude.
The utility function shows the utilities (an arbitrary measure of satisfaction) associated with
different monetary outcomes. Normally, utilities are shown as the vertical axis and monetary
returns are shown on the horizontal axis. A persons utility function can be obtained as follows:
1.
Find the monetary incomes that a person considers as relevant. The end may be designated
as A and B.
2.
Assign utility of 0 to A (the lowest outcome) and utility of 1 to B (the highest outcome).
3.
Determine the utility associated with any intermediate value by the following process:
4.
194
(a)
Present the individual with two alternatives. The first alternative of the intermediate
value X, the utility of which is to be determined, second alternative consists of a
lottery which has two possible outcome A and B with probabilities P1 and P2 attached
to them (P1 + P2 = 1). Ask the individual to choose one of the alternatives.
(b)
If the individual chooses the first alternative, revise the second alternative makes it
more attractive i.e., the value of P2 should be increased. If the individual chooses the
second alternative, raise the same to less attractive i.e., value of P2 should be decreased
and the value of P2 should be increased.
(c)
Continue the revision process laid down in (b), till the individual indifferent to both
alternatives.
(d)
When the individual becomes indifferent to both alternatives, the utility of A is

simply the value of P2.
Obtain the utility values of several intermediate outcomes and plot the utility function.
Once the utility curve of the decision-making unit is obtained, the expected utility project is
measured as follows:
1.
Define the probability distribution of NPV.
2.
Calculate the expected utility by using utility function.
Notes
u (NPVi) Pi
where
u(NPVi) = utility of the ith positive NPV

PI = Probability of ith possible outcome
Example: Let the probability distribution of NPV for a project be as follows:
NPV
10,000
20,000
30,000
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.2
Probability
Let the utility for money for the decision maker be as follows:
Money ( )
Utility
0
0.10
0.35
0.50
0.68
0.85
0.90
1.00
20,000
10,000
0
+ 10,000
+ 20,000
+ 30,000
+ 40,000
+ 50,000
Hence the expected utility of the project is:

= 0.10 0.1 + 0.35 0.3 + 0.68 0.4 + 0.85 0.2
= .01 + 0.105 + 0.272 + 0.17 = 0.557
Evaluation: This method is superior to other methods of risk adjustments since it offers an
approach for incorporating the risk factor consistently. However, the following are the problems:
1.
It is difficult to obtain the utility functions of an individual i.e., translating the risk attitude
of an executive requires patience and ingenuity on the part of the analyst.
2.
Utility function of the decision-maker may not remain stable over time, since it is dependent
on the organization financial position.
3.
There is no acceptable way of determining the utility function of a group. (Since investment
decisions are group decisions)
Hence, utility theory is not very useful for investment decisions where the cost and benefits are
spread over long period. It is, however, a potential tool for short-term investment.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
14.
Business firms using Payback method usually prefer ..payback.
15.
Under Certainty equivalent approach method, risk element is compensated by adjusting

cash inflows rather than adjusting the...
16.
A ..approach is a pictorial representation in tree form along with branches of

the magnitude, probability and inter relationship of all possible outcomes.
195
Notes
9.8 Statistical Techniques to Handle Risk

The estimates of cash inflows and outflows may be termed as probability estimates i.e., they
represent only likely happenings.
The uncertainty about future leads to variations in returns. Risk is perceived to be variability of
actual returns from the estimated returns. For example, if two projects are considered, one with
a NPV of 100 with probability I and other project with two possible outcomes.
NPV
Probability
200
0.5
0.5
Both the projects have the same NPV of 100. However, the risk profile of second project is
different from the first. The returns on the first project do not vary or are certain while in the
second project the returns can vary anywhere between 0 to 200 around its expected mean of 100.
Thus, the certainty of getting returns of 100 is much lesser in the second project as compared to
the first project making it more risky.
Actually, if risk and uncertainty factors are not taken into account there is always a danger that
capital expenditure evaluation may produce misleading results.
Method of Accounting for Risk

Having established the need for taking into account the risk involved in a capital expenditure
proposal, the different measures to quantity the risk in more precise terms are given below:
1.
Sensitivity Analysis: Sensitivity Analysis provides information as to how sensitive the

estimated project parameters, namely the expected cash flow, the discount rate and the
project life are to estimation errors by considering a number of possible outcomes. It
provides different cash flow estimates under three assumptions:
The worst (i.e. the, most pessimistic), the expected (i.e., the most likely) and the best
(i.e., the most optimistic) outcomes associated with the project.
Example:
Project X
Initial cash outlays
Project Y
80,000
80,000
Cash flow estimates (1 15 years) worst
12,000
Most likely
16,000
16,000
Best
20,000
32,000
10%
10%
15 years
15 years
Required rate of return

Economic life
Solution:
Project X
Worst
196
Project Y
PV
( )
NPV
( )
PV
( )
NPV
( )
91,272
11,272
NIL
80,000
Most likely
1,21,696
41,696
1,21,696
41,696
Best
1,52,120
72,120
2,43,392
1,63,392
The above gives very useful information about projects that appear equally desirable on
the basis of most likely estimates of their cash flows. Project X is less risky than Project Y,
since the quantum of variation is relatively less in Project Y. The actual selection of the
project (assuming projects are mutually exclusive) will depend on decision makers attitude
towards risk. If he is conservative, he will choose Project X since there is no possibility of
suffering losses. On the other hand, if he is a risk-taker, he will choose Project Y, as there
is a possibility of higher returns as compared to Project X.
Notes
Advantages: Since sensitivity analysis provides more than one estimate of future return
of a project, it is superior to the single figure forecast.
Limitation: The method does not disclose the chances of the occurrence of these variations.
To remedy this shortcoming of sensitivity analysis, so as to provide a more accurate
forecast, probability of the variation should be provided.
2.
Probability assignment to expected cash flow: This method provides a more precise measure
of the variability of cash flows since it indicates the percentage chance of occurrence of
each possible cash flow. For example, if some expected cash flow has (0.6) probability of
occurrence, it means that the given cash flow is likely to be obtained in 6 out of 10 times.
The quantification of variability of returns involves two steps. First, depending on the
chances of occurrence of a particular cash flow estimate, probabilities are assigned. The
second step is to estimate the expected return on the project. The returns are estimated in
terms of expected monetary values based on a weightage average return, weights are the
probabilities assigned.
Example: From the following information regarding expected cash flows and then
probability for Project X, what is the expected return of the project assuming 10% as
discount rate [Discount factor 10% year 1 0.909; year 2 0.826; year 3 0.751]
Year1
Year 2
Year 3
Cash flow
( )
Probability
Cash flow
( )
Probability
Cash flow
Probability
4,000
0.25
4,000
0.50
4,000
0.25
7,000
0.50
7,000
0.25
7,000
0.25
9,000
0.25
9,000
0.25
9,000
0.50
Solution: Cash flow

Year 1 = 4,000 0.25 + 7,000 0.50 + 9,000 0.25 =
6750
Year 2 = 4,000 0.50 + 7,000 0.25 + 9,000 0.25 =
6000
Year 3 = 4,000 0.25 + 7,000 0.25 + 9,000 0.50 =
7250
Calculation of Present Values:

Year 1 =
6750 0.909 = 6136, Year 2 = 6,000 0.826 =
Year 3 =
7250 0.751 = 5445

Total
4956
16,537
Advantages of the method: The assignment of probabilities and the calculation of expected
values, without doubt, taken into account the risk in terms of variability in explicit terms
of investment decisions.
197
Notes
Limitation: The method does not provide the decision-maker with a concrete value
indicative of variability and therefore risk. The standard deviation and the coefficient
variation are two such measures, which tell us about the variability associated with the
expected cash flow in terms of degree of risk. Standard deviation can be applied when the
project involves the same outlay. If the prospects to be compared involve different outlay,
the coefficient of variation is the correct choice, being a relative measure.
3.
Standard Deviation and Co-efficient of variation: In statistical terms, standard deviation

is defined as the square root of the mean of the standard deviations, where deviation is the
difference between an outcome and the expected mean value of all outcomes. Further,
calculate the value of standard deviation after providing weights to the square of each
deviation (its probability of occurrence).
The greater the standard deviation of a probability distribution, the greater is the dispersion
of outcomes around the expected values.
If the two prospects have the same expected value (mean) then one that has the greater
standard deviation will said to have the higher degree of uncertainty or risk.
However, if the size of the projects outlay differs, the decision-maker should make use of
the coefficient of variation to judge the riskiness of the project.
Example: The probability distribution of two projects NPVs is given below:
Project X
Project Y
NPV ( )
Probability
5,000
7,500
10,000
0.2
0.7
0.1
NPV
Probability
0
7500
15,000
0.1
0.7
0.2
Calculate the expected value, the standard deviation and the coefficient of variation for
each project. Which of these mutually exclusive projects do you prefer and why?
Solution: Project X
NPV
Probability
NPV-Arithmetic
mean
Square of
deviation
Probability
5,000
7,500
10,000
1,000
5,250
1.000
2,250
250
2,750
50,62,500
62,500
75,62,500
0.2
0.7
0.1
Mean
7,250
NPV
Square of
deviation
Probability
10,12,500
43,750
7,56,250
18,12,500
Standard deviation =
18,12, 500 1, 346
Project Y
NPV
( )
0
7,500
15,000
NPV x
Probability
( )
0
5,250
3.000
8,250
NPV
Arithmetic
mean
8,250
750
6,750
Square of
deviation
680,62,500
5,62,500
455,62,500
Mean
198
Probability
0.1
0.7
0.2
Square of
deviation x
Probability
68,06,250
3,93,750
91.12.500
163,12,500
Standard deviation =
Notes
163,12,500 = 4,039
The standard deviation of the project X is smaller than that of project Y. Therefore, it can be
concluded that Project X is less risky than project Y.
The conclusion regarding the superiority of Project X over Project Y would hold if the
projects have an equal size of outlay. However, if the size of the projects outlay differs, the
decision-maker should make use of the coefficient of variation to judge the riskiness of the
project. In this case
Coefficient of variation of Project X =
Standard Deviation
1,346
=
= 0.18
Arithmetic Mean
7,250
Coefficient of variation of Project Y = Standard Deviation = 4039 = 0.49

Arithmetic Mean
8250
The higher the coefficient of variation, the more risky is the project. Project Y is, therefore,
more risky than Project X.
Task A company is considering Projects X and Y with the following information:

Project
X
Expected Net Present Value
Standard Deviation
60,000
40,000
Y
227,000
135,000
Which project will you recommend? Will your answer change if we use coefficient of
variation as a measure of risk instead of standard deviation? Which measure is more
appropriate in this situation? Give reason.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
17.
.analysis provides more than one estimate of future return of a project.
18.
If the two prospects have the same expected value (mean) then one that has the greater
..will said to have the higher degree of uncertainty or risk.
Case Study
Case: Mavis Machine Shop
he case is set in an metalworking shop in West Virginia, one of whose products is

drill bits for oil exploration. The time is 1980, in the midst of an oil drilling boom
resulting from the oil crises of 1974 and 1979.
Early in 1980, Tom Mavis, President of Mavis Machine shop was considering a project to
modernize his plant facilities. The company operated out of a large converted warehouse
in Salem, West Virginia. It produced machinery or assorted machined metal parts for the
oil and gas drilling and production industry in the surrounding area. One of Mavis major
Contd...
199
Notes
customer was Buckeye Drilling, Inc., which purchased specialized drill bits and replacement
parts for its operations. Mavis had negotiated an annual contract with Buckeye to supply
its drill bit requirements and related spare parts in each of the past 8 years. In 1978 and
1979 the requirements had been about 8,400 bits per year. All Buckeyes rigs were busy.
Mavis knew, there were 30 rigs operating in the state and that it had resin up from 17 in
1972. Wells drilled was up even more, from 679 in 1972 to 1,474 last year.
The arrangement of the machine shop included four large manual lathes currently devoted
to the Buckeye business. Each lathe was operated by a skilled worker, and each bit required
mechanical keep. Mavis was considering replacing these manual lathes with an automatic
machine, capable of performing all four machinery operations necessary for a drill bit.
This machine would produce drill bits at the same rate as the four existing lathes, and
would only require one operator. Instead of skill in metalworking, the job would now
involve more skill in computerized automation.
The four existing manual lathes were 3 years old and had cost a total of $590,000. Together
they produced 8,400 drill bits on a two-shift, 5-day/week basis. The useful life of these
lathes, calculated on a two-shift/day, 5 day/week basis, was estimated to be 15 years. The
salvage value at the end of their useful life was estimated to be $5,000 each. Depreciation
of $114,000 had been accumulated on the four lathes. Cash for the purchase of these lathes
had been partially supplied by a 10-year, unsecured, 10% bank loan, of which $180,000 was
still outstanding. The best estimate of the current selling price of the four lathes in their
present condition was $240,000, after dismantling and removal costs. The loss from the
sale would be deductible for tax purposes, resulting in a tax savings of 46% of the loss.
The automatic machine being considered needed only one skilled operator to feed in raw
castings, observe functioning, and make necessary adjustments. It would have an output of
8,400 drill its annually on a two-shift, 5day basis. As it would be specially built by a
machine tool manufacturer, there was no catalogue price. The cost was estimated to be
$680,000, delivered and installed, the useful life would be 15 years. Using a 12-year life (the
remaining life of the current lathes). The estimated salvage value would be 10% of the cost.
The automatic lathe was first introduced in1975 at a cost of $ 750,000. It was expected that
as the manufacturing techniques became more generally familiar, the price would continue
to drop over the next few years. This price decline was in stark contrast to the inflation in
oil services products and supplies which was 18% in both, 1978 and 1979.
A study prepared by the cost accountant to help decide, what action to take, showed the
following information. The direct labour rate for lathe operations was $10 per hour
including fringe benefits. Pay rates for operators would not change as a result of machining
changes. The new machine would use less floor space, which would save $15,000 annually
on the allocated charges for square footage of space used, although the layout of the plant
was such that the left space unoccupied would be difficult to utilize and no other use was
planned. Miscellaneous cash expenses for supplies, maintenance, and power would be
$20,000 less per year, if the automatic machine were used. The purchase price was subject
to 10% investment tax credit that did not reduce the depreciable cost.
Exhibit 1: Mavis Machine Shop Selected Financial Information
Condensed Income Statement, 1979
Neat Sales
Cost of Goods Sold
Selling, General & Administrative
Profit before Taxes
Income Taxes
Net Income
200
85,364,213
3,494,941
643,706
81,225,566
602,851
8622,715
Contd...
Neat Sales
85,364,213
Cost of Goods Sold
3,494,941
Selling, General & Administrative
643,706
Profit before Taxes
81,225,566
Income Taxes
Notes
602,851
Net Income
8622,715
Questions
1.
Summarize the net cash flows for the proposed project.
2.
For the project, calculate the internal rate of return, the accounting rate of return, the
payback period, the net present value and the profitability index.
3.
What qualitative factors should be considered in evaluating this project?
4.
What decision would you recommend?
9.9 Summary
Capital budgeting describes the firms formal planning process for the acquisition and
investment of capital and results in a capital budget.
Traditional Techniques to Analyze Capital budgeting decisionsTraditional Techniques of

Evaluation are Payback period, The Payback Reciprocal and Accounting Rate of Return (ARR).
Three discounted cash flow methods used in capital budgeting are Net Present Value
Method (NPV); the Profitability Index or Desirability factor and Internal Rate of Return
(lRR).
The net present value relies on the time value of money and the timings of cash flows in
evaluating projects.
Internal rate of return is the interest rate that discounts an investments future cash flows
to the present so that the present value of cash inflows exactly equals the present value of
the cash outflows
The process of selecting the more desirable projects among many profitable investments
is called capital rationing.
Risk in capital budgeting is the degree of variability of cash flows.
The conventional techniques to handle risk in capital budgeting are Payback, Risk adjusted
discount rate and Certainty equivalent method
The application of probability distribution approach in analysing risk in capital budgeting

depends upon the behaviour of the cash flows whether the cash flows are independent or
dependent.
The statistical techniques to quantity the risk in more precise terms are Sensitivity Analysis,
Probability assignment to expected cash flow and Standard Deviation and Co-efficient of
variation
9.10 Keywords
Break-Even Time: It is the time taken from the start of the project till the period the Cumulative
Present Value of cash inflows of a project equal to present values of the total cash outflows.
Capital Budgeting: It refers to planning and deployment of available capital for the purpose of
maximizing long-term profitability of the firm.
Capital Rationing: The allocation of the limited funds available for financing the capital projects
to only some of the profitable projects in such a manner that the long term returns are maximized.
201
Notes
Risk-free Rate: The rate at which the future cash flows of a project which is not subjected to risk
are discounted.
Risky Investment: Risk in an investment refers to the variability that is likely to occur between
the estimated returns and the actual returns.

1.
Why is capital budgeting significant to the firm?
2.
How should working capital and sunk costs be treated in analyzing investment
opportunities? Explain with suitable examples.
3.
Depreciation is a non-cash item and consequently does not affect the analysis of investment
proposal using discounted cash flow method? Comment.
4.
Contrast the IRR and the NPV methods. Under what circumstances may they lead to
(a)
Comparable recommendation
(b)
Conflicting recommendation in circumstances in which they given contradictory

results which criteria should be used to select the project and why?
5.
A project costing 5,60,000 is expected to produce annual net cash benefits of 80,000 over
a period of 15 years. Estimate the internal rate of return. Also find out the payback period
and obtain the IRR from it. How do you compare this IRR with one directly estimate?
6.
How is risk assessed for a particular investment by using a probability distribution?

Discuss the method with an example.
7.
Why are cash flows estimated for distant years usually less reliable than for recent years?
How can this factor be considered when evaluating the riskiness of a project?
8.
What similarities and differences are there between risk adjusted discount rate method
and the certainty equivalent method?
9.
What is sensitivity analysis? What are its advantages and limitations?
10.
KC company is considering two mutually exclusive projects. The initial cost of both
projects is 5000 and each has an expected life of four years. Under three possible states of
economy, their annual cash flows and associated probabilities are as follows:
Net Cash flow ( )
Economic state
Probability
Project A
Project B
Good
0.3
6000
5000
Normal
0.4
4000
4000
Bad
0.3
2000
3000
Answers: Self Assessment
202
1.
Capital budgeting
2.
reversible
3.
two-sided
4.
incidental
5.
minimum
6.
Profitability index
7.
Internal rate of return
8.
negative
9.
capital rationing
10.
zero
11.
capital investment
12.
risk
13.
variability
14. short
15. discount rate
16.
decision tree
17.
18.
Sensitivity
standard deviation
Notes
Books
Dr Pradeep Kumar Sinha, Financial Management, New Delhi, Excel Books, 2009.
Van Horne, J.C. and Wachowicz, Jr, J.M., Fundamentals of Financial Management,
New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 1996, p. 2.
Chandra, P., Financial ManagementTheory and Practice, New Delhi, Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing Company Ltd., 2002, p. 3.
203
Notes
Unit 10: Working Capital Management

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 Meaning and Concept of Working Capital
10.1.1
Factors Affecting Working Capital
10.2 Importance of Adequate Working Capital and Optimum Working Capital

10.3 Managing Working Capital
10.3.1
How much Working Capital is Needed
10.3.2
Forecasting Working Capital Needs
10.4 Working Capital Cycle (Operating Cycle)

10.4.1
Estimate of Future Working Capital based on Current Assets and Current

Liabilities
10.4.2
Working Capital Requirement based on Cash Cost
10.4.3
Effect of Double Shift Working on Working Capital Requirements
10.5 Working Capital Policy

10.5.1
Current Assets in Relation to Sales
10.5.2
Ratio of Short-term Financing to Long-term Financing
10.6 Financing of Working Capital

10.7 Regulation of Bank Finance
10.7.1
The Dehejia Committee
10.7.2
Tandon Committee
10.7.3
Recent Changes in Maximum Permissible Bank Finance (MPBF)
10.8 Summary
10.9 Keywords
Objectives
Recognize the meaning and significance of working capital
Explain how to determine working capital requirements
Describe the different aspects of Financing working capital needs
Discuss the issue of banking finance facility for working capital
Introduction
In the first unit, we have explained the major task of financial management and procurement of
funds and effective utilization of funds. Procurement of funds is firstly concurred for financing
of working capital requirement of the firm and secondly for financing fixed assets.
204
Working capital management is the functional area of finance that covers all the current accounts
of the firm. It is concurred with management of the level of the individual current assets as well
as management of total working capital.
Notes
10.1 Meaning and Concept of Working Capital

Working capital refers to the funds invested in current assets, i.e., investment in sundry debtors,
cash and other current assets. Current assets are essential to utilize facilities provided by plant
and machinery, land and buildings. In case of the manufacturing organization, a machine cannot
be used without raw material. The investment in the purchase of raw materials is identified as
working capital. It is obvious that a certain amount of funds are tied up in raw material inventories,
work in progress, finished goods, consumable stores, sundry debtors and day-to-day cash
requirements. However, the organization also enjoys credit facilities from its suppliers by way
of credit. Similarly, the organization need not pay immediately for various expenses, etc. the
workers are paid only periodically. Therefore, a certain amount of funds automatically become
available to finance the current assets requirement. However, the requirement of current assets
is usually greater than the amount of funds provided through current liabilities. The goal of
working capital management is to manage the firms current assets and current liabilities in
such a way that a satisfactory level of working capital is maintained.
From the point of view of concept the term, working capital, can be used in two different ways:
1.
Gross working capital: The gross working capital refers to investment in all the current assets
taken together. The total of investments in all current assets is known as gross working capital.
2.
Net working capital: Net working capital refers to the excess of total current assets over total
current liabilities. Current liabilities are those liabilities that are intended to be paid in the
ordinary course of business within a year, out of the current assets or earnings of the concern.
From the point of view of time, the term working capital can be divided into two categories:
1.
Permanent: It is also referred as hard core working capital. It is the minimum level of
investment in the current assets that is carried by the business at all times to carry out
maximum level of its activities. It should be financed by long-term sources.
2.
Temporary working capital: It refers to that part of working capital, which is required by
the business over and above permanent working capital. It is also called variable working
capital. Since the quantum of temporary working capital keeps on fluctuating from timeto-time depending on the business activities, at may be financed from short-term sources.
The following figure shows permanent and temporary or fluctuating or variable working capital:
Figure 10.1: Permanent and temporary Working capital
Fluctuating or temporary
Permanent
Fluctuating or temporary
Permanent
X axis -Time
Y axis- Amount of Working Capital- Permanent and Temporary or fluctuating
205
Notes
10.1.1 Factors Affecting Working Capital

The important factors are:
1.
General Nature of Business: In some organizations, the sales are mostly in cash basis and
the operating cycle (explained) later is also short. In these concerns, the working capital
requirement is comparatively low. Mostly, service companies come under this category.
In manufacturing companies, usually the operating cycle is very long and a firm is also
required to give credit to customers to boost sales. In such cases, working capital
requirement is high. Similarly, a trading concern requires lower working capital than a
manufacturing concern.
2.
Production Policy: Working capital requirements also fluctuate according to production

policy adopted by the company
Example: In case of products having seasonal demand a steady production can be
planned throughout the year in which case finished goods are to be kept for a longer
period. The other alternative is to produce only during the season in which case raw
materials have to be accumulated throughout the year.
3.
Credit Policy: A company, which allows liberal credit to its customers, may have higher
sales, but consequently will have larger amount of funds tied up in sundry debtors. Similarly
a company, which has very efficient debt collection machinery and offers strict credit
terms, may require lesser amount of working capital that the one where debt collection
system is not so efficient where the credit terms are liberal.
The creditability of a company in the market also has an effect on the working capital
requirement. Reputed and established concern can purchase raw material on credit and
enjoy many other services like door delivery after sales service, etc., This would mean that
they could easily have large current liabilities.
206
4.
Inventory Policy: The inventory policy of a company also has an impact on the working
capital requirements. An efficient firm may stock raw material for a smaller period and
may, therefore, require lesser amount of working capital.
5.
Abnormal Factors: Abnormal factors like strikes and lockouts require additional working
capital. Recessionary conditions necessitate a higher amount of stock of finished goods
remaining in stock. Similarly, inflationary conditions necessitate more funds, to maintain
the same amount of current assets.
6.
Market Conditions: In case of competitive pressure, large inventory is essential, as delivery

has to be off the shelf or credit has to be extended on liberal terms.
7.
Conditions of Supply: If prompt and adequate supply of raw materials, spares, stores, etc.,
is available it is possible to manage with small investments in inventory or work on JustIn-Time (JIT) inventory principles. However, if supply is erratic, scant, seasonal, channelised
through government agencies etc. it is essential to keep larger stocks increasing working
capital requirements.
8.
Business Cycle: Business fluctuations lead to cyclical and seasonal changes in the production
and sales and affect the working capital requirements.
9.
Growth and Expansion Activities: The working capital of the firm increases as it grows in
terms of sale or fixed assets.
10.
Level of Taxes: The amount of taxes to be paid is determined by the prevailing tax
regulations. Very often taxes have to be paid in advance on the basis of the profit of the
preceding year. Management has no discretion in regard to payment of taxes; in some

cases non-payment may invite penal action. There is, however, wide scope to reduce the
tax liability through proper tax planning.
11.
Dividend Policy: Payment of dividend utilizes cash while retaining profit acts as a source
of working capital. Thus working capital gets affected by dividend policies.
12.
Operating Efficiency: Efficient and co-ordinated utilization of capital reduces the amount
required to be invested in working capital.
13.
Price Level Charges: Inflationary trends in the economy necessitate more working capital
to maintain the same level of activity.
14.
Depreciation Policy: Depreciation charges do not involve any cash outflow. The effect of
depreciation policy on working capital is, therefore, indirect. In the first place, depreciation
affects the tax liability and retention of profits and on dividend.
15.
Vagaries in the Availability of Raw Materials: The availability or otherwise of certain

raw materials on a continuous basis without interruption would sometimes effect the
requirement of working capital. There may be some materials, which cannot be procured
easily either because their sources are few or they are irregular. To sustain smooth
production, therefore, the form may be compelled to purchase and stock them far in excess
of genuine production needs. This will result in an excessive inventory of such materials.
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1.
The total of investments in all current assets is known as ..working capital.
2.
The effect of depreciation policy on working capital is ..
10.2 Importance of Adequate Working Capital and Optimum

Working Capital
A concern needs funds for its day-to-day running. Adequacy or inadequacy of these funds would
determine the efficiency with which the daily business may be carried on. A large amount of
working capital would mean that the company has idle funds. Such firms have a cost. The
company has to pay large amount as interest on such funds. This results in over-capitalization.
Over-capitalization implies that the company has too large funds for its requirements, resulting
in a low rate of return a situation, which implies a less than optimal use of resources.
If the firm has inadequate working capital, it is said to be under-capitalized. Such a firm runs the
risk of insolvency. This is because paucity of working capital may lead to a situation where the
firm may not be able to meet its liabilities. It is interesting to note that many firms that are
otherwise prosperous (having good demand for their products and enjoying profitable marketing
conditions) may fail because of lack of liquid resources.
A question may arise as to what is the amount of optimum working capital for a firm.
It cannot be overemphasized that optimum working capital can be determined only with
reference to the particular circumstances of a specific situation. Thus, in a company where the
inventories are easily saleable and the sundry debtors are as good as liquid cash, the current
rates may be lower than 2 and yet the firm may be sound. An optimum working capital ratio is
dependent upon the business situation as such and the nature and composition of various current
assets.
207
Notes
Example: in the case of vanaspati manufacturing company enjoying high reputation and
credit terms in the market, a current ratio of 1.6 has been serving as ideal. On the other hand, a
company engaged in manufacturing heavy electrical equipment and machinery and the business
mostly being static electricity board might have to maintain a current ratio of more than 3.
The Trade-off between Profitability and Risk

The conversion of current assets for inventory to receivables to cash provides the sources of cash
used to pay the current liabilities. The cash outlays for current liabilities are relatively preferable.
When an obligation is incurred, the firm generally knows the corresponding payment will be
due. What is difficult to predict are the cash inflows the conversion of the current assets to more
liquid term. The more predictable its cash inflows, the less net working capital a firm needs.
Since most firms are unable to match cash inflows to cash outflows with certainty, current assets
that more than cover outflows for current liabilities are usually necessary. In general, the greater
the margin by which a firms current assets cover its current liabilities, the better able it will be
to pay its bills as they become due.
A trade-off exists between a firms profitability and its risk probability. In this context, is the
relationship between resources and costs generated by using the firms assets both current and
fixed in productive activities? A firms profits can be increased by (1) increasing revenues or
(2) reducing costs.. A firm that cannot pay its bills when due, is said to be technically insolvent.
Did u know? What is risk in short term context?
Risk, in the context of short-term financial management (working capital management) is

the probability that a firm will be unable to pay its bills as they become due.
Changes in Current Assets

How changing the level of firms current assets affects its profitability risk trade-off can be
demonstrated using the ratio of current assets to total assets. This ratio indicates the percentage
of total assets that is current. (It is assured that the level of total assets remains unchanged).
When the ratio increases, that is, when current assets increase profitability decreases. Why?
Because, current assets are less profitable than fixed assets. Fixed assets are more profitable
because they add more value to the product than provided by current assets.
The risk effect, however, decreases, as the ratio of current assets to total assets increase. The
increase in current assets increases net working capital, thereby reducing the risk of technical
insolvency. The opposite effects on profits and risk result from a decrease in the ratio of current
assets to total assets.
Changes in Current Liabilities

How changing the level of firms current liabilities affects its profitability risk trade-off can be
demonstrated by using the ratio of current liabilities to total assets. This ratio indicates the
percentage of total assets that has been financed with current liabilities. (Assume that the total
assets remain unchanged.) Then ratio increases, profitability increases, because the form uses
more of the less expensive current liabilities financing and less long term financing current
liabilities are basically debts on which the firm pays no charge or interest. However, when the
ratio of current liabilities to total assets increases, the risk of technical insolvency also increases,
because the increase in current liabilities in turns decreases not working capital. The opposite
effects on profit and risk result from a decrease in the ratio of current liabilities to total assets.
208
Table 10.1: The Effects of Changing Ratios in Profits and Risks

Ratio
Change in Ratio
Effect on Profits
Effect on Risk
Current Assets
Total Assets
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Current Liabilities
Total Assets
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
3.
If the firm has inadequate working capital, it is said to be...
4.
..implies that the company has too large funds for its requirements, resulting
in a low rate of return a situation
10.3 Managing Working Capital

This involves two processes:
1.
Forecasting requirements of funds: Changes in firms operation can have almost immediate
effects on the working capital.
Example: if the suppliers increase the price of raw materials, more money will be
tied up in inventory than earlier. Even if the firm can increase the price of its final
product, additional working capital will be required to support its sales efforts.
Did u know? A proactive manager with charges in operating activities will estimate the
working capital requirement and take necessary action for funds.
2.
Arranging funds: Once the requirement has been estimated, the manager will arrange the
necessary funds from the best source, for the lowest cost and for the time period involved.
The effective management of working capital is the primary means of achieving the firms
goal of adequate liquidity. It is after all, the working capital cash, marketable securities,
receivables and inventory that will be available to pay bills and meet obligations. It is
the net working capital i.e., difference of current assets over current liabilities that gives
the degree of protection against problems that might cause a shortage of funds.
Managing working capital requires a number of actions, including the following:

1.
Monitoring levels of cash receivables and inventory: On a daily or weekly basis, the
manager should know how much funds are tied up in each of the current asset accounts.
Ratio analysis offers a quick and reasonable accurate method of doing this. By comparing
ratios with previous periods and industry norms, the managers can identify the variation
and investigate. The following ratios can be used:
(a)
Current assets/total assets
(b)
Current assets/current liabilities
(c)
Current assets inventory/current liabilities
(d)
Cash and marketable securities/current assets
209
Notes
2.
To have understanding of the percentage of funds in current accounts: Working capital

represents a sizeable investment for most firms. Normally, 30 to 60% of the firms total
assets are tied up in current accounts.
3.
Recording time spent managing current accounts: Financial Managers spend much of their
time to the daily internal operations relating to current assets and current liabilities of the
firms. Although estimates vary, managers spent somewhere between on third and two
thirds of their time in managing the working capital.
!
Caution The manager should be aware of the relationship between current and fixed assets
and any charges in the percentage of funds in current accounts.
10.3.1 How much Working Capital is Needed

A number of factors need to be included in the analysis, such as the following:
1.
Size of the firm: It may be argued that a firms size, either in assets or sales will affect its
need for working capital. A small firm may have extra current assets as a cashier against
cash flow disruptions. Small firms have cash inflows from fewer sources than larger firms
and hence are more affected by the failures of a few customers to pay on time. Larger firms
with many sources of funds may need less working capital as compared to total assets on
sales.
2.
Activities of firm: If the firm requires to stock large inventory or sell on relatively easy
credit terms, it will have greater needs for working capital than firms providing services
or only having cash sales.
3.
Availability of credit: A firm with readily available credit from banks will be able to plan
for less working capital than a firm without such credit.
4.
Attitude towards profits: All funds have a cost; a relatively large amount of current assets
tends to reduce a firms profit. Some firms want extra working capital and are willing to
suffer small costs. Other firms maintain an absolute minimum of working capital to gain
the full profits from operation.
5.
Attitude towards risk: The greater the amount of working capital particularly cash and
marketable securities the lower the risk of liquidity problems. Firms that do not wish to
incur even slight risks of liquidity problem may like to keep extra cash. Other firms accept
the risks to earn profits and may not even keep adequate cash to pay bills always on time.
Did u know? Most firms seek to maintain sufficient working capital to meet their needs for
liquidity without tying up unnecessary funds.
10.3.2 Forecasting Working Capital Needs

The following are some of the methods used in practice:
210
1.
Current assets holding period: To estimate working capital requirements on the basis of
average holding period of current assets and relating them to cost based on company
experience in the previous year.
2.
Ratio of sales: To estimate working capital requirements as a ratio of sales on the

assumption that current assets charge with sales. This can be done through statistical
techniques like linear regression. A formula is developed for the straight line that best fits
the data and this formula can be used to express the relationship between two variables
say prior months sales and working capital. The most widely used regression technique
employs the method of least squares. Let us take the following figures extracted from the
books:
Notes
Table 10.2: Ratio of Sales

Month
Prior Months Sales

X (000)
Working Capital
Level Y (000)
X2
(000,000)
XY
(000,000)
January
450
300
202500
135000
February
400
300
160000
120000
March
350
250
122500
87500
April
300
220
90000
66000
May
250
200
62500
50000
June
500
400
250000
200000
July
700
500
490000
350000
August
600
450
360000
270000
September
300
300
90000
90000
October
250
250
62500
62500
November
650
500
422500
325000
December
550
400
302500
220000
5300
4070
2615000
1976000
x = 5300(000)
y= 4070(000)
x2=
2615000
(000,000)
xy = 1976000
Y = a + bx
y = Na + bx - 1
xy = ax + bx2
From (1) - 4070600 = 12 a + 5300,000 b
From (2) = 1976000 (000,000) = 53,00,000
To get the line of best for Y = a + bx, we can use the following formula
y = Na + bx
xy = ax + bx2
Solving the above two equations, we get,
a = 35638 and b = 0.687
Hence, the line of best fit Y = 35638 + 0.687
Suppose in October, the firm had sales of
35638 + 0.687 425000 = 327613
3.
1.25,000, the estimated working capital will be
Ratio of fixed investment: To estimate working capital requirements as a percentage of

fixed investment.
211
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
5.
The greater the amount of working capital particularly cash and marketable securities the
lower the risk of ..problems.
6.
A firm with readily available credit from banks will be able to plan for .working
capital.
10.4 Working Capital Cycle (Operating Cycle)

The working capital cycle refers to the length of time from purchase of production inputs (raw
materials) entering the production process (work in progress when labour costs and factory
overheads are incurred), work in progress get converted into finished products, finished products
when sold on credit and get converted into Accounts Receivable and Debtors being realized in
cash after the expiry of the credit period. Thus, there is a complete cycle from cash to cash
wherein cash gets converted into raw materials, work in progress, finished goods, debtors and
finally into cash again. Short-term funds are required to meet the requirement of funds during
this time period. This time period is dependent upon the length of time within which the
original cash gets converted into cash again. This cycle is also known as operating cycle or cash
cycle.
The working capital cycle is depicted below:
Figure 10.2: Working Capital Cycle
Working Capital Cycle
Cash
Raw Materials
Labour, Overhead
Debtors
Work-in-progress
Finished Stock
Notes The determination of working capital cycle helps in the forecast, control and
management of working capital. It indicates the total time lag and the relative significance
of its constituent parts. The duration of working capital cycle may vary depending on the
nature of the business. The duration of the operating cycle for the purpose of estimating
working capital is equal to the sum of the duration of each of the above events less the
credit period allowed by the suppliers.
Example: A company holds raw materials on an average for 60 days, it gets credit from the
supplier for 15 days, production process needs 15 days, finished goods are held for 30 days and
30 days of credit is extended to debtors. The total of all these days minus the credit days allowed by
the supplier is the total working capital cycle, i.e., 60 + 15 + 30 + 30 15 days, i.e., 120 days.
212
Notes
In the form of an equation, the operating credit process can be expressed as follows:
Operating cycle = R + W + F + D C
R = Raw material storage period
W = Work in progress holding period
F = Finished goods storage period
D = Debtors Collection period
C = Credit period allowed by the suppliers
The various components of operating cycle may be calculated as shown below:
Average stock of
1.
Raw material storage period =
raw material
Avg. cost of raw material
consumption per day
2.
Work in progress holding period =
Average work in progress inventory

Avg. cost of production per day
Est. production
direct labour
per unit
(in units)
Finished goods storage period =

12
months/
360 days
3.
Average stock of finished goods

Avg. cost of goods sold per day
Average book debts
Debtors collection period = Avg. credit sales per day
4.
Avg. trade creditors

5. Credit period availed from the suppliers = Avg. credit purchases per day
Example: From the following information of XYZ Ltd. Calculate:

1.
Net operating cycle period
2.
Number of operating cycles in a year

(a)
Raw material inventory consumed during the year
(b)
Average stock of raw material
(c)
Work in progress inventory (cost of production)
(d)
Average work in progress inventory
(e)
Finished goods inventory (cost of goods sold)
(f)
Average finished goods stock held
12,00,000
1,00,000
10,00,000
60,000
16,00,000
80,000
213
Notes
(g)
Average collection period for debtors
45 days
(h)
Average credit period availed from suppliers
30 days
(i)
No. of days in a year
360 days
Solution: Calculation of net operating cycle period of XYZ Ltd.
Avg. stock of RM
Raw material storage period (a) = Avg. cost of RM consumption/day
100,000
= 30 days
3333.33
Avg. WIP inventory

WIP Holding period (b) = Avg. cost of production per day
60,000
60,000
=
= 22 days
10,00,000 360 2777.77
Avg. F.G. inventory

Finished goods storage period (c) = Avg. cost of goods sold/ day
80,000
80,000
= 18 days
=
16,00,000 360
4444.44
Debtors Collection Period (d)
45 days
Total operating cycle (a) + (b) + (c) + (d)
115
Less. Avg. credit period availed
30
Net operating cycle period
85
No. of operating cycle in a year
360
= 4.2 times
85
10.4.1 Estimate of Future Working Capital based on Current Assets and

Current Liabilities
The estimate of future working capital can be made if the amount of current assets and current
liabilities can be estimated as follows:
The various constituents of current assets and current liabilities have a direct bearing on the
computation of working capital and the operating cycle. The holding period of various constituents
of operating cycle may either contract or expand the net operating cycle period. Shorter the
operating cycle period, lower will be the requirement of working capital and vice versa.
Estimation of Current Assets

The estimates of various components of working capital may be made as follows:
1.
214
Raw material inventory: If the funds to be invested in raw materials/inventory may be

estimated on the basis of production budget, the estimated cost per unit and the average
holding period of raw material inventory by using the following formula.
Est. production
(in units)
Avg. raw materials holding

Est. cost of raw materials
per unit
period (month/days)
12 month/360 days
Notes
Note: 360 days in a year are generally assumed to facilitate calculation

2.
Work in progress inventory: The funds to be invested in work in progress can be estimated
by the following formula:
Est. prodn.
(in units)
3.
Finished goods: The funds to be invested in finished goods inventory can be estimated
with the help of the following formula:
Est. prodn.
(in units)
4.
cost of prodn. (per
Avg. holding period of Finished
unit excl. dept.)

goods (month/days)
12 month/360 days
Debtors: Funds to be invested in trade debtors may be estimated with the help of the
following formula:
Est. credit sales

(in units)
5.
Avg. holding period of

Est. work in process
cost per unit

WIP (month/days)
12 month/360 days
cost of sales (per
Avg. debtor collection Period
unit excl. dept.)

12 month/360 days
(month/days)
Minimum desired cash and bank balance, to be maintained by the firm have to be added
in the current assets for calculation of working capital.
Estimation of Current Liabilities

Current liabilities generally affect computation of working capital. Hence the amount of working
capital is lowered to the extent of current liabilities (other than bank credit) arising in the
normal course of business. The important current liabilities like trade creditors, wage and
overheads can be estimated as follows:
1.
Trade creditors:
Est. yearly prod. Raw material req. per unit
Credit period granted by supplier

12 months /36 days
(months/days)
2.
Direct wages:
Est. production (in units) Direct labour per unit
Avg. time lag in payment of wages

12 months /360 days
(months/days)
3.
Overheads (other than depreciation and amortization)
C=
2UP
Avg. time lag in payment of overhead (months/days)
S
215
Notes
!
Caution The amount of overheads may be separately calculated for different types of
overheads. In the case of settling overheads, the relevant claim should be sales volume
instead of production volume.
Example: XYZ Co. Ltd. is a pipe manufacturing company. Its production cycle indicates
that materials are introduced in the beginning of the production cycle; wages and overhead
accrue evenly throughout the period of this cycle. Wages are paid in the next month following
the month of accrual, work in process includes full units of raw material used in the beginning
of the production process and 50% of wages and overheads are supported to be conversion costs.
Details of production process and the components of working capital are as follows:
Production of pipes per annum
12,00,000 units
Duration of the production cycle
One month
Raw materials inventory held
One-month consumption
Finished goods inventory held for
Two months
Credit allowed by creditors
One month
Credit given to debtors
Two months
Cost price of raw materials
60 per unit
Direct wages
10 per unit
Overheads
20 per unit
Selling price of finished pipes
100 per unit
Required to calculate: the amount of working capital required for the company.
Solution:
Statement showing determination of working capital
1.
Current Assets:
1200,000
12
(a)
Raw material inventory (1 month) =
(b)
Work in progress Production cycle 1 month
60
60,00,000
Raw materials (materials added at the beginning) 60,00,000

Wages and overheads (avg. 50% complete)
(10 + 20) 50% 12,00,000/12
(c)
15,00,000
Finished goods inventory (hold for 2 mths)

Total cost (60+10+20) 12,00,000 2/12
(d)
Debtors 2 months credit (Total cost
1,80,00,000
90)
Hence, 90 12,00,000 2/12
1,80,00,000
Total Current Assets
216
75,00,000
5,55,00,000
2.
Notes
Current Liabilities:
(a)
Creditors for raw materials (1 month credit period on purchases)

60 12,00,000 1/12
(b)
60,00,000
Creditors for wages one month

10 12,00,000 1/12
10,00,000
Net Working Capital
70,00,000
4,25,00,000
10.4.2 Working Capital Requirement based on Cash Cost

This approach is based on the fact that in the case of current assets, like sundry debtors and
finished goods etc. The exact amount of funds blocked is less than the amount of such current
assets.
Many experts, therefore, calculate the working capital requirements by working out cash cost of
finished goods and sundry debtors. Under this approach the debtors are calculated not as a
percentage of sales value but as a percentage of cash costs. Similarly, finished goods are valued
according to cash costs.
10.4.3 Effect of Double Shift Working on Working Capital Requirements

The increase in the number of hours of production has an effect on the working capital
requirements. The economy of introducing double shift is the greater use of fixed assets with
little or marginal requirement of additional assets. In double shift working, an increase in
stocks will be required but with double shift working, the increase in stocks will not be
proportionate to the rise of production. Hence the minimum level of stocks may not be very
much higher.
The amount of materials in process will not change due to double shift working. Since work
started in the first shift will be completed in the second, hence capital tied up in materials in
process will be the same as with single shift working. As such, the cost of work-in process, will
not change unless the second shift workers are paid at a higher rate. Fixed overheads will
remain fixed, whereas variable overheads will increase in proportion to the increased production.
Semi-variable overheads will increase according to the variable element in them.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
7.
The various constituents of current assets and current liabilities have a direct bearing on
the computation of working capital and the.
8.
.the operating cycle period, lower will be the requirement of working capital
10.5 Working Capital Policy

Two important issues in formulating the working capital policy are:
1.
What should be the ratio of current assets to sales?
2.
What should be the ratio of short term financing to long-term financing?
217
Notes
10.5.1 Current Assets in Relation to Sales

If the firm can free cash accurately its level and pattern of sales, inventory procurement time,
inventory usage rates, level and pattern of production, production cycle time, split between cash
sales and credit sales, collection period and other factors which imprenge on working capital
components. The investment in current assets can be defined uniquely. When uncertainty
characterizes the above factors, as it usually does, the investment in current assets cannot be
specified uniquely. In face of uncertainty, the outlay on current asset would consist of a base
component meant to meet normal requirements and safety component meant to cope with
unusual demands and requirements. The safety component depends on how conservative or
aggressive is the current asset policy of the firm. If the firm pursues a very conservative current
asset policy, it should carry a high level of current assets in relation to sales. (This happens
because the safety components are substantial). If the firm adopts a moderate current ass et
policy, it should carry a moderate level of current assets in relation to sales. The relationship
between current assets and sales under these current asset policies is shown in Figure
Figure 10.3: Various current assets policies
Conservative
Moderate
Current assets
Aggressive
A conservative current asset policy tends to reduce risk. The surplus current assets under this
policy enable the firm to cope rather easily with variations in sales, production plans and
procurement time. Further the higher liquidity associated with this policy diminishes the chances
of technical insolvency. The reduction of risk is also accompanied by lower expected profitability.
An aggressive current asset policy, seeking to maximize the investment in current assets, exposes
the firm to greater risk. The firm may be unable to cope with anticipated changes in the market
place and operating conditions. Further, the risk of technical insolvency becomes greater. The
compensation for higher risk, of course, is the higher expected profitability.
10.5.2 Ratio of Short-term Financing to Long-term Financing

Working capital requirements should be met from short term as well as long-term sources of
funds. It may be proper to meet at least 2/3rd of the permanent working capital from long-term
sources.
Long-term funds reduce the risk but are costly. On the other hand, short-term funds have relatively
lower cost but need to be repaid in the near future. Hence the finance manager has to make
judicious use of both long-term and short-term sources. In this context, there are three basic
approaches:
Marketing Approach (Hedging Approach)

When a firm uses long-term sources to finance fixed assets and permanent current assets and
short term financing to finance temporary current assets.
218
Notes
Conservative Approach
Under this approach, a firm finances its permanent assets and also a part of temporary current
assets with long-term financing and is less risky so far as insolvency is concerned, however the
funds may be invested in such investments which fetch small returns to build up liquidity.
Aggressive Approach
The firm uses mere short-term financing than is warranted. In this approach, the firm finances a
part of its permanent current assets with short-term financing. This is more risky, but may add
to the return on assets.
Task How do changes in the ratio of current liabilities to total assets affect profitability
and risk?
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
9.
A current asset policy tends to reduce risk.
10.
The ..component depends on how conservative or aggressive is the current asset

policy of the firm.
10.6 Financing of Working Capital

Following are the different short-term and long-term sources of finance available for working
capital:
1.
Long-term sources: For example, Share capital (equity and preference), Retained earnings,
and debentures/bonds of different types, loans from bank and financial institutions, venture
capital financing.
2.
Short-term sources:
(a)
Bank credit: cash credit, bills finance, overdraft facility, working capital demand
loan, commercial paper.
(b)
Transaction credit: trade allowed by creditors, outstanding labour and other expenses.
Some of the short-term sources of finance are given below as a reference:

(a)
Trade credit: It represents credit granted by suppliers of goods, etc., as an incident of

sale. The usual duration of such credit is 15 to 90 days. It can be in the form of an open
account or bills payable. Trade credit is preferred as a source of finance because it
is without any explicit cost and till a business as a going concern keeps on rotating.
(b)
Advance from customers: Manufacturers and contractors engaged in producing and

constructing costly goods involving considerable length of manufacturing or
constructions usually demand advance mainly from their customers at the time of
accepting the orders for executing the contracts or supplying the goods.
(c)
Bank advances: Banks receive deposits from public for different periods at varying
rates of interest. These funds are invested and lent in such a manner that when
required they may be called back. Lending results in firm revenues out of which
costs such as interest on deposits, administrative costs are met and a reasonable
profit is made.
219
Notes
(d)
Loans: In a loan account, the entire advance is disbursed at one time either in cash or
by transfers to the current account of the borrower.
(e)
Overdraft: Under this facility, customers are allowed to withdraw in excess of credit
advance standing to their current deposit account. A fixed amount is therefore granted
to the borrower within which the borrower is allowed to overdraw his account.
(f)
Clean overdrafts: Request for clean advances is entertained only from parties, which
are financially sound and reputed for their integrity. The bank has to rely upon the
personal security of the borrowers.
(g)
Cash credits: Cash credit is an arrangement under which a customer is allowed to

draw advance up to a certain limit against credit granted by bank. Generally, the
limits are sanctioned against the security of goods by way of pledge or hypothecation.
Though these accounts are repayable on demand, banks usually do not recall.
(h)
Bills purchased/discounted: Advances are allowed against the security of bills, which
may be clean or documentary. Bills are sometimes purchased from approved
customers in whose favour limits are sanctioned. Before granting a limit, the banker
satisfies himself as to the credit worthiness of the drawer.
(i)
Advance against documents of title to goods: A document becomes a document of title to

goods when its possession is recognized by law or business custom as possession of
the goods. These documents include a bill of lading, dock warehouse keepers
certificate, railway receipt, etc.,
(j)
Term loan by banks: Term loan is an installment credit repayable over a period of time
in monthly/quarterly/half yearly or yearly installment. Banks grant term loans for
small projects falling under priority sector, small-scale sector and big units.
(k)
Commercial paper: It is a form of financing that consists of short-term, unsecured

promissory notes issued by firms with a high credit standing. Most commercial
papers have maturity ranging from 3 months to 6 months and denomination of
minimum 5 lakhs.
Notes The companies satisfying the following conditions are eligible to issue commercial
paper:
(a)
The tangible worth of the company is 5 crores or more as per audited balance sheet
of the company.
(b)
The fund base working capital limit is not less than
(c)
The company is required to obtain the necessary credit rating from the rating agencies
such as CRISIL, ICRA, etc., and the rating should not be more than 2 months old at
the time of applying to the RBI.
(d)
The minimum current assets ratio should be 1.33:1 based on classification of current
assets and liabilities.
(e)
For public sector companies there are no listing requirements, but for companies
other than public sector, the same to be listed or one or more stock exchanges.
(l)
220
5 crores.
Public deposits: A company can accept public deposits subject to the stipulation of
Reserve Bank of India from time-to-time maximum up to 35 per cent of its paid up
capital and reserves from the public and shareholders. These deposits may be
accepted for a period of six months to three years. Public deposits are unsecured
loans and are used for financing working capital requirements.
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
11.
.represents credit granted by suppliers of goods
12.
.is an arrangement under which a customer is allowed to draw advance up to

a certain limit against credit granted by bank.
10.7 Regulation of Bank Finance

Traditionally banks credit has been an easily accessible source of meeting the working capital
needs of business firms. Indian banks have not been concerning themselves about the soundness
or otherwise of the business carried out or about the actual end use of the loan. In other words, they
have been extending credit to industry and trade on the basis of security. This resulted in a number
of distortions in financing of working capital by banks. Consequently, bank credit has been
subjected to various rules, regulations and controls. The Reserve Bank of India had appointed
various committees to ensure equitable distribution of bank resources to various sectors of
economy. These committees suggest ways and means to make the bank credit an effective
instrument of industrialization. Now we shall discuss the recommendations of various committees.
10.7.1 The Dehejia Committee

In September 1969, Dehejia Committee of the RBI pointed out in its reports that in the financing
practice of banks, there was no relationship between the optimum requirements for production
and the bank loan. The general tendency with business was to take short-term credit from banks
and use it for purposes other than production. The Committee also pointed out that bank to not
give proper attention to the financing pattern of their clients. Further, the clients resort to
double financing or multiple financing of stocks.
The Dehejia Committee suggested that the banks should make an appraisal of credit applications
with reference to the total financial situations of the client. It also suggested that all cash credit
account with banks should be bifurcated in the following two categories:
1.
The hard core which would represent the minimum level of raw material, finished goods
and stores, which any industrial concern is required to hold for maintaining certain level
of production.
2.
The strictly short-term components, which should be the fluctuating part of the account.
This part would represent the short-term increases in inventories, tax, dividends and
bonus payments.
The Committee also recommended that to determine the hard-core element of cash credit account,
norms for inventory levels should be worked out by the Chambers of Industry or by the Indian
Bank Association.
It can, thus, be seen that the orientation towards project oriented and need based lending was
first given by the Dehejia Committee. However, in practice the recommendations of the
Committee did not have more than a marginal effect on the pattern of bank financing.
10.7.2 Tandon Committee

In July 1974, the Reserve Bank constituted a Study Group under the Chairmanship of Mr. P.L.
Tandon. This study group was asked to give its recommendations on the following matters:
1.
What constitutes the working capital requirements of the industry and what is the end use
of credit?
221
Notes
2.
How is the quantum of bank advance to be determined?
3.
Can norms be evolved of current assets and for debt equity ratio to ensure minimal
dependence on bank finance?
4.
Can the current manner and state of lending be improved?
5.
Can an adequate planning, assessment and information system be evolved to ensure a

disciplined flow of credit to meet genuine production needs and its proper supervision?
The final recommendations of this Committee regarding the approach of the banks towards the
assessment of the working capital requirements of industrial units are very significant. The
major recommendations have been discussed as below:
1.
Banks finance essentially for meeting working capital needs: Banks credit is essentially
intended to finance working capital requirements only; for other requirements, other
sources have to be found. Even for working capital requirements, some portion of the
contribution must come from source other than bank finance, viz. from owners own
funds, plough back of surpluses and long term borrowed funds. With increased scale of
operation and production, the owners own stake in the business should keep on rising.
While it is not practicable to lay down absolute standards of debt equity ratio, each
borrower should take appropriate steps to strengthen his equity base.
2.
Working capital gap: The study group has emphasized the concept of the working capital
gap, which represented the excess of current assets over current liabilities other than bank
borrowing. The maximum permissible bank finance shall be limited to 75% of this working
capital gap. In other words, the balance of 25% will have to be provided by the borrower
from equity and long-term borrowings. For the purpose of arriving at the working capital
gap, the current assets and the current liabilities will have to be estimated on the basis of
the production plan submitted by the borrower. The level of inventories under raw
materials, work-in-process, finished goods, consumable stores and also the level of
receivables shall be projected on the norms prescribed by the study group.
3.
Norms: The borrowing requirements of any industrial unit basically depend on the length
of the working capital cycle, from building inventories of raw material to getting the sale
proceeds. If norms of inventory and other current assets are laid down for different
industries, the bank can easily work out the standard working capital required by a unit
and sanction the advance accordingly. The study group has, therefore, prescribed norms
for inventory and receivables for fifteen industries. The industries covered by the report
are cotton and synthetic textiles, manmade fibres, jute, textiles, rubber products, fertilizers,
pharmaceuticals, dyes and dyestuffs, basic industrial chemicals, vegetable and
hydrogenated oils, paper, cement, consumer durables, automobiles and ancillaries,
engineering ancillaries and components supplies and machinery manufacturers. The study
group has not suggested any norms for the heavy engineering industry because each unit
in this industry has certain special characteristics.
The norms for the various items are described below:
4.
222
(a)
Raw materials
Consumption in terms of months
(b)
Stock-in-process
Cost of production in terms of months
(c)
Finished goods
Cost of sales in terms of months
(d)
Receivables
Sales in terms of months
Three different methods of calculating the borrowing limit to finance the working capital
requirements: The group views the role of banker only to supplement the borrowers
resources in carrying a reasonable level of current assets in relation to his production
requirement. It proposed three progressive stages by which the banks may finance the
working capital requirements of their industrial borrowers. In the first stage, the current
assets may be worked out as per norms and the current liabilities (excepting bank
borrowing) may be deducted there from. This amount would represent the working
capital gap, 25% of which must be financed by the borrowers out of long-term funds. The
maximum permissible bank borrowings would, therefore, be only 75% of the working
capital requirements calculated as per the norms laid down regarding inventories and
receivables. The Committee suggests, that as a first step, the banks may adopt this method
of sanctioning advances. In cases where the banks have already sanctioned advances higher
than the requirements as calculated above, the excess should be converted into a term loan
to be phased out gradually. Thus, the Committee does not support that the banks should
finance excessive inventory build up by industrial enterprises.
Notes
In the second stage, the borrower will have to provide a minimum of 25% of total current
assets from term funds (as against his providing 25% of working capital gap from long
term funds in the first alternative.)
In the third stage and the ideal method of calculating the borrowing limits, the group
makes a distinction between core current assets and the other current assets. Accordingly,
the total current assets need to be divided into these two categories. The borrower should
finance the entire core current assets plus a minimum of 25% of the other current assets.
The group feels that the classification of current assets and current liabilities be as per the
accepted approach of the bankers.
The recommendations of the Committee aim at reducing the reliance of the borrowers on
the bank finance. Implementation of these recommendations would result in a better
current ratio for the industrial borrowers. This would avoid unfortunate stringencies on
account of lack of working capital as those faced by the industrial units. There can be no
two opinions that the industrial units must maintain a sound current ratiosomething
which can be achieved only if a good part of working capital is financed through longterm funds.
5.
Style of credit: The group also recommends a change in style of credit i.e., the manner in
which bank finance is extended to the borrower. Further, the total credit limit of borrower
should be bifurcated into two components; the minimum level of borrowing which the
borrower expects to use throughout the year (loan) and a demand cash credit, which
would take care of his fluctuating requirements. Both these limits should be reviewed
annually. It is recommended that the demand for cash credit should be charged a slightly
higher interest rate than the loan component, so that the borrower is motivated to take
higher level of fixed component and a smaller limit of cash credit. This would enable the
bankers to forecast the demand for credit more accurately.
6.
Information system for banks: The following points may be noted in this regard:
(a)
To ensure that the customers do not use the new credit facility in an unplanned
manner, the financing should be placed on a quarterly budgeting reporting system
for operational purposes in the prescribed forms.
(b)
Actual drawings within the sanctioned limit will be determined by the customers
inflow and outflow of funds as reflected in the quarterly funds flow statements and
the permissible level of drawings will be the level as at the end of the previous
quarter plus or minus the deficit or surplus shown in the funds flow statements.
(c)
Variances are bound to arise in any budget or plan. The variances to the extent of say
10% should be permissible and beyond this, the banker and the customer should
discuss the reason.
223
Notes
(d)
Since projected funds flow statements would form the basis for determining the line
of credit, the banker would be justified in laying down a condition that any material
change, say beyond 10% of the figure projected earlier, would require his prior
approval.
(e)
From the quarterly forms the bankers will verify whether the operational results
conform to earlier expectations and whether there is any divergence showing red
signals.
(f)
In addition to quarterly data, the large borrower should submit a half yearly pro
forma balance sheet and profit and loss account within two months from the end of
the half-year.
(g)
Stock statements will be continued to be submitted but they will be improved. The
basis of valuation in the stock statements and the balance sheet should be uniform.
The stock should be reconciled in the stock statements, showing the opening and
closing stock, quantitywise and valuewise.
(h)
Stock inspection poses problems especially in large industries. In such cases, there is
no alternative to depending on financial follow up. Where a banker feels that detailed
stock verification is called for a regular stock audit may have to be arranged with
the assistance of outside consultants.
Table 10.3: Worked out Solution of Different Methods
Current Liabilities
Current Assets
Creditors for purchases
100
Raw materials
200
Other current liabilities
50
Stock-in-process
20
Finished goods
90
Receivables, including bills

discounted with bankers
50
Other current assets
10
150
Bank borrowings, including bills
discounted with bankers
200
350
370
Table 10.4: Table Showing Maximum Borrowings Permissible under Different

Methods of Tandon Committee Norms
1st method
3rd Method
Total current assets
370
370
370
Less: current
liabilities other than
bank borrowings
150
25% of above from

long-term sources
92
Less: Core current

assets (illustrative
figure) from long
term sources
95
Working capital
220
25% of above from

long term sources
224
2nd Method
278
Less: Current
liabilities other
than bank
borrowings
150
Maximum bank
borrowings
permissible
128
55
Maximum bank
165
borrowings
permissible
Excess borrowings
(200 165)
35
Excess borrowings
(200 128)
72
275
Real current assets
25% of above from
long term sources
69
206
Less: Current
bank borrowings
150
Contd...
Maximum bank
borrowings
permissible
56
Excess borrowings
(200 56)
144
Less: Current
liabilities other
than bank
borrowings
150
Maximum bank
borrowings
permissible
128
Real current assets

25% of above from
long term sources
69

206
25% of above from

long term sources
55
Less: Current
bank borrowings
150
Maximum bank
borrowings
permissible
165
Maximum bank
borrowings
permissible
56
Excess borrowings
(200 165)
35
Excess borrowings
(200 56)
144
Current ratio
_370_
315
1.17:1
Excess borrowings
(200 128)
Current ratio
_370_
278
72
1.33:1
Current ratio
_370_
206
Notes
1.79:1
The amount of maximum permissible bank finance as per the recommendations of Tandon
Committee, based on three methods is calculated as follows with the help of another example.
Example: Following is the balance sheet of XYZ Ltd. Calculate the amount of maximum
permissible bank finance by all the three methods for working capital as per Tandon Committee
norms. You are required to assume the level of core current assets to be 30 lakhs.
You are also required to calculate the current ratios under each method and compare the same
with the current ratios as recommended by the Committee, assuming that the bank has granted
MPBF.
Balance Sheet of XYZ Ltd.
As on 31st March 2000
( In lakhs)
Liabilities
Assets
Equity shares Rs. 10 each
200
Fixed assets
500
Retained earnings
200
Current assets
11% debentures
300
Inventory:
Public deposits
100
Raw materials 100
Trade creditors
80
W.I.P.
Bills payable
100
Finished goods 75 225
150
Debtors
Cash / Bank
100
55
980
480
980
Solution:
1.
The amount of maximum permissible bank finance (MPBF) by the different methods of
Tandon Committee norms can be calculated as follows:
1st Method = 75% (current assets current liabilities)
= 75% ( 480
180) lakhs
= 75% ( 300) lakhs

=
225 lakhs
2nd Method = 75% of current assets current liabilities
225
Notes
= 75% of
480
360 lakhs
180 lakhs
180 lakhs
180 lakhs
3rd Method = 75% (current assets core current assets) current

liabilities
= 75% ( 480 lakhs 30 lakhs)
= 75% ( 450 lakhs)
2.
337.5 lakhs
157.5 lakhs
180 lakhs
180 lakhs
180 lakhs
Calculation of current Ratios after MPBF limits from the bank under the different methods:
Current Assets
1st Method = Current Liabilities including cash credit limits
705 ( 480 + 225) lakhs

405 ( 180 + 225)
= 1.74: 1
2nd Method =
660 ( 480 + 180) lakhs

360 ( 180 + 180)
= 1.83: 1
3rd Method =
637.5 ( 480 + 157.5) lakhs

337.5 ( 180 + 157.5)
= 1.89: 1
Comment: In all the three instances, the position of current ratio is, therefore, satisfactory and
more than the minimum limits as prescribed by the Committee.
10.7.3 Recent Changes in Maximum Permissible Bank Finance (MPBF)

Banks have always been important providers of funds in Indian scenario. Two important changes
in credit policy have been effected in beginning of 1997.
First, the RBI scrapped the concept of MPBF and the Indian Banks Association (IBA) group
proposed a new system. The MPBF was scrapped in order to facilitate need-based working
capital without sticking to age-old policies, which might have outlived their utility. The salient
features of new system are:
226
For borrowers with requirements of up to 25 lakhs, credit limits will be computed after
detailed discussions with borrower, without going into detailed evaluation.
For borrowers with requirements above 25 lakhs, but up to 5 crores, credit limit can be
offered up to 20% of the projected gross sales of the borrower.
For large borrowers not selling in the above categories, the cash budget system may be
used to identify the working capital needs.
However, RBI permits banks to follow Tandon/Chore Committee guidelines and retain MPBF
concept with necessary modifications.
Notes
The cash budget approach has been widely criticized for its shortcoming like:
It does not disclose the extent of changes in various current assets or current liabilities of profit.
It does not keep track the movement of assets and liabilities. Secondly, earlier the RBI has
prescribed overturn arrangements for financing working capital beyond 50 crores. Now it is
not essential to have consortium arrangements. However, banks may lend from consortium so
as to spread the risks.
Task Why does an increase in the ratio of current to total assets decrease both profits and
risk as measured by net working capital?
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
13.
The Dehejia Committee suggested that the banks should make an appraisal of credit
applications with reference to the ...financial situations of the client.
14.
The .had appointed various committees to ensure equitable distribution

of bank resources to various sectors of economy.
15.
The ..was scrapped in order to facilitate need-based working capital without

sticking to age-old policies
Case Study
Case: Management
r. Bhatt is a young man of bright ideas. Although he is employed as an engineer

in one of the large engineering concerns in Lahore (Pakistan), he spends all his
spare time developing new products in his private laboratory at home.
Currently, he has commercially provided a domestic appliance called Lavex, which would
be a great convenience kitchen to help housewives. He is not interest in manufacturing
and selling his new products; his only interest in developing new products is to make
money by way of selling patent rights to some established concerns. However, he releases
that till he succeeds in selling the patent rights at the price he expects, he has to manufacture
and sell the new products on ad hoc basis so as to demonstrate the commercial superiority
of his products and thereby, to induce the parties to buy the patents from him. With this
objective, he is currently thinking of manufacturing and selling Lavex. He will not give
up his full-time job; he will supervise and guide Lavex production and sales during his
spare time.
Bhatt has already spent 30,000 in developing the product. He proposes to buy the
component from other parties and keep the production activity to a minimum. The
minimum equipment required would cost 11,000. He would need to rent a small place
for 1,200 per month for production. He proposes to use his residence as office for sales
activity.
Contd...
227
Notes
Bhatt proposes to introduce the product in Chennai city only. His sales projections are as
follows:
January
60
February
40
March
110
April
140
May
220
June
180
He is not interested in pushing sales beyond 220 units per month as he cannot cope with
the production. He has budgeted 20,000 for sales promotion, which will be spent mostly
for demonstration in leading department stores in the city. The promotion budget is
scheduled as follows :
January
7,000
February
7,000
March
3,000
April
3,000
This selling price per units will be 280 and the dealers will be given 15 percent trade
discount. He calculates that about 50 unit will be needed for demonstration and display
in the leading sores at his cost. Although the sales to dealers will be made on one months
credit, he knows that the actual collections will be realized in about 4 weeks time. He rules
out cash sales.
Assembling is one of the activity in the production process. Components and materials,
which will be purchased from outside parties strictly on 30 days credit will cost 160 per
unit. Wages per month will be 6000. The production capacity per month will be 220 units.
Wages will be paid weekly. Overhead expenses are estimated at 2800 per month. Materials
and components need to be ordered at least one month in advance. There will be inventory
of finished goods or goods in process as the production will be strictly against firm orders.
Bhatt proposes to employ a full-time production, sales supervisor for 880 per month.
Mr. Bhatt wants to know how much finance will be needed for his first six months of
operation and when, so that he may plan accordingly.
Questions
1.
Discuss the nature of the financial problem involved.
2.
Prepare the monthly cash budget for the first six months period of the proposed
venture.
3.
How can the above-mentioned problem be sorted out?
10.8 Summary
228
Working capital refers to the funds invested in current assets i.e., investment in sundry
debtors, cash and other current assets.
The total of investments in all current assets is known as gross working capital.
Net working capital refers to the excess of total current assets over total current liabilities.
The important factors Affecting Working Capital are General Nature of Business, Production
Policy, Credit Policy, Inventory Policy, Abnormal Factors and Market Conditions.
An optimum working capital ratio is dependent upon the business situation as such and
the nature and composition of various current assets.
The methods used for in Forecasting Working Capital Needs are: Current assets holding
period, Ratio of sales and Ratio of fixed investment
Two important issues in formulating the working capital policy are: What should be the
ratio of current assets to sales and what should be the ratio of short term financing to longterm financing?
The different short-term sources available for working capital are Bank credit, Transaction
credit, etc.
long-term sources of working capital finance are Retained earnings, debentures/bonds of

different types, loans from financial institutions, venture capital financing etc.
Banks have always been important providers of funds in Indian scenario.
Notes
10.9 Keywords
Gross Working Capital: The total current assets are termed as the gross working capital.
Net Working Capital: The excess of current assets over current liabilities represents net working
capital.
Permanent Working Capital: It is the minimum investment kept in the form of inventory of raw
materials, work in progress, finished goods, stores and spares, and book debts to facilitate
uninterrupted operation in a firm.
Temporary Working Capital: Any additional working capital apart from permanent working
capital required to support the changing production and sales activities is referred to as temporary
working capital.
Working Capital: It refers to short-term funds to meet operating expenses.

1.
Why do we distinguish between permanent and variable working capital?
2.
Why is the volume of sales the most important factor affecting working capital? Besides
sales, what other factors affect working capital? Why?
3.
What two processes are accomplished in the management of working capital?
4.
Why should the manager know the percentage of funds in current accounts?
5.
What are the two kinds of fluctuations in working capital levels? How should they be
viewed?
6.
What technique is used for identifying relationship between working capital levels and
other variables such as sales level? What does this technique do?
7.
At least three sets of guidelines for the sources of working capital are available. How are
the three similar? How are they different?
229
Notes
8.
Explain the rationale of the Tandon Committees recommendations. Describe the important
features of the Tandon Committee recommendation.
9.
Expenses reduce working capital, whereas charging of depreciation does not. Do you
agree?
10.
Can a company show a net loss in its profit and loss account and an increase in the working
capital?

1.
gross
2.
indirect.
4.
Over-capitalization
5.
7.
operating cycle
8.
10.
safety
11. Trade credit
12. Cash credit
13.
total
14. Reserve Bank of India
15.
liquidity
Shorter
3. under-capitalized
6.
less
9.
conservative
MPBF
Books
230
Unit 11: Inventory Management
Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
11.1 The Role of Inventory in Working Capital
11.1.1
The Purpose of Inventories
11.1.2
Types of Inventory
11.1.3
Inventory under Uncertainty and Safety Stock
11.2 Inventory Management

11.3 Various Techniques of Inventory Management
11.3.1
Setting of Various Stock Levels
11.3.2
ABC Analysis (called Always Better Control)
11.4 Establishment of System of Budget

11.4.1
Use of Perpetual Inventory Records and Continuous Stock Verification
11.4.2
Determining Economic Order Quantity
11.4.3
Review of Stores and Non-moving Items
11.4.4
Use of Control Ratios
11.4.5
Just-in-Time (JIT) System
11.4.6
Material Requirement Planning (MRP) system
11.5 Valuation of Material Issues and Inventory

11.5.1
Management Issues
11.5.2
Valuation of Periodic Inventories
11.5.3
Valuation of Perpetual Inventories
11.6 Comparison of Inventory Valuation Methods

11.6.1
Specific Identification
11.7 Summary
11.8 Keywords
Objectives
Recognize the meaning of inventory
Describe the role of inventory in working capital
231
Notes
Explain the various techniques of inventory management
Discuss the valuation of materials and inventories
Introduction
The term inventory refers to the stockpile of the product a firm is offering for sale and the
components that make up the product. In other words, inventory is composed of assets that will
be sold in the future in the normal course of business operations. The assets which firms store as
inventory in anticipation of needs are: (1) raw materials (2) work in process (semi-finished
goods) and (3) finished goods. The raw material inventories certain items that are purchased by
the firm from others and are converted into finished product through manufacturing (production)
process. They are an important impact of the final product. The work in progress is normally,
partially or semi-finished goods, at the various stages of production in a multi-stage production
process. Finished goods represent final or completed products, which are available for sale. The
inventory of such goods consists of items that have been produced but are yet to be sold.
Inventory, as a current asset, differs from other current assets because it is not finance managers
who alone are involved here. Rather, all the functional areas in finance, marketing, production
and purchasing are involved.
11.1 The Role of Inventory in Working Capital

Inventories are components of the firms working capital and as such represent current asset.
Some characteristics that are important in the broad context of working capital management
include:
1.
Current asset: It is assumed that inventories will be converted into cash in the current
accounting cycle, which is usually one year. There are exceptions to this, e.g., wine may be
kept in casks or bottles for many years for the proper formation of the product. A
manufacturer of fine pianos may have a production process that exceeds one year.
2.
Level of liquidity: Inventories are considered as a source of near cash for more of the
products. Some firms at some time may hold some slow moving items that may not be
sold for a long time. With chronic slowdown or changes in the markets for goods the
prospects for sale of entire product lines may be diminished. In these cases, the liquidity
aspects of the inventories become important to the manager of working capital. Firms
must keep a reasonable margin for uncertain operating environments, the analysis must
discount the liquidity value of the inventories significantly.
3.
Liquidity lag: Inventories are tied to the firms pool of working capital through three
specific lags, namely:
(a)
Creation lag: In majority of cases, inventories are purchased on credit, creating an

account payable, when the raw materials are processed in the factory, cash is paid
for production expenses for the requirement during the period, labour is paid on
pay day, utility bill for electricity is paid after the bill is submitted, Or
for goods purchased for resale, the firm may have 30 or more days to hold the goods
before payment is due.
(b)
232
Storage lag: Once goods are available for sale, they will not be immediately converted
into cash by sealing even when sales are moving fast, the firm will hold inventory
as a back up. Thus the firm will usually pay suppliers, workers, utility and other
overhead expenses before the goods are actually sold. This lag represents a cost to
the firm.
(c)
4.
Sale lag: Once goods have been sold, they normally do not create cash immediately.
Most sales occur in credit and accounts receivable is created. The firm has to wait to
collect receivables. This lag also represents a cost to the firm.
Notes
Circulating activity: Inventories get rotated with other current assets. They get converted
into cash and then invested again in inventory to continue the operating cycle.
11.1.1 The Purpose of Inventories

The specific benefit that accrue from holding inventories can be identified as follows:
1.
Avoiding lost sales: In most cases, a firm must be prepared to deliver goods on demand
without goods on hand which are ready to be sold, most firms would lose business. Shelf
stock refers to items that are stored by the firm and sold with little or no modifications to
custome An automobile is an item of shelf stock even though customers may specify
minor variations, the basic item leaves a factory and is sold as a standard item. The same
situation exists for many items of heavy machinery, consumer products and high industrial
goods.
2.
Getting quantity discounts: Due to bulk purchases many suppliers will reduce the price of
suppliers and component parts or may offer discounts.
3.
Reducing orders costs: By reducing the number of orders, the administration costs for
raising purchase orders, acceptance and inspection note gets reduced.
4.
Achieving efficient production runs: Frequent setups produce high start up costs, longer
runs involve lower costs.
Inventories provide a buffer between purchasing, producing and marketing goods. Raw
materials and other inventory items can be purchased at appropriate times and in proper
amounts to take advantage of economic conditions and price incentives. The manufacturing
process can occur in sufficiently long production runs and with pre-planned schedules to
achieve efficiency and economies.
5.
Reducing risk of production shortages: Manufacturing from produced goods with hundred
or even thousands of components. One of them, however, small it may be, is to be in stock
if the production is to be continued for a longer spell.
6.
In-process inventory provides flexibility in production scheduling so that an efficient

schedule and high utilization of capacity may be attained within in process inventory; a
bottleneck at any stage in the production process renders idle the machines and facilities
at subsequent stages.
7.
Finished goods inventory enables a firm to double its production programme and
marketing activities so that desirable results can be achieved on both the fronts. If finished
goods inventory is available, the marketing department can meet the needs of customer
promptly, irrespective of the quantity and composition of goods flowing out of the
production time currently.
11.1.2 Types of Inventory

Four types of inventories may be identified:
1.
Raw material inventory: This consists of basic materials that have not been committed to
production in a manufacturing firm. Raw materials that are purchased from time-to-time
233
Notes
to be used in the firms production operation range from iron ore awaiting processing
into steel to electronic components to be incorporated into stereo amplifiers. The purpose
of maintaining raw material inventory is that material is taken up for production
immediately so as to avoid delays in shipment of raw materials and thereby avoid
production delays.
2.
Stores and spares: These are materials/accessories which are incidental to the
consumption of Indian products and can be purchased at bulk quantity.
Example: bolts, nuts, clamps, screws, etc.,
These spare parts are usually bought from outside or sometimes they are manufactured
within the company too. This category also includes those products, which are produced
in addition of the main products for the purpose of sale.
3.
Work-in-process inventory: This category includes these materials that have been
committed to the production process but have not been completed. The more complex and
lengthy the production process, the larger will be the investment in work-in-process
inventory.
4.
Finished goods inventory: These are completed products awaiting sale. The purpose of a
finished goods inventory is to couple the products and sales functions so that it no longer
is necessary to produce the goods before a sale can occur.
The Nature of Inventory Planning and Control

Inventory must be sold in order to generate revenue. In a manufacturing firm, raw materials
must first be converted into finished goods before products can be sold. Money invested in
inventory cannot be invested in other earning as sets such as production or sales facilities.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that excessive amounts of resources are not invested in
inventories.
The purpose of inventory management is to minimize the cost of inventory without impairing
the efficient flow of production and sales activities. Inventory decisions are affected by the cost
of ordering inventory and the cost of carrying inventory as well as by the costs of not having
enough inventories in hand. Below are common types of inventory costs that are not incurred in
relation to the actual cost of the inventory itself:
Inventory ordering costs: Inventory ordering costs include:
Cost of acquiring recent price quotations
Costs of preparing and approving a purchase order
Cost of receiving shipments and checking against purchase orders
Cost of recording to purchase and moving the new inventory into storage.
Inventory carrying costs: Included under this category are:
234
Cost of money invested in inventory
Heat, length, power and depreciation costs for inventory storage facilities.
Inventory handling costs
Inventory insurance costs
Cost of taxes in inventory
Costs of spoilage, obsolescence and deterioration.
Inventory storage costs: The following are included in these costs:
Cost of lost sales
Cost of inefficient production runs
Cost of substituting more expensive raw materials
Penalty costs for late completion of contracts.
Notes
Inventory ordering costs and inventory carrying costs are used to compute the optimum size
inventory. Inventory shortage costs are included in determining the optimum re-order point
for inventory items.
Re-order point: The economic order quantity provides a manager with information about the
optimum order size for a particular item of inventory but it does not provide information about
when the order should be placed. The re-order point is the inventory level of which the order is
placed. If a firm has the ability to buy and receive inventory items instantly, a new order is
placed when there are no more units on hand.
Unfortunately, few firms are able to get instant deliveries. Sometime is required between placing
an order and receipt of the goods. This time period is called lead-time. If the lead-time is known
and daily demand is known, the reorder point is easy to find.
Example: SWT Company has a lead-time of 8 days for tyre orders. The daily demand is
50 tyres. The lead-time demand or demand during lead-time is 8 50 = 400 tyres. If the company
plans to receive a new tyre shipment just as the inventory reaches zero, it should place an order
when the inventory level reaches 400 tyres. A new order is placed at an inventory level of
400 tyres, 8 days before inventory reaches zero.
11.1.3 Inventory under Uncertainty and Safety Stock

The use of lead-time and lead-time demand in the analysis of reorder point assumes a known
constant demand and lead-time often one or both of these fluctuate and are not known. Demand
in particular is difficult to predict, because it can change from day-to-day. Delivery of inventory
is affected by the suppliers inventory levels and operating efficiency, as well as, by variations in
delivery schedules of common carriers.
When lead-time or demand is uncertain, the analysis of the inventory reorder point is complicated.
There may be a situation of possibility of remaining out of inventory, which is known as
stockout. Running out of stock involves cost by way of lost profit in potential sales, customers
ill will, or the loss of the customer altogether. Raw materials inventory stockouts may cause
expensive start up costs, production inefficiencies, a switch to more expensive raw materials or
penalty costs for late delivery of contracted goods. Often, it is difficult to estimate stockout costs.
In order to avoid stockout costs, firms sometimes carry a safety stock, which is additional
inventory above what is needed. Safe stock is a cushion that the management uses to avoid on
interruption of normal activities due to stockouts.
The optimum inventory strategy is to increase safety stock as long as cost of carrying the
additional inventory is less than the expected cost of stockouts. The expected stockout cost is the
cost of the stock out multiplied by its probability of occurring.
Example: gross margin is 35 per unit. Expected demand of 50 units per day means that
a 1-day stock-out results in a stock out cost of 35 50 or 1,750. Management estimates that
with the safety stock, there is a 30 per cent chance of stock out. The expected cost of a stockout is:
Expected stockout = stock out cost probability of stockout
=
1750 0.30 = 525
235
Notes
The optimum strategy is to carry enough safety stocks that the cost of carrying the safety stock
equals the expected cost of a stock out with a carrying cost of 12 per unit; the optimum safety
stock is (525/12) i.e., 44 tyres. With a 30 per cent chance of a stockout, the arbitrary 100-unit safety
stock is excessively sophisticated-Statistical models may be developed to address the issue of
optimum safety stocks and reorder points.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1.
Inventory ordering costs and inventory carrying costs are used to compute the
inventory.
2.
Inventories are tied to the firms pool of working capital through three specific lags,
namely Creation lag Storage lag and ..
3.
In order to avoid stockout costs, firms sometimes carry a., which is additional
inventory above what is needed.
11.2 Inventory Management

The main objective of inventory management is to achieve maximum efficiency in production
and sales with the minimum investment in inventory.
Inventory consists of stock of materials, components, work-in-progress, finished products and
stores and spares. The techniques commonly used for inventory management are as follows:
1.
Setting of various stock levels
2.
ABC analysis
3.
Establishment of system of budgets
4.
Use of perpetual inventory records and continuous stock verification
5.
Determination of economic order quantity
6.
Review of slow and non-moving items
7.
Use of control ratios
8.
Just-in-time (JIT) System
9.
Material Requirement Planning (MRP) system
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
4.
Inventory consists of stock of materials, components, work-in-progress, finished products

and...
5.
The objective of inventory management is to achieve maximum efficiency in production

and sales with the investment in inventory
11.3 Various Techniques of Inventory Management

11.3.1 Setting of Various Stock Levels
Minimum Level
It indicates the lowest figure of inventory balance which must be maintained in hand at all
times, so that there is no stoppage of production due to non-availability of inventory.
236
Main consideration for fixation of minimum level of inventory:

1.
Information about maximum consumption and maximum delivery period in respect of

each item to determine its reorder level.
2.
Average rate of consumption for each inventory item.
3.
Average delivery period for each item. Average delivery period = (maximum period +
minimum period)
Notes
Formula:
Minimum level of inventory = Re-order level (Average rate of consumption
Average time of inventory delivery)
Maximum level = It indicates figure of inventory quantity held in stock at
any time.
The following are the considerations that govern the fixation of maximum level for various
inventory items:
1.
Its reorder level. The reorder itself depends on the maximum rate of consumption and
maximum delivery period.
2.
The knowledge about minimum consumption and minimum delivery period for each
inventory item.
3.
The figure of economic order quantity.
4.
The availability of funds, storage space, nature of item and their price per unit are also
important.
5.
For imported material since of their irregular supply, the maximum level should be high.
Formula used for calculation of maximum level of inventory

= Reorder level Reorder quantity (Minimum Consumption Minimum reorder period)
Reorder level
This level is between minimum and maximum levels, such that before the material ordered is
received into stores, there is sufficient quantity on hand to cover with normal and abnormal
consumption situations. It is the level at what order for replenishment of stock should be placed.
The formula used for its calculation is as follows:
Reorder level = Maximum reorder period Maximum Usage (or)
= Minimum level + (Avg. rate of consumption Avg.
time to obtain fresh supplies)
Now, Avg. inventory level = Maximum level + Reorder quantity
OR
Maximum level + Minimum level

2
Did u know? What is Danger Level?
It is the level at which normal issues of raw material inventory are stopped and emergency
issues are only made.
237
Notes
Danger Level = Avg. Consumption Lead time for emergency

Purchases
Example: Two components, A and B, are used as follows:
Normal usage
100 units/week
Maximum usage
150 units/week
Minimum usage
50 units/week
Reorder quantity
A 600, B 1000
Reorder period
A 4 to 6 weeks
B 2 to 4 weeks
Calculate for cash component:

1.
Reorder level
2.
Minimum level
3.
Maximum level
4.
Average Stock level
Solution:
1.
Reorder level = Maximum usage/week Maximum delivery period

Reorder level for A = 150 units 6 = 900 units
Reorder level for B = 150 units 4 = 600 units
2.
Minimum level = Reorder level (Normal usage Avg. period)

Minimum level for A = 900 units 50 units
(4 + 6)
2
= 900 units 250 units = 650 units

Minimum level for B = 600 units 50 units
3.
(2 + 4)
= 450 units
2
Maximum level
= Reorder level + Reorder Qty (Min. consumption
Min. reorder period)
Maximum level for A = (900+600) (50 units 4 weeks)
= 1500 200 = 1300 units
Maximum level for B = (600+1000) (50units 2) = 1500 units
4.
Average stock level = (minimum + maximum stock level) Average stock

for component A = (650 + 1300) = 975
Average stock for component
B = (450 + 1500) = 975
11.3.2 ABC Analysis (called Always Better Control)

It is a system of inventory control where discriminating control is exercised over different items
of stores classified on the basis of investment involved. Usually, the items are divided into three
238
categories according to their importance, namely their value and frequency of replenishment
during a period.
1.
A category of items consists of only a small percentage i.e., about 10% of the total items
handled by the stores but require heavy investment (in rupee value) about 70% of the total
inventory value.
2.
B category of items (relatively less important) constitutes 20% of the total items handled
by stores, having an investment (in rupee value) of about 20% of the total inventory value.
3.
C category consists of large number of items handled by stores say 70%, having relatively
small investment say 10% of the total inventory value.
Notes
A category of items is controlled effectively by using a regular system, which ensures neither
over-stocking nor shortage of materials for production. The stocks of materials are controlled
by fixing certain levels like maximum level, minimum level and reorder level. Reduction in
inventory management costs is achieved by determining economic order quantity. To avoid
shortage and to minimize heavy investment in inventories, the techniques of value analyses,
variety reduction, standardization etc., are used.
In case of B category of items, less degree of control as applicable to A category items are
warranted. The orders for the items, belonging to this category, may be placed after reviewing
the situation periodically.
For C category of items, there is no need of exercising constant control. Orders for these items
are placed either at 6 months interval or yearly interval, depending on the consumption pattern.
In this case, the objective is to economize an ordering and handling costs.
Example:
Category
Cost Range
Total No. of Items
Total Cost
( )
( )
1-500
12,000
10,00,000
501-2000
2,000
15,00,000
2001 100,000
1,000
100,00,000
15,000
125,00,000
Percentage of total items and costs

Category
% of total
Items
Cumulative % of
Total Items
Percentage of
Total Cost
Cumulative % of
the Total Cost
80
80
13
20
12
92
80
100
100
11.4 Establishment of System of Budget

To control investment in inventories, it is necessary to know in advance about the inventories
requirements during a specific period, usually a year. The exact quantity of various types of
inventories and the time when they would be required can be known by studying carefully
production plans and production schedules. Based on this, inventories requirement budget can
be prepared. Such a budget will discourage the unnecessary investment in inventories.
239
Notes
11.4.1 Use of Perpetual Inventory Records and Continuous Stock

Verification
Perpetual inventory represents a system of records maintained by the stores department. It
comprises Bin Cards and Stores Ledger.
Bin cards maintain quantitative records of receipts, issues and closing balances of each item of
stores. Separate bin cards are maintained for each item. Each card is filled up with the physical
movement of goods i.e., on its receipt and issue.
Like bin cards, the stores ledger is maintained to record all receipts and issue transaction in
respect of materials. It is filled up with the help of goods received note and material issue
requisitions.
A perpetual inventory is usually checked by a programme of continuous stock taking. Continuous
stocktaking means the physical checking of these records (which are maintained under perpetual
inventory) with actual stock. Perpetual inventory is essential for material control. It helps
continuous stocktaking.
Stock verification may be periodical or continuous. Annual stock taking has certain inherent
shortcomings e.g., all the items have to be covered in a given number of days, either the
production dept. has to be shut down during these days to enable thorough checking of stock, or
else the verification has to be of limited character. On the other hand, the system of continuous
stocktaking consists of counting and verifying the number of items daily throughout the year,
so that during the year all the items of stores are covered three or four time. The stock verifiers
are independent of stores and stores staff has no knowledge as to the particular items that are
being checked on a particular date.
11.4.2 Determining Economic Order Quantity

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is the order size for some particular inventory item that results
in lowest total inventory cost for the period. Total inventory cost consists of inventory ordering
cost and investment carrying cost. An EOQ may be computed for each inventory item.
EOQ assumes that the relevant costs of inventory can be divided into order costs and carrying
costs (the model excludes the actual cost of the inventory). Each of them has certain key
components and characteristics. Order costs include the fixed costs of placing and receiving
orders, the cost of writing, a purchase order, of processing the resulting paper work, and of
receiving an order and checking it against the invoice. Order costs are stated in rupees per order.
Carrying costs are the variable costs per unit of holding an item of inventory for a specific
period of time. Carrying costs including storage costs, insurance costs, the cost of deterioration
and obsolescence, and the opportunity or financial costs of having funds invested in inventory
these costs are stated in Rupees per unit per period.
Order costs decrease as the size of the order increases. Carrying costs, however, increase with
increases in order size. The EOQ model analyzes the trade-off between order costs and carrying
costs to determine the order quantity that minimizes the total inventory cost.
Several methods for finding EOQ are available. One is trial and error, which requires computing
the total inventory cost at various order sizes. Eventually, the EOQ can be found or closely
approximated by repeating the computation enough time. Another approach is to graph the
cost. Although both methods can be used, the first is time-consuming and the second lacks
precision.
240
A third approach is to calculate the optimum order size mathematically using a method called
the Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) model, which yields the optimum order quantity with a
single set of calculations. The model is:
EOQ =
Where,
Notes
A = Annual usage units

S = Ordering cost per order
C = Inventory carrying cost per unit per annum
Notes The EOQ model rests on the several important assumptions:

1.
There is a known constant demand.
2.
Ordering costs are known and remain constant.
3.
Carrying costs are known and remain constant.
4.
Production and inventory capacity is unlimited.
Example: SWT Company, which is open Monday through Friday except for a 2-week
vacation period and 10 holidays. The firm operates a total of 240 business days a year. Below is
given the demand and cost data for its most expensive steel belted radial tyre.
Avg. daily demand
Cost
50;
60/tyre;
Carrying cost
Selling price
95/tyre
Ordering cost
500/order
20 per cent of unit cost

A = 50 tyres a day 240 business days = 12000
S = Cost of ordering is
C = 20%
Hence EOQ =
1000,000
60 i.e.,
500 per order,
12 per unit
2 1200 500
60 0.2
= 1000 tyres
Hence, Economic Ordering Size is 1000 tyres

Number of order
A
EOQ
Ordering Cost =
12000 units
12 orders
1000 units/order
12000 500 per oder
A
S=
EOQ
1000 units per order
6000
Carrying cost is function of average amount of inventory on hand multiplied by the carrying
cost rate. The average inventory on hand is the order size divided by 2.
Average inventory =
EOQ
1000 units
=
500 units
2
2
241
Notes
Carrying Cost =
EOQ
1000
C=
60 0.2
2
2
6000
At the EOQ, the cost of ordering for the period ( 6000) equals the carrying cost for the period
( 6000).
Statement showing total inventory cost at different order size is given below:
SWT Company
Schedule of Inventory Costs at Various Order Sizes
Order Size
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Avg Inventory Size
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
30
20
15
12
10
8.6
7.5
Ordering Cost
15000
10000
7500
6000
5000
4300
3750
Carrying Cost
2400
3600
4800
6000
7200
8400
9600
17400
13600
12300
12000
12200
12700
13350
No. of Inventory
Orders
Total Inventory Cost
The above statement also shows that total inventory cost is least at order size of 1000. Any order
sizes other than EOQ level yields a higher total inventory cost.
EOQ Quantity
Total inventory cost

C
O
S
T
S
Inventory carrying cost
Inventory ordering cost

EOQ Quantity
The above diagram gives the inventory ordering and carrying cost. As the order size is increased
the inventory order cost decreases and the total inventory carrying cost increases. Minimum
total is reached at the order size for which ordering costs equal carrying cost i.e., the intersection
of inventory ordering cost curve and inventory carrying cost curve.
11.4.3 Review of Stores and Non-moving Items

Sometimes, due to high value of slow moving and non-moving raw materials it appears that the
concern has blocked huge sum of money unnecessarily in raw materials. To overcome this
problem, it is necessary to dispose off as easily as possible, the non-moving items, till the
existing stock is exhausted. Computation of inventory turnover ratio may help in identifying
slow moving items.
242
Notes
11.4.4 Use of Control Ratios

1.
Input-output ratio: Inventory control can also be exercised by the use of input-output
ratio. Input Output ratio is the ratio of the quantity of input of material to production and
the standard material content of the actual output. This ratio enables comparison of actual
consumption and standard consumption, thus indicating the usage of material is favourable
or adverse.
2.
Inventory Turnover ratio: It is computed as follows:

Inventory turnover ratio =
Cost of materials consumed during the period

Cost of average stock held during the period
Average Stock = (Opening Stock + Closing Stock)

Computation of turnover ratios for different items of materials and comparison of the turnover
ratio provides a useful guidance for measuring inventory performance. Therefore, it is possible
to know which is fast moving and which is slow moving. On this basis, attempt should be made
to reduce the amount of capital locked up and prevent over-stocking of the slow moving items.
11.4.5 Just-in-Time (JIT) System

The Just-in-Time (JIT) system is used to minimize inventory investment. The philosophy is that
materials should arrive exactly the time they are needed for production. Ideally the firm should
have work-in-process inventory. Because its objective is to minimize inventory investment, a JIT
system uses no (or little) safety stock. Close coordination among the firms employees, its suppliers
and transporters must exist to ensure that material inputs arrive on time. Failure of the materials
to arrive on time results in a shutdown of the production line until the material arrives. Further,
JIT system should ensure quality parts from the suppliers to ensure uninterrupted production.
11.4.6 Material Requirement Planning (MRP) system

Many companies used a Material Requirement Planning (MRP) system to determine what materials
to order and when to order. MRP applies EOQ concepts to determine how much to order. By
means of a computer, it stimulates each products bill of materials, inventory status and
manufacturing process. The bill of materials is simply a list of all the parts and materials that go
into making the finished product. For a given production plan, the computer stimulates materials
requirements by comparing production needs to available inventory balances. On the basis of
the time it takes for a product that is in process to move through the various production stages
and the lead time required to get materials, the MRP system determines when orders should be
placed for the various item on the bill of materials.
The advantage of an MRP system is that it forces the firm to consider its inventory needs more
carefully. The objective is to lower the firms inventory investment without impairing production.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
6.
..indicates the lowest figure of inventory balance which must be maintained

in hand at all times.
7.
is the ratio of the quantity of input of material to production and the standard
material content of the actual output.
243
Notes
8.
.assumes that the relevant costs of inventory can be divided into order costs and
carrying costs.
9.
In ABC Analysis category of items consists of only a small percentage of the total
items
11.5 Valuation of Material Issues and Inventory

11.5.1 Management Issues
1.
Concept of current asset: Inventory is considered as current asset because it will normally
be sold within a years time or within a companys operating cycle. For example, trading
inventory consists of all goods that are owned and held for sale in the regular course of
business. In case of manufacturing companies since they are engaged in the actual making
of the products, they have three kinds of inventory raw materials to be used in the
production of goods, partially completed products (often called work-in-progress) and
finished goods ready for sale.
2.
Matching of costs and revenues: Objective of accounting for inventories is the proper
determination of income through the matching of costs and revenues.
3.
Physical flow of inventories and cost flow of materials: Physical flow of inventories has
to be differentiated with cost flow of materials.
Physical value of business materials may occur in a variety of ways. Some businesses find it
necessary to rotate their stock of inventory so that fresh goods are always available. For example,
in a paint store, the oldest cans of paint are placed at the front of the selections so that they will
sell first, preventing inventory for spoiling or deterioration with age. The methods used for
moving the inventory is first in first out (FIFO), last in, first out (LIFO) system.
Figure 11.1: Management choices in accounting for inventories
Inventory cost flows affect the value of end inventories and the amount charged to cost of goods
sold. Consequently, both the balance sheet and the income statement are affected directly by
244
inventory cost flows. The valuation inventory cost flows is more relevant, rather than physical
flow of inventory. A number of costing alternatives are used. First In, First Out (FIFO) assigns
the most recent cost to inventory and the oldest costs to cost of goods sold. Last In First Out
(LIFO) assigns the most recent costs to cost of goods sold and oldest costs to inventory. A third
alternative is to assign an average cost to inventory and cost of goods sold. The inventory cost
flow does not have to follow the physical movement of inventory. Inventory valuation using
FIFO, LIFO or average cost should satisfy the matching concept. The management choices in
Accounting for Inventories are given in Figure
Notes
11.5.2 Valuation of Periodic Inventories

In periodic inventory systems, used primarily by trading organizations, purchases of inventory
are recorded in a purchases account rather than directly in the inventory account. When merchandise
is sold, the sales revenue is recorded but entry is made in cost of goods sold. Cost of goods sold is
computed at the end of the accounting period, when financial statements are prepared.
In a trading organization, the beginning inventory balance and the purchases account balances
represent the cost of goods available for sale. In order to calculate the cost of goods sold, a
physical count is made of the merchandise remaining on hand. The next step is to value the
inventory in hand by assigning to each unit a cost based on some cost flow assumption such as
FIFO, LIFO or weighted average. The value of ending inventory is deducted from the cost of
goods available for sale to compute cost of goods sold.
Example: In case of B Ltd., the opening balance as on 1st July consist of 18 units costing
10 each. During July, the company purchased 32 additional units as follows:
July 1
Beginning balance
18 units @
10
180
July 11
Purchases
10 units @
10.50
105
July 25
Purchases
12 units @
11
132
July 30
Purchases
10 units @
12
120
Total 50 units
537
During July, the company sold 30 of the 50 units available for sale leaving an end inventory of
20 units. Sales were as follows:
July 3
Sale
8 units
July 17
Sale
5 units
July 28
Sale
17 units
Total 30 units
In order to prepare financial statements, B Co. Ltd. must assign value to the 20 units, end of the
period inventory and 30 units, which were sold. The value depends on the inventory method
used by the company and on the cost flow assumption adopted. First, let us consider periodic
inventories followed by perpetual inventory systems.
FIFO (First In First Out)

As the name suggest, the materials are issued in the order in which they are received in stores.
Thus, each issue of material recovers the purchase price, which does not reflect the current
market price (if the prices do not remain same). This method is considered suitable in time of
falling prices because the material cost charged to production will be high while the replacement
245
Notes
cost of materials will be low. But in the case of rising prices, if this method is adopted, the charge
to production will be low as compared to the replacement cost of materials. Consequently, it
would be difficult to purchase the same quantity of materials (as in the current period) in future
without having additional capital resources.
In the above illustration, with a beginning inventory of 180 and total purchases of 357 during
July, total cost of goods available for sale is 537. The physical inventory shows 20 units
remaining on hand. With FIFO valuation we consider 20 units consist of the latest units acquired.
The ending inventory will be as follows:
10 units from July 30 purchases (last purchases) @ 12
120
10 units from July 25 purchases (2nd last purchases) @ 11
110
230
Cost of goods sold of
307 will be computed as follows:
Goods available for sale
537
Less end inventory
230
Cost of goods sold
307
LIFO (Last In, First Out)

Under this method (as the name suggests), the assumption is that the items of the last batch (lot)
purchased are the first to be issued. Therefore, under this method, the price of the last batch (lot)
is used for pricing the issues, until it is exhausted and so on. If, however, the quantity of the issue
is more than the quantity of the latest lot than earlier (lot) and its price will be taken into
consideration. For valuation of month end inventory, 20 units are assumed to be the earliest
units acquired. It will consist of the balance at the beginning and the part of the 1 st units
purchased during the month as below:
18 units from the beginning balance @
2 units from July 11 purchases @
10 units
180
10.50
21
201
Cost of goods sold is
336 in this case
Goods available for sale
537
Less end inventory
201
Cost of goods sold
336
Weighted Average
The weighted average cost of the inventory available in July is obtained by dividing the total
cost of inventory, including the beginning balance and July purchase, by the total units available
for sale.
Cost of goods available for sale

=
No. of units available for sale
Cost of ending inventory is
10.74
214.80 calculated as:

20 units 10.74 =
246
214.80
Cost of goods sold is
Notes
322.20 calculated as:

30 units 10.74 =
322.20
11.5.3 Valuation of Perpetual Inventories

In a perpetual inventory system, the inventory account contains a current record of all inventory
transactions. Such a system is particularly useful in a manufacturing firm, where a current
purchase cost data are vital. A perpetual inventory system allows the firm to charge inventory
costs to production as soon as inventory is used. Each receipt of raw materials and issue to
production (work in-progress) is recorded in the inventory account as the transactions occur.
The Inventory account is current, hence the name perpetual.
As in periodic system, purchases in a perpetual system are recorded at their cost. When raw
materials inventory is issued to production, its cost is transferred from the raw materials
inventory account to work-in-progress account. If the cost of raw materials change over time,
some cost flow assumption must be made. Perpetual system may be maintained using specific
identification FIFO, LIFO or moving average. The illustration given below, deals with
merchandise inventory, but the same principle can be followed for transfer of raw material to
WIP, transfer of WIP to finished goods and sale of finished goods.
Notes Specific Identification

Special identification requires an ability to follow the physical flow of each inventory
item and its cost from acquisition through use or sale. The method is appropriate when
each item of inventory can be separately identified and therefore has a cost that applies
only to that item. Specific identification is used with unique and costly items such as
jewelry, automobiles or custom made products (i.e., products as per customers
specifications).
First In First Out (FIFO)

Inventory cost flow with perpetual FIFO is illustrated as below. The units remaining in inventory
are always assumed to be those purchased most recently. After the July 17 sale of five units, the
15 units remaining on hand consist of the most recent 10 units acquired on July 11 and five units
from the beginning balance. Similarly, the sale of 17 units on July 28 first exhausts five units
from the beginning balance, then 10 units acquired next on July 11, and finally two units purchased
most recently on July 25.
If one compares the perpetual FIFO ending inventory balance with the periodic FIFO ending
inventory balance, one can observe that two are identical. With FIFO valuation, periodic and
perpetual system both produces the same ending inventory cost.
FIFO Perpetual Inventory Record of B Comapny Ltd.
Date
Explanation
Purchases
Units Units Cost
July
1
Balance
Sold 8 units
11
Bought 10 units
17
Sold 5 units
25
Bought 12 units
28
Sold 17 units
Sales
Total
Cost
Units
Rs
Rs
18
10.00
180
10
10.50
105
12
11.00
132
Balance
Units
Cost
Total
Cost
Rs
Rs
18
180
10.00
80
10
100
Units
Rs
20
205
10.00
50
15
155
27
287
10.00
50
LOVELY
UNIVERSITY
0 PROFESSIONAL
10
10.50
105
30
Bought 10 units
10
12.00
Total
Cost
Contd...
11.00
22
10
110
120
20
230
247
Date
Explanation
Purchases
Units Units Cost
July
Notes
Balance
Sold 8 units
11
Bought 10 units
17
Sold 5 units
25
Bought 12 units
28
Sold 17 units
30
Bought 10 units
Sales
Total
Cost
Units
Balance
Units
Cost
Total
Cost
Units
Total
Cost
Rs
Rs
18
180
80
10
100
Rs
Rs
18
10.00
180
10
10.50
105
12
11.00
132
10
10.50
105
11.00
22
10
110
120
20
230
10
12.00
10.00
Rs
20
205
10.00
50
15
155
27
287
10.00
50
!
Caution FIFO cost flow closely approximates the physical flow of many inventory items.
In a perpetual system each inflow and outflow of inventory is recorded at the time of
transfer.
Last In First Out (FIFO)

With perpetual LIFO, when a sale takes place the cost of latest acquisition is transferred from
inventory to cost of goods sold. Perpetual LIFO system is illustrated below:
LIFO Perpetual Inventory Record of B Comapny Ltd.
Date
Explanation
Purchases
Units
Units
Cost
( )
( )
18
10.00
180
10
10.50
105
12
11.00
July
1
Balance
Sold 8 units
11
Bought 10 units
17
Sold 5 units
25
Bought 12 units
28
Sold 17 units
Sales
Total
Cost
Units
Balance
Units
Cost
Total
Cost
( )
( )
10.00
Units
Total
Cost
18
180
80
10
100
20
205
10.5 0
52.50
15
152.50
132
27
284.60
12
11.00
132
10.50
52.50
0
30
Bought 10 units
10
12.00
( )
120
10
100
20
220
The first sale of 8 units reduces the initial balances to 10 units but subsequent sales all consists of
the units purchased more recently. Therefore the sale of 17 units on July 28 consists of the
12 units obtained in July 25 plus 5 units obtained on July 11, of the original 18, 10 units at a cost
of 10 each still remain in inventory at the end of the period.
Notice the difference in ending inventory under the perpetual and periodic inventory system
when LIFO valuation is used. The cost of ending inventory with the periodic system the cost is
201. With the perpetual inventory the cost is 220 because some of the units on hand are valued
at the most recent purchase cost. Perpetual LIFO and periodic LIFO often produce different
inventory valuation.
248
Notes
Did u know? The primary advantage of LIFO is that current costs are matched with current
revenues. Consequently LIFO has definite tax advantage during periods of rising prices.
Average Cost/Moving Average

An average cost perpetual inventory system requires computing a new average cost each time
additional inventory is purchased. This moving average is a weighted average of the units in
hand after each acquisition. This is illustrated below. For example, the average cost of the units
in hand after the July 11 purchase included 10 units at 10 each and 10 units at 10.50 each. The
average cost is 10.25, calculated by dividing the total cost of 205 by 20 units.
The units removed from inventory are valued at the average cost at the time of sale or use. With
costs increasing over time the moving average cost also increases, but it always lags somewhat
behind the current cost of inventory. As usual, the average cost valuation falls somewhere
between FIFO and LIFO valuation.
Moving Average Perpetual Inventory Record of B Comapny Ltd.
Date Particulars
Purchases
Sales
Units
Unit
Cost
Total
Cost
18
10.00
180
10.00
10
10.50
105
Units
Unit
Cost
Balance
Total
Cost
Units
Unit
Cost
Total
Cost
18
10
180.00
80.00
10
10
100.00
20
10.25
205.00
July
1
Balance
Sold 8 units
11
Bought 10 units
17
Sold 5 units
25
Bought 12 units
28
Sold 17 units
30
Bought 10 units
10.25
51.25
15
10.25
153.75
12
11.00
132
27
10.5833
285.75
17
10.5833
179.92
10
10.5833
105.83
10
12.00
120
20
11.2915
225.83
!
Caution The moving average inventory costs are between FIFO and LIFO cost. In a perpetual
inventory system, a new average cost is computed every time, units are added to the
inventory, units transferred out of inventory are costed at the recent computed average
cost.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
10.
..assigns the most recent cost to inventory and the oldest costs to cost of goods
sold.
11.
assigns the most recent costs to cost of goods sold and oldest costs to
inventory.
12.
..inventory system requires computing a new average cost each time

additional inventory is purchased.
249
Notes
11.6 Comparison of Inventory Valuation Methods

The six inventory values obtained in the illustration are shown below. Assuming total sales of
500, gross margin varies from 164 to 193 depending on the inventory system and cost flow
assumptions applied in valuing the ending inventory.
Perpetual Inventory System of B Comapny Ltd.
FIFO
Moving /Weighted Average
LIFO
( )
( )
( )
Sales
500.00
500.00
500.00
Beginning inventory
180.00
180.00
180.00
Purchases
357.00
357.00
357.00
Goods available for sales
537.00
537.00
537.00
Less: ending inventory
230.00
225.83
220.00
Cost of goods sold
307.00
311.17
317.00
Gross margin
193.00
188.83
183.00
FIFO
Moving Average
LIFO
( )
( )
( )
Sales
500.00
500.00
500.00
Beginning inventory
180.00
180.00
180.00
Purchases
357.00
357.00
357.00
Goods available for sales
537.00
537.00
537.00
Less: ending inventory
230.00
214.80
201.00
Cost of goods sold
307.00
322.20
336.00
Gross margin
193.00
177.80
164.00
Perpetual Inventory System
Clearly the selection of an inventory valuation method has significant effect on inventory
values, product costs and determination of net income. If managers could select an inventory
valuation method at will and change methods whenever they wished, they could easily
manipulate reported income, but the consistency principle, which requires the consistent
application of accounting principles and methods over time, prevents such manipulation. But
one should be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of each of the inventory valuation methods.
11.6.1 Specific Identification

The advantage of specific identification is that it provides good matching of products costs and
revenues. Managers, in some situations, can adjust gross profit by selecting which units of an
inventory are delivered to customer. Anyway, the method cannot be used where there are many
types of inventory and inventory is received at frequent intervals.
First In First Out

Advantages
250
1.
It is simple to understand and easy to operate.
2.
It tends to conform to the physical movement of inventory and results in reporting

inventories on the balance sheet at a cost that is close to the current purchase price.
3.
In case of falling prices, the use of this method gives better results.
Notes
Disadvantages
1.
When prices are rising, the higher net income results in a higher income tax expense.
2.
In case of rising prices, the real inputs of the concern being low, they may be inadequate
to meet the concerns demand to purchase raw materials at the ruling price.
Last In First Out

Advantages
1.
Lower tax expense during period of rising prices, since net income tends to be stated more
nearly in current terms, because revenues are matched with current rather than old product
costs. The lower tax expense results in improved cash flows.
Disadvantages
1.
If used for a number of years, balance sheet inventory values tend to become grossly
understated, because inventories are reported at costs that existed several years ago.
2.
If the company has to reduce its inventory below the amount normally at hand, product
costs calculated with old values appear abnormally low.
3.
This method of valuation is not acceptable to income tax authorities.
Average Cost Methods

Inventory valuations at average cost are among the least popular methods. They seem to have
all the disadvantages of LIFO and FIFO and few advantages. Neither net income nor ending
inventories are shown at current values.
Notes Selection of Pricing Method

No hard and fast rules of procedure have been laid down to select a method of pricing
issues of materials. However, the ultimate choice of a method may be based on the
following considerations:
1.
The method of costing used and the policy of management.
2.
The frequency of purchases and issues.
3.
The extent of price fluctuations.
4.
The extent of work involved in recording, issuing and pricing materials.
5.
Whether cost of materials used should reflect current or historical conditions.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
13.
The selection of an inventory valuation method has significant effect on inventory values,
costs and determination of net income.
14.
The advantage of ..is that it provides good matching of products costs and
revenues.
15.
..method of valuation is not acceptable to income tax authorities.
251
Notes
Case Study
Case: Inventory Levels
he Storage Corporation currently carries

25 million of inventory. The finance
manager is considering whether to recommend a reduction in inventory costs at
the following information about inventory costs at various levels. The companys
after-tax discount rate that is used to evaluate current asset policies is 6%. The company
earns a contribution margin of 20% on sales.
Rs 25 million
Rs 23 million
Rs 21 million
Storage costs
7,50,000
7,25,000
7,10,000
Spoilage costs
4,00,000
3,75,000
3,67,000
Daily sales
1,20,000
1,19,000
1,14,500
Would it be profitable for the company to reduce its inventory from

23 million? (Calculate the change in after-tax income).
25 million to
Would it be profitable for the company to reduce its inventory to

(Calculate the change in after-tax income.)
21 million?
Reducing inventory from
25 to
23 million causes net income to:
DStorage cost = ( 7,50,000 7,25,000)(0.60) =
15,000
DSpoilage cost = ( 4,00,000 3,75,000)(0.60) = 15,000

DFinancing cost = ( 20,00,000)(0.06) = 1,20,000
DProfit on sales = ( 1,20,000 1,19,000)(365)(0.20)(0.60) = (43,800)
DNet Profit =
2
1,06,200
To determine if it is profitable to reduce inventory to 21 million, determine the

change in profits associated with reducing from 23 million. That is, you know that
23 million is better than 25 million and the decision is now whether to reduce it
further to 21 million. Remember that decisions depend on incremental costs and
benefits.
Reducing inventory from
23 to
21 million causes net income to:
DStorage cost = ( 7,25,000 7,10,000)(0.60) =
9,000
DSpoilage cost = ( 3,75,000 3,67,000)(0.60) = 4,800

DFinancing cost = ( 20,00,000)(0.06) = 1,20,000
DProfit on sales = ( 1,19,000 1,14,500)(365)(0.20)(0.60) = (1,97,100)
DNet Profit = ( 63,300)
Given the choices,
23 million is the most profitable level of inventory.
Question
Fabrication Company requires steel for its fabrication work. The probability distributions
of the daily usage rate and the lead time for procurement are given below:
These distributions are independent
Contd...
252
Notes
Daily usage rate in tonnes
Probability
Lead time in days
Probability
0.3
.6
0.5
10
.2
0.2
15
.2
The stockout cost is estimated to be 4,000 per tonne. The carrying cost is 1,000 per tonne
per year.
Required
1.
What is the optimal level of safety stock?
2.
What is the probability of stockout?
Source: Nitin Balwani, Accounting and Finance for Managers, Excel Books, New Delhi.
11.7 Summary
Inventory is composed of assets that will be sold in the future in the normal course of
business operations.
Inventories provide a buffer between purchasing, producing and marketing goods
Four types of inventories may be identified which are Raw material inventory, Stores and
spares, Work-in-process inventory and Finished goods inventory.
The main objective of inventory management is to achieve maximum efficiency in

production and sales with the minimum investment in inventory.
Minimum level indicates the lowest figure of inventory balance which must be maintained
in hand at all times, so that there is no stoppage of production
In ABC Analysis (called Always Better Control)ABC Analysis (called Always Better Control)
the items are divided into three categories according to their importance, value and
frequency of replenishment during a period.
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is the order size for some particular inventory item that
results in lowest total inventory cost for the period.
The Just-in-Time (JIT) system philosophy is that materials should arrive exactly the time
they are needed for production.
Many companies used a Material Requirement Planning (MRP) system to determine what
materials to order and when to order.
The methods used for moving the inventory is first in first out (FIFO), last in, first out
(LIFO) system.
11.8 Keywords
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ): It refers to that level of inventory at which the total cost of
inventory is minimum
Inventory: The stockpile of the products a firm is offering for sales and the components that
make up the product.
Optimum Level of Inventory: It is the level where the total costs of inventory is less.
253
Notes
Raw materials: It is the input that is converted into finished goods through a manufacturing or
conversion process.
Work-in-progress: It is the stage of stocks between raw materials & finished goods.

1.
Why is inventory management important?
2.
Describe briefly three types of inventory costs associated with economic order quantity
and reorder point compensation.
3.
What is meant by a reorder point? What factors affect the inventory reorder point?
4.
How does uncertainty affect inventory management?
5.
Describe perpetual inventory and periodic inventory system.
6.
Do FIFO perpetual and FIFO periodic always yield the same inventory valuation? Do
LIFO perpetual and LIFO periodic always yield the same inventory valuation?
7.
Compare the effect of LIFO and FIFO inventory valuation on the income statement and
balance sheet in periods of rising and falling prices.
8.
What is meant by the ABC Inventory Control System? On what key promise is this system
based? What are its limitations?
9.
What are likely to be the new points of each of the following managers about the levels of
the various types of inventories: field, marketing, manufacturing, purchasing? What is
inventory investment?
10.
What factors make managing inventory more vital for companies regarding the issue of
effective working capital management?

1.
optimum size
2.
Sale lag.
3.
safety stock
4.
stores and spares
5.
minimum
6.
Minimum level
7.
Input Output ratio
8.
EOQ
9.
10.
FIFO
11.
Last In First Out (LIFO)
12.
Average cost perpetual
13.
product
14.
specific identification
15.
LIFO
Books
254
Unit 12: Receivables Management
Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
12.1 Costs and Benefits of Receivables
12.1.1
Costs
12.1.2
Benefits
12.1.3
Cost/Benefit Analysis
12.2 Three Crucial Decision Areas in Receivables Management

12.2.1
Credit Policies
12.2.2
Credit Terms
12.2.3
Collection Policies
12.3 Factoring and Credit Control

12.4 Managing International Credit
12.5
Summary
12.6 Keywords
Objectives
Identify the cost benefit analysis of receivables.
Describe the crucial decision areas in receivable management
Explain the Factoring and credit control
Discuss the management of international credit
Introduction
The term receivable is defined as debt owed to the firm by customers arising sale of goods or
services in the ordinary course of business. When a firm makes an ordinary sale of goods or
renders services and does not receive payment it means that the firm has granted trade credit
and the amount appears as receivables in the books of the seller, which will be collected in
future. Thus, accounts receivable represent an extension of credit to customers, allowing them a
reasonable period of time to pay for the goods or services which they have received.
255
Notes
12.1 Costs and Benefits of Receivables

In modern competitive economic systems, sale of goods in credit is an essential part. In fact,
credit sales and the receivables are treated as marketing tools to aid the sale of goods.
12.1.1 Costs
Costs associated are collection cost, capital cost, delinquency cost, and default cost. Costs
associated with extension of credit and accounts receivable
1.
Collection cost: These are administrative costs incurred in collecting the receivables from
the customers to whom credit sales are made. Included in the costs are (a) additional
expenses in the creation and maintenance of credit department with staff, accounting
records, stationery, postage and other related items, (b) expenses in acquiring credit
information either through outside specialist agencies or by the staff of the firm itself.
These expenses are incurred only if the firm does sell on credit. These costs are likely to be
semi-variable since up to a certain point, the existing staff will be able to carry on the
increased workload, but beyond that, additional staff will be required. Some costs are
variable, e.g., getting credit information from outside agencies in respect of new customers
added.
2.
Capital cost: Accounts receivable is an investment in assets, and hence have to be financed
thereby involving a cost. The cost on the use of additional capital to support credit sales,
which alternatively could be profitably employed elsewhere is therefore a part of the cost
of extending credit or otherwise.
3.
Delinquency cost: This arises when the customers fail to meet their obligations on due date
after the expiry of the credit period. Such costs are called delinquency costs. The important
components of this cost are: (a) blocking of funds for an extended period, (b) cost associated
with the steps to be initiated to the over dues, such as reminders and the collection efforts,
legal charges, where necessary, etc.
4.
Default cost: If the firm is not able to recover the over dues because of the inability of the
customers, such debts are treated as bad debts and have to be written off. Such costs are
known as default costs associated with credit sales and accounts receivable.
Did u know? With relaxation of credit standards, default expenses (i.e., bad debt expenses)
go up. If credit standards are made more restrictive, bad debt expenses go down.
12.1.2 Benefits
Benefits from credit sales and receivables management are increased sales and increased profits.
The impact of a liberal policy of trade credit is likely to have two forms. First, it is oriented to
sales expansion i.e., to increase sales to existing customers or attract new customers. Secondly,
the firm may extend credit to protect its current sales against emerging competition. Here the
motive is sales retention. As a result of increased sales, profitability also increases since the
firms fixed costs get distributed on a larger volume i.e., fixed cost per unit to be absorbed gets
reduced, increasing the profits of the firm.
12.1.3 Cost/Benefit Analysis

From the above discussion, it is clear that investments in receivables involve both benefits and
costs. The extension of trade credit has a major impact on sales, costs and profitability other
256
things being equal, a relatively liberal policy and therefore higher investments in receivable,
will produce larger sales. However, costs will be higher with liberal policies than with stringent
measures. Therefore, accounts receivable management should aim at trade off between profit
(benefit) and risk (cost). That is to say, decision to loosen funds to receivables (or the decision to
grant credit) will be based on a comparison of the benefits and costs involved. While determining
the optimum level of receivables, the costs and benefits to be compared are marginal costs and
benefits i.e., the firm should only consider the incremental benefits and costs that result from a
change in the receivables or trade policy. Obviously, it can go on extending credit facility till the
incremental benefits are more than the incremental costs.
Notes
Notes Credit sales are generally made on open account that means, there is no formal
acknowledgement of debt obligation through any financial instrument. However,
extension of credit involves risk and cost. The benefits as well as cost to determine the goal
of receivable management.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1.
.cost arises when the customers fail to meet their obligations on due date after
the expiry of the credit period.
2.
.are administrative costs incurred in collecting the receivables from the

customers to whom credit sales are made.
3.
Costs will be higher with liberal policies than with .measures.
4.
While determining the optimum level of receivables, the costs and benefits to be compared
are ..costs and benefits
12.2 Three Crucial Decision Areas in Receivables Management

The three crucial decision areas in receivable management are (a) credit policies (b) credit terms
and (c) collection policies.
12.2.1 Credit Policies

It involves a trade-off between profits on additional sales that arise due to credit being extended
on the one hand and cost of carrying the receivables and bad debt losses on the other. The credit
policy of a firm provides the framework to determine (1) whether or not to extend credit to a
customer and (2) how much credit to extend. The credit policy decision has two dimensions
(1) credit standards and (2) credit analysis.
Credit Standards
The term credit standards represents the basic criteria for the extension of credit to customers. The
quantitative bases of establishing credit standards are factors such as credit ratings, credit references,
average payment period, and certain financial ratio. We are interested in illustrating the trade-off
between benefit and cost to the firm as a whole and therefore not considering the individual
components of credit standards. The trade-off with reference to credit standards covers the collection
cost, the average collection period, level of bad debt losses, and level of sales. These factors should
be considered while considering whether to relax credit standards or not.
257
Notes
The implication of relaxed credit standards is more credit, a larger credit department to service
accounts and related matters and increase in collection costs.
A relaxation in credit standard implies an increase in sales, which in turn, leads to higher
average accounts receivables. Further, relaxed standards would enable credit to get extended to
even less creditworthy customers, resulting in longer period to pay over dues. The reverse will
happen if credit standards are tightened.
Further, changing credit standards can also be expected to change the volume of sales. As
standards are relaxed, sales are expected to increase; conversely a tightening is expected to cause
a decline in sales.
!
Caution It must be kept in mind that with relaxation in credit standards, bad expenses will
go up.
The effect of alternative credit standards is illustrated in the following example:

Example: A firm is currently selling a product at 10 per unit. The most recent sales (all
credit) were 60,000 units. The variable cost per unit is 6 and the average cost per unit given a
sales volume of 60,000 units is 8. The firms total fixed cost is 120,000. The average collection
period may be assumed to be 30 days.
The firm is contemplating a relaxation of credit standards that is expected to result in a 15 per
cent increase in rupee sales. The average collection would increase to 45 days with no change in
bad debt expenses. The increase in collection expenses may be assessed to be negligible. The
firms required return on investment is 15 per cent.
Should the firm relax the credit standard?
Solution:
Current Plan:
Sales Revenue
60,000 10/-
600,000
Less Cost:
Variable 60,000 6
360,000
Fixed
120,000
Profit on Sales
480,000
120,000
Less: Interest @ 15% on average receivables

1 month credit period hence avg. receivables
8 60,000 + 6 9000
= 40,000 0.15
Cost of sales
360
Net Profit
6,000
114,000
Proposed Plan
Sales Revenue
60000 1.15 10
Less cost:
258
690,000
Variable 60,000 6 1.15

Fixed
120,000
Profit on sales
534,000
156,000
Less Interest @ 15% on average receivables

i.e., 15%
Notes
414,000
10,013
534000 1.5
12
Net Profit
145,987
Hence, increase in profits of the firm and the firm should relax the credit standard
31,987
Credit Analysis
Besides establishing credit standards, a firm should develop procedures for evaluating credit
applicants. Two basic steps are involved in the credit investigation process obtaining credit
information and analysis of credit information.
Did u know? On the basis of credit analysis the decision to grant credit to a customer as
well as the quantum of credit is taken.
Sources of credit information are internal and external. Internal means various forms filled in
by the customers giving details of financial operation, trade references of firms with whom the
customer has business, behaviour of the customer in terms of historical payment pattern in
respect of existing credit customer. External sources include copy of the published financial
statements, trade references and bank references. Finally, specialist credit bureau reports from
organizations specializing in supplying credit information can also be utilized.
Once the credit information has been collected from different sources, the next step is to determine
credit worthiness of the applicant. There are no established procedures to analyze the information.
The analysis should cover two aspects quantitative and qualitative.
The assessment of the quantitative aspect is based on factual information available from the
financial statements, the past records of the firm and so on. Another step may be through a ratio
analysis of the liquidity, profitability and financial capacity of the applicant and comparison
with the industry average. Again trend analysis over a period of time will reveal the financial
strength of the customer. Another approach may be to prepare an ageing schedule of the accounts
payable of the applicant. This will give an insight into the past payment pattern of the customer.
The quantitative assessment should be supplemented by qualitative interpretation of the
applicants credit worthiness. For example, quality of management, references from other
suppliers, bank references and specialist bureau reports.
12.2.2 Credit Terms

Credit terms have three components:
1.
Credit period in terms of time for which credit is extended, during this period the overdue
amount must be paid by the customer;
2.
Cash discount, if any, which the customer can take advantage of i.e., overdue amount will
be reduced by this amount; and
3.
Cash discount period, which refers to the duration during which the discount can be
availed of.
259
Notes
These terms are usually written as 2/10 net 30. The abbreviation 2/10 net 30 means that the
customer is entitled to 2% cash discount if he pays within 10 days (discount period) after the
beginning of the credit period of 30 days). If, however, he does not want to take advantage of the
discount he may pay within 30 days. If not made within a maximum period of 30 days, the
customer would be deemed to have defaulted.
The credit terms such as the credit standards, affect the profitability as well as the cost of this
firm. The three components of credit terms, namely, the rate of discount, period of discount and
the credit period affect the trade-off. Here the analysis is restricted from the point of suppliers of
trade credit.
The cash discount has implications for the sales volume, average collection period, bad debt
expenses and profit per unit. The sales volume will increase. The grant of discount implies
reduced prices. If the demand for the products is elastic, reduction in prices will result in higher
sales volume.
!
Caution A firm should determine the credit terms on the basis of cost benefit trade-off.
Since the customers would like to take advantage of the discount and pay within the discount
period, the average collection period would be reduced. The reduction in the collection period
would lead to a reduction in the investment in receivables and also the cost. The decrease in the
average collection period would also cause a fall in bad debt expenses. As a result, profits will
increase. The discount would have a negative effect in the profits. This is because the decrease in
prices would affect the profit margin per unit of sale. Increase in credit period will increase the
sales volume, average collection period and bad debt expenses. A reduction in credit period is
likely to have an opposite effect.
Example: In our example, assume that the firm is contemplating to allow 2% discount
for payment prior to the 10th day after a credit sale. It would be recalled that the current average
collection period is 30 days, credit sales are 60,000 units. The variable cost per unit is 6 as the
average cost per unit is 8.
It is expected that if discounts are offered, sales will increase by 15% i.e., to 69000 units and the
average collection period will drop to 15 days. Assume, bad debt expenses will not be affected,
return on investment expected by the firm is 15%, 60% of the total sales will be on discount.
Should the firm implement the proposal?
Solution:
Benefit:
Profit on sales = Additional units (sales price variable cost)
= 9000 (10 6)
36,000
Saving on avg. collection period

Present: Average investment in receivable at cost
60,000 8
12
40,000
Proposed: Average investment in receivables
(60,000 8) + (9000 6)
24
260
22,250
Reduction
Notes
17,750
Int. @ 15% on saving 17750 0.15
2,663
38,663
Cost,
2% on 60% of 69000
10
Net benefit
8,280
30,383
Example: Suppose the firm is contemplating an increase in the credit period from 30 60
days. The average collection period, which is at 45 days, is expected to increase to 75 days. It is
also likely that the bad debt or expenses will increase from the current level of 1% to 3% of sales.
Total credit sales are expected to increase from the current levels of 60,000 units to 69,000 units.
The present average cost per unit is 8; the variable cost sales per unit are 6 and 10 per unit
respectively. Assume the firm expects a return of 15%. Should the firm extend the credit period?
Solution: The decision should be taken on the basis of comparison of benefits and costs associated
with the decision. The benefits arising from additional profits from additional sales, while the
costs include the cost of additional investments in receivables and additional bad debt expenses:
1.
Profit on additional sales
4 9000
2.
Cost of additional investment in receivables
36,000
8 60,000 + 6 9000
75 = 111,250
Proposed investment =
360
Present investment =
Accounts Receivable at time chosen

45
Average daily sales
60,000
Additional investment proposed
51,250
Cost of additional investment at 15%

3.
7,688
Additional bad debt expense

Bad debt with proposed credit period 3% on
Bad debts with present plan 1%
690,000
600,000
Hence additional bad debt expenses
20,700
6000
14,700
Thus, the total cost associated with the extension of credit period is 7688 + 14700 i.e., 22,388.
As against this, the benefit comes to 36,000. There is therefore a net gain of 13,612. The firm
must be advised to extend the credit period from 30 to 60 days.
Example: XYZ Corporation is considering relaxing its present credit policy and is in the
process of evaluating two proposed policies. Currently the firm has annual credit sales of 50
lakhs and accounts receivable turnover ratio of 4 times a year. The current level of loss due to
bad debts is 1,50,000.The firm is required to give a return of 25% on the investment in new
accounts receivable. The companys variable costs are 70% of the selling price. Given the following
further information, which is a better option?
261
Notes
Present Policy
Annual credit sales
50,00,000
Accounts receivable turnover ratio
4 times
Bad debt losses
1,50,000
Policy Option I
Policy Option II
60,00,000
3 times
67,50,000
2.4 times
300,000
4,50,000
Solution: XYZ Corporation

Decision-making (liberalization of credit terms)
Present Policy
( )
Sales revenue
Less variable cost
contribution
50,00,000
35,00,000
15,00,000
Less other relevant costs

Bad debt losses
Investment cost (Notes)
Contribution margin-final
Policy Option 1
( )
Policy Option II
( )
60,00,000
42,00,000
18,00,000
67,50,000
47,25,000
20,25,000
1,50,000
218,750
300,000
3,50,000
4,50,000
4,92,187.50
11,31,250
11,50,000
10,82,812.50.
Policy option I is the better option.

Notes:
Present policy: 35,00,000/4times =

Option 1 : 42,00,000/3times =
Option 2 : 47,25, 000/2.4times =
875,000. Its cost @ 25% = 218,750
14,00,000. Its cost @ 25% = 3,50,000

19,68,750.Its cost @ 25% = 4,92,187.50
12.2.3 Collection Policies

Efficient and timely collection of debtors ensure that bad debt losses are reduced to the minimum
and the average collection period is shorter. If the firm spends more resources, on utilization of
debts, it is likely to have smaller bad debts. Thus, a firm must work out the optimum amount
that it should spend on collection of debtors. This involves a trade-off between the levels of
expenditure on the one hand and decreases in bad debt losses and appropriate investment in
debtors on the other.
The collection cost of the firm has to work in a manner that it does not create too much resentment
amongst the customers. On the other hand, it has to keep the amount of outstanding payments
in check. Hence, it has to work in a very smooth manner and diplomatically too.
It is important that clear-cut procedures regarding credit collection are set up. Such procedures
must answer questions like the following:
262
1.
How long a is debtor balance allowed to exist before collection process is started?
2.
What should be the procedure of follow up with defaulting customer? How are reminders
are to be sent and how should each successive reminder be drafted?
3.
Should there be collection machinery whereby personal calls by companys representatives

are made?
4.
What should be the procedure for dealing with doubtful accounts? Is legal action to be
initiated? How should account be handled?
Notes
Monitoring of Receivables
1.
Computation of average age of receivables: It involves computation of average collection

period as follows:
Accounts Receivable at time chosen

Average daily sales
2.
Ageing schedule: An important insight into the collection pattern of the preparation of
their ageing schedule. In this, receivables are classified according to their age, say
1-30 days, 31-60 days, 61-90 days, 91-120 days and 121 days and above. This classification
helps the firm in its collection efforts and enables the management to have a closer control
over the quality of individual accounts. The agency schedule provides an effective method
of comparing the liquidity of receivables with the liquidity of receivables in the past as
well as that of another firm in the same industry. This comparison can be made periodically.
The ageing schedule provides a useful supplement to average collection period receivables/
sales analysis.
3.
Collection programme:
4.
(a)
Monitoring the state of receivables
(b)
Intimating to customers when due date approaches
(c)
Telegraphic and telephone advice to customers on the due dates
(d)
Threat of legal action on overdue accounts
(e)
Legal action on overdue accounts.
Collection matrix: In order to correctly study the changes in the payment behaviour of
customer, it is helpful to look at the pattern of collections associated with credit sales. The
following table shows an illustrative collection matrix.
Example: The credit sales during the month of January are collected as follows:
10% in January (the month of sales), 42% in February (the first following month), 36% in March
(the second following month) and 12% in April (the third following month).
From the collection pattern, one can judge whether the collection is improving, stable or
deteriorating. A secondary benefit of such an analysis is that it provides a historical record of
collection percentage. That could be useful in projecting monthly receipts for each budgeting
period.
Collection Matrix
Jan
Sales
Feb
Sales
March
Sales
April
Sales
May
Sales
Month of sales
10
14
13
15
First following month
42
35
38
40
35
Second following month
36
40
26
21
26
Third following month
12
11
23
19
25
Percentage of receivables colleted

during the
Fourth following month
263
Notes
Task ABC Companys existing sales are 180 lakhs. It is currently extending a credit
period of net 30 days to its customers. The companys contribution to sales ratio is 20 per
cent and the cost of funds is 15 per cent. The company is contemplating to increase its sales
by 16 lakhs to be achieved by means of lengthening the existing period to net 45 days.
The bad debt losses on additional sales is expected to be 5 per cent. Should the company go
in for a policy change or not.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
5.
The represents the basic criteria for the extension of credit to customers.
6.
Efficient and timely collection of debtors ensures that losses are reduced to the
minimum and the average collection period is shorter.
7.
Credit terms have three components which are; Cash discount and Cash
discount period.
8.
If the demand for the products is elastic, reduction in prices will result in .....sales
volume.
12.3 Factoring and Credit Control

A large firm has some advantages, in managing its accounts receivable. First, it may be possible
for divisions to pool information on the creditworthiness of its customers. Second, there are
potential companies of scale in record keeping, billing, etc., especially if the process can be
computerized. Third, debt collection is a specialized business that calls for experience and
judgement. The small firm may not be able to hire or train a specialized credit manager. However,
it may be able to obtain some of the economies by parking part of the job out to a factor and the
arrangement is known as factoring.
Factoring is a collection and finance service designed to improve the cash flow position of the
sellers by converting sales invoices into ready cash. It is a continuing arrangement between the
factor and the seller client, the factor purchases the clients debtors and in relation thereto
controls the credit extended to the customers and administer the sales ledger.
264
1.
Under an agreement between the seller and selling firm, the latter makes an appraisal of
the creditworthiness of the potential customers and may also set the credit limit and terms
of credit for different customers.
2.
The sales documents will contain the instructions to make the payment directly to the
factory that is responsible for the collection.
3.
When the payment is received by the factor on the date, the factor shall deduct its fees,
charges, etc., (as agreed) and credit the balance to the firms accounts.
4.
In some cases, if agreed, the factor firm may also provide advance finance to the selling
firm for which it may charge from the selling firm. In a way, this tantamount to bill
discounting by the factor firm. However, factoring is something more than mere bill
discounting, as the former includes analysis of the credit worthiness of the customer too.
The factor may pay whole or a substantial portion of the sales value to the selling firm
immediately on sales being affected. The balance, if any, may be paid on the normal due
date. The mechanism of factoring has been presented in following figure:
Notes
Figure 12.1
Sale of Goods (1)
Selling Firm
Factor
Customer or Receivable
payment on due date (4)
Invoice Copy (2)
Advance payment (3)

Final payment, if any (5)
In addition to purchasing of receivables, the factor firm may provide the following additional
services:
1.
Raising funds on the security of the receivables
2.
Receivables collection management, and,
3.
Protection against defaults by the receivables.
4.
It may be noted that a firm need not avail all these services from the factor and the
agreement between the selling firm and the factor firm may be tailor made to suit the
specific needs of the selling firm. In a nutshell, the functions of a factor may be described
as credit investigation, credit administration; credit monitoring, credit collection, credit
protection and credit financing.
Benefits and Costs of Factoring

The factoring is nothing but a substitute for in-house management of receivables. Factoring
offers a very flexible mode of cash generation against the receivables. Once a line of credit is
established, factoring helps availability of cash at an earliest opportunity after sales. Factoring
tends to increase the number of rotations by converting credit sales into cash. A firm availing
factoring services may have the following benefits:
1.
Better cash flows: The seller can offer credit to the customers, within the terms approved
by the factor and can receive prompt payments shortly after invoicing. This may be
cheaper than financing and therefore, can be availed if the firm expects a liquidity problem
on a regular basis. In fact, the factoring ensures a definite pattern of cash inflows from the
credit sales.
2.
Better assets management: The security for such financial assistance is the receivable itself
and therefore, the other assets will remain available as security for other borrowings.
3.
Better working capital management: Since, finance available from factoring moves directly
with the level of the receivables, the necessity of additional working capital to match the
sales growth does not arise.
4.
Better administration: The debt management services which factors provide relieve the
seller of the burden of administration and saves on the cost of staff and office space. In
other words, it enables the seller to concentrate on developing his business.
5.
Better evaluation: The debt management service may include formal or informal advice
on credit standing. Factors hold large amounts of information about the trading histories
265
Notes
of firms. This can be valuable to those who are using factoring services and can thereby
avoid doing business with customers having poor track record.
6.
Better risk management: In case of non-recourse factoring, the seller will have the advantage
of repositioning the risk of customers not paying their due bills. This will cost more than
recourse factoring and thereby allows the seller to escape the consequences of customers
default.
However, the factoring involves some monetary and non-monetary costs as follows:
1.
2.
Monetary costs:
(a)
The factor firm usually charges substantial fees and commission for the collection of
receivables.
(b)
The advance finance provided by the factor firm would be available at a higher
interest costs than the usual rate of interest.
Non-monetary costs:
(a)
The factor firm doing the evaluation of the creditworthiness of the customer will be
primarily concerned with the minimization of risk of delays and defaults. In the
process, it may tend to ignore possible sale prospect.
(b)
A factor is a third party to the customer and the latter not feel comfortable while
dealing with it.
(c)
The factoring of receivables may be considered as a symptom of financial weakness.

Thus, while evaluation the use of factoring services, the firm must analyze the costs
and benefits associated with the factoring. It may be noted that though factoring is
a costly service, yet some firms may find it to be more economical than to establish
their own collection department.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
9.
Factoring is a collection and finance service designed to improve the cash flow position of
the sellers by converting ..into ready cash.
10.
The is a substitute for in-house management of receivables.
11.
The advance finance provided by the factor firm would be available at a ........interest
costs than the usual rate of interest
12.
The factoring of receivables may be considered as a symptom of financial
12.4 Managing International Credit

Credit management is difficult task for managers of purely domestic companies, and these
tasks, become much more complex for companies that operate internationally. This is partly
because international operations typically expose a firm to exchange rate risk. It is also due to
the perils involved in shipping goods to long distance and to cross at least two international
boundaries.
Exports of finished goods are usually priced in the currency of the importers local market.
Therefore, a US company that sells a product in Japan, would have to price that product in
Japanese yen and extend credit to Japanese wholesale in local currency (yen). If yen depreciates
against the dollar before the US exporter collects its account receivable, the US company experience
266
an exchange rate loss, the yen collected are worth fewer dollars than expected at the time when
the sale was made. The exchange rate variation can happen the other way yielding an exchange
rate gain to the US exporter.
Notes
For a major currency such as the Japanese Yen, the exporter can bridge against this risk by using
currency, forward or option markets, but it is costly to do, particularly for relatively small
amounts.
This risk may be further magnified because credit standards may be different and acceptable
collection techniques much different.
Notes The exporter cannot take the not to bother approach and concede foreign markets
to international rivals. Those export sales, if carefully monitored and (where possible)
effectively hedged against exchange rate risk, often prove to be very profitable.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
13.
International operations typically expose a firm to risk.
14.
For a major currency, the exporter can bridge against the risk by using currency, forward
or .markets.
15.
This risk in international credit may be further magnified because credit standards may be
different and techniques much different.
Case Study
Case: Agarwal Cast Company Inc.
On August 30, 2006, Agarwal Cast Company Inc., applied for a $200,000 loan from the
main office of the National bank of New York. The application was forwarded to the
banks commercial loan department.
Gupta, the President and Principal Stockholder of Agarwal cast, applied for the loan in
person. He told the loan officer that he had been in business since February 1976, but that
he had considerable prior experience in flooring and carpets since he had worked as an
individual contractor for the past 20 year. Most of this time, he had worked in Frankfert
and Michigan. He finally decided to work for himself and he formed the company with
Berry Hook, a former co-worker. This information seemed to be consistent with the Dun
and Bradstreet report obtained by the bank.
According to Gupta, the purpose of the loan was to assist him in carrying his receivables
until they could be collected. He explained that the flooring business required him to
spend considerable cash to purchase materials but his customers would not pay until the
job was done. Since he was relatively new in the business, he did not feel that he could
compete if he had to require a sizeable deposit or payment in advance. Instead, he could
quote for higher profits, if he was willing to wait until completion of the job for payment.
To show that his operation was sound, he included a list of customers and projects with his
loan application. He also included a list of current receivables.
Contd...
267
Notes
Gupta told the loan officer that he had monitored his firms financial status closely and
that he had financial reports prepared every six months. He said that the would send a
copy to the bank. In addition, he was willing to file a personal financial statement with the
bank.
Question
Prepare your recommendation on Agarwal Cast Company.
12.5 Summary
Receivable is defined as debt owed to the firm by customers arising sale of goods or
services in the ordinary course of business.
The three crucial decision areas in receivable management are (a) credit policies (b) credit
terms and (c) collection policies.Credit Policies involves a trade-off between profits on
additional sales that arise due to credit being extended on the one hand and cost of carrying
the receivables and bad debt losses on the other.
Credit terms have three components which are Credit period, Cash discount and Cash
discount period.
The collection cost of the firm has to work in a manner that it does not create too much
resentment amongst the customer
Factoring is a collection and finance service designed to improve the cash flow position of
the sellers by converting sales invoices into ready cash.
Factoring offers a very flexible mode of cash generation against the receivables.
Credit management is difficult task for managers that operate internationally because
international operations typically expose a firm to exchange rate risk.
12.6 Keywords
Collection Policy: It is the procedures passed to collect amount receivables, when they become
due.
Credit Standards: It refers to the minimum criteria for the extension of credit to a customer.
Credit Terms: It means the stipulations under which goods or services are sold on credit.
Receivables: It is defined as debt owed to the firm by customers arising from sale of goods or
services in the ordinary course of business.
Receivables Management: It involves decision areas: credit standards, credit period, cash discounts
and collection procedures.
268
1.
Explain the objectives of credit polity of/or firm. What are the elements of a credit policy?
2.
What are the techniques of control of receivables? Explain the Ageing Schedule.
3.
Who do you mean by factoring? Explain the benefits of factoring.
4.
Why are a firms regular credit terms typically conform to those of its industry?
5.
What are the basic trade-offs in a tightening of credit standards?
6.
Why are the risks involved in international credit management more complex than those
associated are true or false with purely domestic credit sales?
7.
Analyse the benefit of the receivables management to the corporates.
8.
Elucidate the consequences of liberal versus stiff credit standards.
9.
Examine the different sources of credit information to the corporates & to the agencies.
10.
Examine the factors that influence the size of investment in receivables.
Notes

1.
Delinquency
2.
Collection cost
3.
stringent
4.
marginal
5.
credit standards
6.
bad debt
7.
Credit period
8.
higher
9.
sales invoices
10.
factoring
11.
higher
12.
weakness.
13.
exchange rate
14.
option
15.
acceptable collection
Books
Chandra, P., Financial Management - Theory and Practice, New Delhi, Tata McGraw
269
Notes
Unit 13: Management of Cash

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
13.1 Cash Management
13.1.1
Cash Management Planning Aspects
13.1.2
Cash Management Control Aspects
13.2 Cash Collection and Disbursement Systems

13.2.1
Concept of Float
13.2.2
Managing Float
13.3 Cash Management Models

13.3.1
William J Baumols Economic Order Quantity Model
13.3.2
Miller Orr Cash Management Model
13.4 Treasury Management

13.5 The Cash Conversion Cycle
13.6 Management of Marketable Securities
13.7 Summary
13.8 Keywords
Objectives
Describe the management of cash
Discuss cash management planning and control aspects
Explain the different cash management models
Recognize the cash conversion cycle
Introduction
Management of cash is an important function of the finance manager. The modern day business
comprises of numerous units spread over vast geographical areas. It is the duty of the finance
manager to provide adequate cash to each of the units. For the survival of the business, it is
absolutely essential that there should be adequate cash. It is the duty of finance manager to
maintain liquidity at all parts of the organization while managing cash. On the other hand, he
has also to ensure that there are no funds blocked in idle cash. Idle cash resources entail a great
deal of cost in terms of interest charges and in terms of opportunities costs. Hence, the question
of costs of idle cash must also be kept in mind by the finance manager. A cash management
scheme, therefore, is a delicate balance between the twin objectives of liquidity and costs.
270
Notes
13.1 Cash Management

Need for Cash
The following are four motives for holding cash:
1.
Transaction need: Cash facilitates the meeting of the day-to-day expenses and other
payments on the debts. Normally, inflows of cash from operations should be sufficient for
this purpose. But sometimes this inflow may be temporarily blocked. In such cases, it is
only the reserve cash balance that can enable the firm to make its payments in time.
2.
Speculative needs: Cash may be held in order to take advantage of profitable opportunities
that may present themselves and which may be lost for want of ready cash/settlement.
3.
Precautionary needs: Cash may be held to act as for providing safety against unexpected
events. Safety as is typified by the saying that a man has only three friends an old wife,
an old dog and money at bank.
4.
Compensation motive: Another motive to hold cash balances is to compensate banks for
providing certain services and loans.
Nature of Cash Management

The exact nature of a cash management system would depend upon the organizational structure
of an enterprise. In a highly centralized organization, the system would be such that the central
or head office controls the inflows and outflows of cash on a routine and daily basis. In a
decentralized form of organization, where the divisions have complete responsibility of
conducting their affairs, it may not be possible and advisable for the central office to exercise a
detailed control over cash inflows and outflows.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1.
Cash held in order to take advantage of profitable opportunities comes under the motive
of needs.
2.
The exact nature of a cash management system would depend upon the ..
of an enterprise.
13.1.1 Cash ManagementPlanning Aspects

The first step in cash management is to estimate the requirements of cash. For this purpose, cash
flow statements and cash budgets are required to be prepared.
Did u know? What is Cash budget?
Cash budget is the plan of receipts and payments of cash during the budget period.
271
Notes
Cash budget represents cash requirements of business during the budget period. Cash budget
can be prepared for either short or for long periods.
1.
Cash budgets for short period: Preparation of cash budget month by month would involve
making the following estimates:
(a)
(b)
As regards receipts:
(i)
Receipts from debtors;
(ii)
Cash sales; and
(iii)
Any other sources of receipt of cash (say, dividend from a subsidiary company).
As regards payments:
(i)
Payments to be made for purchases;
(ii)
Payments to be made for expenses;
(iii)
Payments that are made periodically but not every month;

Debenture
(iv)
2.
interest; Income tax paid in advance Sales tax etc.
Special payments to be made in a particular months, for example dividends to

shareholders, redemption of debentures, repayments of loan, payment for
assets acquired, etc.,
Cash budget for long period: Long-range cash forecast often resembles the projected source
and application of funds statement. The following procedures may be adopted to prepare
long-range cash forecasts:
(a)
Take the cash at bank and in the beginning of the year;
(b)
Add:
3.
(i)
Trading profit (before tax) expected to be earned;
(ii)
Depreciation and other development expenses incurred to be written off;
(iii)
Sale proceeds of assets;
(iv)
Proceeds of fresh issue of shares or debentures; and
(v)
Reduction in working capital that is current assets (except cash) less current
liabilities.
Deduct:
(i)
Dividends to be paid
(ii)
Cost of assets to be purchased
(iii)
Taxes to be paid
(iv)
Debentures or shares to be redeemed
(v)
Increase in working capital.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
272
3.
...is the plan of receipts and payments of cash during the budget period.
4.
To estimate the requirements of cash, statements and cash budgets are required
to be prepared.
13.1.2 Cash ManagementControl Aspects
Notes
We have already seen that the finance manager must control the levels of cash balance at various
points in the organization. This task assumes special importance on account of the fact that there
is generally a tendency amongst divisional managers to keep cash balance in excess of their
needs.
Notes The financial managers must devise a system whereby each division of an
organization retains enough cash to meet its day-to-day requirements without having
surplus balances on hand. For this, methods have to be employed to:
1.
Speed up the mailing time of payments from customers,
2.
Reduce the time of payments received by the firm remain uncollected and speed up
the movement funds to be disbursement banks.
Two very important methods to speed up collection process are:

1.
Concentrating banking and
2.
Lock-box system
1.
Concentration banking: In concentration banking, the company establishes a number of

strategic collection centers in different regions instead of a single collection center at the
head office. This system reduces the period between the time a customer mails in his
remittances and the time when they become spend able funds with the company. Payments
received by the different collection centers are deposited with their respective local banks
which in turn, transfer all surplus funds to the concentration bank of the head office. The
concentration bank with which the company has its major bank account is generally
located at the headquarters. Concentration banking is one important and popular way of
reducing the size of the float.
2.
Lock-box system: Another means to accelerate the flow of funds is a lock box system. With
concentration banking, remittances are received by a collection centre and deposited in
the bank after processing. The purpose of lock box system is to eliminate the time between
the receipt of remittances by the company and the deposit in the bank. A lock box
arrangement usually is on regional basis, which a company chooses according to its
billing patterns. Before determining the regions to be used, a feasibility study is made of
the possibility of cheques that would be deposited under alternative plans. In this regard,
operations research techniques have proved useful in the location of lock box sites. For
example, if a company divides the country into five zones on the basis of feasibility
studies, it might pick up New Delhi for the North, Bombay for the West, Calcutta for the
East, Madras for the South and Nagpur for the centre.
Under this arrangement, the company rents the local post-office box and authorize its
bank at each of the locations to pick up remittances in the boxes. Customers are billed with
instructions to mail their remittances to the lock boxes. The bank picks up the mail several
times a day and deposits the cheques in the companys account. The cheques may be
microfilmed for record purposes and cleared for collection. The company receives a deposit
slip and lists all payments together with any other material in the envelope. This procedure
frees the company from handling and depositing the cheques. Thus, the lag between the
time cheques are received by the company and the time they are actually deposited in the
bank is eliminated. The main drawback of lock box system is the cost of its operation. The
bank provides a number of services in addition to usual clearing the cheques and requires
compensation for them. Since the cost is directly proportional if average remitted is small.
273
Notes
!
Caution The appropriate rule for deciding whether or not to use a lock box system or for
that matter, concentration banking is simply to compare, the added cost of the most
efficient system with the marginal income that can be guaranteed from the released funds.
If costs are less than income, the system is profitable, if not, the system is not a probable
undertaking.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
5.
Two very important methods to speed up collection process are Concentrating banking
and .system
6.
In, the company establishes a number of strategic collection centers in

different regions instead of a single collection center at the head office.
13.2 Cash Collection and Disbursement Systems

13.2.1 Concept of Float
Suppose U Co. Ltd., has 10 lakhs on demand deposit with its bank. It pays one of its suppliers
by writing a cheque for 200,000. The companys ledgers are immediately adjusted to show cash
balance of 80,000. But the companys bank should not know about the cheque till the supplier
receives the cheque and present to the companys bank for payment. During that period, the
bank continues to show in its ledger that a company has a balance of 10 lakhs. The company
obtains the benefit of an extra 200,000 in the bank while the cheque is getting cleared. This sum
is often called payment or disbursement float.
The float can also work in reverse. Suppose U Co. Ltd. receives a cheque for 100,000 from a
customer. It deposits the cheque and both the company and the bank increases the ledger balance
by 100,000.
274
But this money isnt available immediately to the company. The bank doesnt have the money
till it has sent the cheque and received payment from the customers bank. Since the bank has to
wait, it makes U Co. Ltd. wait too usually 1 or 2 business days. In the meantime, bank will
show that U Co. Ltd. has an available balance of 10 lakhs and availability float of 100,000.
Notes
It may be noted that the company gains as a result of payment float and loses as a result of the
availability float. The difference is often termed the net float. In our example, the net float is
100,000. The companys available balance is therefore 100,000 greater than the balance shown
in its ledger.
The financial managers concern is with the available balance and not with the companys ledger
balance. If it is known that it may take a week or two before some of the cheques are presented
for payment, one may be able to get by with a smaller cash balance. This game is often called
playing the float. One can increase the available cash balance by increasing the net float.
13.2.2 Managing Float

There are several kinds of delay and so people in the cash management refer to several kinds of
float.
Figure 13.1: Several Kinds of Fleat
Cheque mailed
Mail float
Cheque received
Recipient sees delays
as collection float
Payee sees delays

as payment float
Processing float
Cheque deposited
Availability float
Presentation float
Cash available to recipient
Cheque charged to payers account
275
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
7.
The financial managers concern is with the available balance and not with the companys
balance
8.
One can increase the available cash balance by increasing the...
13.3 Cash Management Models

In recent years, several types of mathematics models have been developed that help to determine
optimum cash balance to be carried by a business organization. All these models can be put into
two categories inventory type models and stochastic models. Inventory type models have
been constructed to aid the finance manager to determine optimum cash balance of the firm.
However, in a situation where EOQ Model is not applicable, the stochastic model of cash
management helps in determining optimum level of cash balance. It happens when the demand
for cash is stochastic and is not known in advance.
13.3.1 William J Baumols Economic Order Quantity Model

According to this model, optimum cash level is that level of cash where the carrying costs and
transaction costs are the maximum. The carrying costs refer to the cost of holding cash, namely
the interest foregone in marketable securities. The transaction costs refer to the cost involved in
setting the marketable securities converted into cash. This happens when the firm falls short of
cash and has to sell the securities resulting in clerical, brokerage, registration and other costs.
The optimum cash balance will be that point where these two costs are equal. The formula for
determining optimum cash balance is:
C =
Where,
2UP
S
C = Optimum cash balance

U = Annual (or monthly) cash disbursement
P = Fixed cost for transaction
S = Opportunity cost of one rupee p.a.
Example: A firm maintains a separate account for cash disbursement. Total disbursement
is 105,000 per month or 12,60,000 per year. Administrative and transaction cost of transferring
cash to disbursement account is 20 per transfer. Marketable securities yield is 8% p.a. Determine
the optimum cash balance as per J. Baumals Model
Solution: The optimum cash balance
C =
=
2 12,60,000 20
0.8
25,100
13.3.2 MillerOrr Cash Management Model

According to this model, the net cash flow is completely stochastic. When changes in cash
balance occur randomly the application of control theory serves a useful purpose. The Miller
276
Orr model is one of such control limit models. This model is designed to determine the time and
size of transfers between an investment account and cash account. In this model, limits are set for
cash balances. These limits may consist of h as upper limit, z as the return point and zero as the
lower limit. When the cash balance reaches the upper limit, the transfer of cash equal to h is
invested in marketable securities account. When it touches the lower limit, a transfer from
marketable securities account to cash account is made. During the period when cash balance
stays between (h,z) and (z,o) i.e., high and low limits of cash balance are set up on the basis of
fixed cost associated with the securities transactions, the opportunity cost of holding cash and
the degree of likely fluctuations in cash balances. These limits satisfy the demands for cash at the
lowest possible total costs. The following diagram illustrates the Miller Orr Model.
Notes
Figure 13.2: Miller-orr Cash Management Model
H
Upper Control Limit
Return Point
Time
Lower Control Limit
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
9.
The ..costs refer to the cost of holding cash.
10.
The ..costs refer to the cost involved in setting the marketable securities
converted into cash.
13.4 Treasury Management

Treasury management once viewed as a peripheral activity conducted by back-office, today
plays a very vital role in corporate management. Treasury management can be defined in many
ways. The Association of Corporate Treasure defines Treasury management as the efficient
management of liquidity and financial risk in business. All firms, to some degree, are involved
in treasury management, although in smaller companies, it may not be a separately defined job.
Notes Treasury management is responsible for:

1.
Management of cash while obtaining the optimum return from any surplus funds.
2.
Management of exchange rate risks in accordance with group policy.
3.
Providing both long-term and short-term funds for the business at minimum cost.
4.
Maintaining good relationships with banks and other providers of finance including
shareholders.
5.
Advising on aspects of corporate finance including capital structure, mergers and

acquisitions.
277
Notes
Functions of Treasury Department

1.
Cash management: The efficient collection and payment of cash both inside the group and
to third parties is the function of the treasury department. The involvement of the
department with the details of receivables and payables will be a matter of policy. There
may be complete centralization within a group treasury or the treasury may simply
advise subsidiaries and divisions on policy (collection/payment periods, discounts, etc.,).
Any position between these two extremes would be possible. Treasury will normally
manage surplus funds in an investment portfolio. Investment policy will consider future
heads for liquid funds and acceptable levels of risk as determined by company policy.
2.
Currency management: The treasury department manages the foreign currency risk
exposure of the company. In a large multinational company (MNC), the first step will
usually be set off intragroup indebtedness. The use of matching receipts and payments in
the same currency will save transaction costs. Treasury might advise on the currency to be
used when invoicing overseas sales. The treasury will manage any net exchange exposures
in accordance with company policy. If risks are to be minimized, then forward contracts
can be used either to buy or sell currency forward.
3.
Funding management: The treasury department is responsible for planning and sourcing
the companys short, medium and long-term cash needs. The treasury department will
also participate in the decision on capital structure and forecast future interest and foreign
currency rates.
4.
Banking: It is important that a company maintains a good relationship with its bankers.
Treasury department carries out negotiations with bankers and acts as the initial point of
contact with them. Short-term finance can come in the form of bank loans or through the
sale of commercial paper in the money market.
5.
Corporate finance: The treasury department is involved in both acquisition and divestment
activities within the group. In addition, it will often have responsibility for investor
relations. The latter activity has assumed increased importance in markets where share
price performance is regarded as crucial and may affect the companys ability to undertake
acquisition activity or, if the price falls drastically, the lender it vulnerable to a hostile bid.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
11.
Treasury will normally manage funds in an investment portfolio.
12.
Treasury advise on the to be used when invoicing overseas sales.
13.5 The Cash Conversion Cycle

Central to short-term financial management is an understanding of the term Cash Conversion
Cycle.
We have discussed in the earlier unit that operating cycle encompasses two major short-term
asset categories: inventory and accounts receivable. It is measured by summing the average age
of inventories and average collection period.
However, the process of producing and selling a product also includes purchase of production
inputs (raw materials) an account, which results in accounts payables. Accounts payable reduce
the number of days a firms resources are tied up in operating cycle. The time it takes to pay the
accounts payable, measured in days is the average payment period.
278
Notes
Did u know? What is cash conversion cycle?
The operating cycle less the average payment period is referred as the Cash Conversion
Cycle. It represents the amount of time the firms resources are tied up.
Example: MAX Company, a producer of paper has annual sale of 10 lakhs, a cost of
goods sold of 75% of sales, and purchases are 65% of cost of goods sold. MAX has an average age
of inventory of 60 days, an average collection period of 40 days and an average payment period
of 35 days. Thus, the cash conversion cycle for MAX is 65 days (60 + 40 35).
Funding Requirements of the Cash Conversion Cycle

Permanent versus seasonal funding needs: If the firms sales are constant, then its investment in
operating assets should also be constant, and the firm will have only a permanent funding
requirement. If the firms sales are cyclic, then its investment in operating assets will vary over
time with its sales cycles and the firm will have seasonal funding requirements in addition to
the permanent funding required for its minimum investment in operating assets.
Aggressive versus Conservative Seasonal Funding Strategies
Short-term funds are typically less expensive than long-term funds. Long-term funds
allow the firm to lock in the funds over a period of time and thus avoid the risk of
increases in short-term interest.
Long-term funding ensures that the required funds are available to the firm when needed.
!
Caution Short-term funding exposes the firm to the risk that it may not be able to obtain
the funds need to cover its seasonal peaks.
Under the aggressive funding strategy, the firm funds its seasonal requirements with shortterm debt and its permanent requirements with the long-term debt. Under a conservative
funding strategy, the firm funds both its seasonal and its permanent requirement with longterm debt.
Clearly, the aggressive strategys heavy reliance on the short-term financing makes it riskier
than the conservative strategy because of interest rate swings and possible difficulties in obtaining
needed short-term financing quickly when seasonal peaks occur. The conservative strategy
avoids these risks through the locked-in interest rate and long-term financing, but it is more
costly because of the negative spread between the earnings rate on surplus fund, and the cost of
the long-term funds that create the surplus. Where the firm operates between the extremes of the
aggressive and conservative seasonal funding strategies depends on managements response
towards risk and the strength of its banking relationships.
Task In respect of a firm, on an average, accounts receivable are collected after 80 days,
inventories have an average of 100 days and accounts payable are paid approximately
60 days after they arise. Calculate the firms cash cycle and cash turnover assuming a 360day year.
279
Notes
Strategies for managing the cash conversion cycle:

1.
Turnover inventory as quickly as possible without stockouts that will result in lost sales.
2.
Collect accounts receivable as quickly as possible without losing sales from high-pressure
collection techniques.
3.
Manage mail, processing and clearing time to reduce them when collecting from customers
and to increase them when paying suppliers.
4.
Pay accounts payable as slowly as possible without damaging the firms credit rating.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
13.
Accounts payable reduce the number of days a firms resources are tied up in
cycle.
14.
Under a ..funding strategy, the firm funds both its seasonal and its permanent
requirement with long-term debt.
13.6 Management of Marketable Securities

Management of marketable securities is an integral part of investment in cash as this may serve
both the purposes of liquidity and cash provided choice of investment is made correctly. As the
working capital needs are fluctuating, it is possible to park excess funds in same short-term
securities, which can be liquidated when need for cash is felt. The selection of securities should
be guided by three principles:
Safety: Returns and risks go hand in hand. As the objective of this investment is ensuring
liquidity, minimum risk is the criterion for selection.
Maturity: Matching of maturing and forecasted cash needs is essential. Prices of longterm securities fluctuate more with changes in interest rates and are therefore, more risky.
Marketability: It refers to the convenience, speed and cost at which a security can be
converted into cash. If the security can be sold quickly without loss of time and price, it is
highly liquid or marketable.
The choice of marketable securities is mainly limited to government treasury bills, deposits
with banks and inter-corporate deposits, units of Unit Trust of India and Commercial paper of
corporates are other attractive means of parking surplus funds for companies along with deposits
with sister concerns or associate companies.
Example: (On cash budget)
1.
The following results are expected by XYZ Ltd. By quarter next year in thousands of
rupees:
Quarter
1
7,500
10,500
18,000
10,500
Production Costs
7,000
10,000
8,000
8,500
Selling, administration and other costs
1,000
2,000
2,900
1,600
Purchase of plant and other fixed assets
100
1100
2100
2100
Sales
Cash Payments
280
Debtors at the end of the quarter are one-third of sales of the quarter. The opening balance
of debtors is 30,00,000. Cash on hand at the beginning of the year is 650,000 and the
desired maximum balance is 500,000. Borrowings are made at the beginning of the
quarters in which the need will occur in multiples of 10,000 and are repaid at the end of
quarters. Interest charges may be ignored. You are required to prepare:
(a)
A cash budget by quarters for the year and
(b)
State the amount of loan outstanding at the end of the year
Solution: Cash budget next year (quarter wise)
Notes
(000)
Quarter
Total
(A) Cash inflows

Collection from debtors
1.
From prior quarter

(1/3 of sales)
3000
2500
3500
6000
15000
2.
From current quarter

(2/3 of sales)
5000
7000
12000
7000
31000
8000
9500
15500
13000
46000
(B) Cash outflows

1.
Production costs
7000
10000
8000
8500
33500
2.
Selling, admn. and

other costs
1000
2000
2900
1600
7500
3.
Plant and other fixed

assets purchased
100
1100
2100
2100
5400
Total cash payments
8100
13100
13000
12200
46400
(C) Surplus/(deficiency)
(100)
(3600)
2500
800
(400)
1.
Beginning balance
650
550
500
500
650
2.
Ending balance
(indicated)
550
(3050)
3000
1300
250
Borrowing required
(deficiency + min. cash reqd.)
3550
3550
Quarter
1
Repayment mode
(balance min. cash reqd.)
Ending balance
Loan outstanding is
550
35,50,000
500
33,00,000 =
Total
(2500)
(800)
(3300)
500
500
500
250,000
Example: A firm uses a continuous billing system that results in an average daily receipt
of 40,00,000. It is contemplating the institution of concentration banking, instead of the current
system of centralized billing and collection. It is estimated that such a system would reduce the
collection period of accounts receivable by 2 days.
Concentration banking would cost 75,000 annually and 8% can be earned by the firm or its
investments. It is also found that a lock-box system can reduce its overall collection time by four
days and could cost annually 120,000.
281
Notes
1.
How much cash would be released with the concentration banking system?
2.
How much money can be saved due to reduction in the collection period by 2 days?
Should the firm institute the concentration banking system?
3.
How much cash would be freed by lock-box system?
4.
Between concentration banking and lock-box system, which is better?
Solution:
1.
Cash released by the concentration banking system =
2.
Savings = 8% 80,00,000 = 640,000. The firm should institute the concentration banking
system. It costs only 75,000 while the savings expected are 640,000.
3.
Cash released by the lock-box system =
4.
Savings in lock box system 8%
5.
Lock-box system is better. Its net savings

( 1280,000
40,00,000 2 days =
40,00,000 4 days =
160,00,000 =
80,00,000
160,00,000
12,80,000
11,60,000
120,000) are higher than that of concentration banking.
Example: Assume, a firm which purchases raw materials on credit is required by the
credit terms to make payments within 60 days. The firms experience has been that it takes on an
average, 35 days to pay its accounts payable and 70 days to collect its accounts receivable.
Moreover, 85 days elapse between the purchase of raw materials and the sale of finished goods,
that is to say, the average age of a firms inventory is 85 days. What is the firms cash cycle? Also
estimate the cash turnover.
Solution: The cash cycle of the firm can be calculated by finding the average number of days that
elapses between the cash outflows associated with paying accounts payable and the cash inflows
associated with collecting accounts receivable, i.e.,
1.
Cash cycle =85 days +70 days 35 days =120 days
2.
Cash Turnover = the assumed number of days in a year divided by the cash cycle
=365/120=3.04
Example: The under mentioned facts are available:
1.
Cash turnover rate 4.5
2.
Annual cash outflow 175,000
3.
Accounts payable can be stretched by 20 days
What would be the effect of stretching accounts payable on the minimum operating cash
requirement?
Assuming the firm can earn 8% on its investments, what would be the saving on cost?
Solution: Cash turnover 4.5 i.e., 360/4.5 i.e., 80 days and annual cash outflow 175,000 hence cash
requirement= 175000/4.5 = 38,889.
With accounts payable stretching by 20 days, cash cycle will be 80+20 days i.e., 100 days, cash
turnover 360/60 =6 times, hence cash requirement will change to 175,000/6 = 29,167.
Cash requirement will reduce by 38,889 29,167 =9,722 and savings in cost will be 8% on
9722 = 778.
282
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
15.
The selection of securities should be guided by three principles which are., Maturity
and Marketability.
16.
refers to the convenience, speed and cost at which a security can be converted
into cash.
Case Study
Case: Bajaj Electronics Cash Forecasting
This case tests the readers ability to develop a basic cash forecast for a firm and prepare a
recommendation for backup financing over a period of 12 months.
A leading producer of telecommunications components and a major contender in shorter
antennas is Bajaj Electronics Company. Bajajs business has grown tremendously in recent
years despite increased competition. The primary reasons for increased growth are
technological advancement that have expanded production capacity, an aggressive
marketing effort, and a reputation for quality products and excellent service.
Loofer the financial analyst for the company, has been assigned the task of preparing a
quarterly cash forecast for the next fiscal year. After checking with marketing, he was
given a monthly breakdown of actual sales for last month and the current month and the
current month and a forecast for the next 12 months. These are given in Table 1 and reflect
the somewhat seasonal nature of the firms marketing activities.
Table 1: Actual and Forecast Sales from Marketing
Month
Actual Credit Sales
November
$ 4,338,000
December
5,204,000
January
Forecast Sales
$ 4,600,000
February
4,500,000
March
4,500,000
April
52,00, 000
May
5, 000, 000
June
4,700, 000
July
6, 000, 000
August
6,000,000
September
5,800,000
October
4,500,000
November
4,600,000
December
4,600,000
From the accounting department, Loofer obtained information on the historical mix of
sales and collection information. During the first half of the year, credit sales generally
made up about 80 per cent of all sales. In the second half, this dropped to 75 per cent. With
Contd...
283
Notes
respect to the credit sales, collection patterns varied seasonally. This information is contained
in Table 2. Once again, the collection pattern is also seasonal Note, however, that the
collections do not total to 100 per cent of credit sales. This is the case because the firm
allows a margin for bad debts and unexpected collection costs.
The firm follows a unique and highly controlled system for its trade payables. Each month
during the first half of the year, the accounts payable section pays suppliers cash equal to
50 per cent of the monthly sales. During the second half of the year, this rises to 55 per cent.
Over a full year, this pattern of payment seems to be adequate to pay all bills. At times,
suppliers are pressing for more payments and some maneuvering is needed. Still, this
policy assists the firms cash management during the busy third quarter and will be
followed next year.
Cash operating expenses are paid as they occur. During the first and fourth quarters, they
are estimated at 50 per cent of sales. During the second and third quarters, they rise to
55 per cent of sales.
Loofer knows that the firm includes the impact of interest and taxes in its operating cash
flow forecasts. The levels of such debt, along with the forecasted average interest rate for
each month, are given in Table 3. Interest will be calculated to reflect changes in debt
levels.
The firm pays estimated tax payments monthly at a 35 per cent rate. It uses a cost of goods
sold estimate at 50 per cent of sales, not including depreciation. Loofer assumes that
monthly depreciation for the next year will be $ 185,000.
Table 2: Collection Pattern of Receivables
Percent of Credit Sales
Months
Collected in Same
Month
Collected One
Month Later
Collected Two
Months Later
November
0.20
December
0.60
0.15
January
0.20
0.60
0.15
February
0.30
0.60
0.50
March
0.25
0.60
0.10
April
0.25
0.60
0.10
May
0.15
0.60
0.20
June
0.20
0.60
0.15
July
0.10
0.60
0.25
August
0.20
0.60
0.15
September
0.15
0.60
0.20
October
0.20
0.60
0.15
November
0.15
0.60
December
0.10
Contd...
284
Table 3: Debt Forecast, Last Day of Each Month, and Average Monthly Interest Rates
Months
Interest-Bearing Debt (,000s)
Notes
Interest Rate
December
1600
January
1800
0.120
February
1500
0.100
March
1600
0.110
April
1500
0.100
May
1600
0.110
June
1500
0.100
July
1500
0.090
August
1400
0.080
September
1300
0.090
October
1400
0.080
November
1200
0.095
December
1600
0.095
The final information for the forecast involves establishing a safety level. The firm requires
cash or equivalents equal to 20 per cent of the monthly cash operating expenses. The firm
began the year with $6,10,000 in the form of cash and equivalents.
Question
Prepare a statement showing cash forecast for the next 12 months, and in case where firm
needs additional cash, draw the recommendation with the tune of credit that must be
arranged from bank.
13.7 Summary
The four motives for holding cash are Transaction need, Speculative needs, Precautionary
needs and Compensation motive.
The exact nature of a cash management system would depend upon the organizational
structure of an enterprise.
Cash budget represents cash requirements of business during the budget period.
Two very important methods to speed up collection process are Concentrating banking
and Lock-box system.
The financial managers concern is with the available balance and not with the companys
ledger balance.
According to William J Baumols Economic Order Quantity model, optimum cash level is
that level of cash where the carrying costs and transaction costs are the maximum.
According to MillerOrr Cash Management model, the net cash flow is completely
stochastic.
Treasury management is the efficient management of liquidity and financial risk in business.
The operating cycle less the average payment period is referred as the Cash Conversion
Cycle. It represents the amount of time the firms resources are tied up.
285
Notes
Management of marketable securities is an integral part of investment in cash. The selection

of securities should be guided by three principles which are Safety, Maturity and
Marketability.
13.8 Keywords
Cash: It is one of the components of current assets and a medium of exchange for the purpose of
transactions.
Cash Budget: It is a statement showing the estimated cash inflows and cash outflows over a
planning period.
Conversion Costs: It is the costs that are associated with the sales of marketable security.
Float: It is the amount of the money tied up in cheques that have been written but not yet
collected.
Optimal Cash Balance: It is that cash balance where the firms opportunity cost equals
transactions cost and the total cost is minimum.

1.
Explain the Baumols Model of Cash Management.
2.
Write short notes on Lock box system and Concentration banking.
3.
What is the difference between the firms operating cycle and its cash conversion cycle?
4.
Why it is helpful to divide the funding needs of a seasonal business into its permanent and
seasonal funding requirements when developing a funding strategy?
5.
What are the benefits, costs and risks of an aggressive funding strategy and of a conservative
funding strategy? Under which strategy is the borrowing often in excess of the actual
need?
6.
Cash budgeting or short-term cash forecasting (budgeting) is the principal tool of cash
management. Discuss.
7.
Efficient cash management will aim at maximizing the cash inflows and slowing cash
outflows. Discuss.
8.
Briefly discuss the various avenues or opportunities available to the companies to park
their surplus funds for a short-term.
9.
Analyse the importance of the preparation of the cash budget for the corporates.
10.
Management of cash flows plays a very important role in cash management. Discuss.
286
1.
Speculative
2.
organizational structure
3.
Cash budget
4.
cash flow
5.
Lock-box
6.
concentration banking
7.
ledger
8.
net float
9.
carrying
10.
transaction
11.
surplus
12.
currency
13.
operating
14.
conservative
15.
Safety
16.
Marketability
Notes
Books
287
Notes
Unit 14: Management of Surplus & Dividend Policy

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
14.1 Management of Profits
14.2 Dividend Policy
14.2.1
Types of Dividend Policies
14.2.2
Factors affecting Dividend Decisions
14.3 Theories of Dividend Decisions

14.3.1
Traditional Approach
14.3.2
Walters Model
14.3.3
Gordons dividend Capitalization Model
14.3.4
Miller and Modigliani Model
14.3.5
Rational Expectations Model
14.4 Forms of Dividends

14.4.1
Bonus Shares (Stock Dividend)
14.4.2
Stock (Share) Split
14.4.3
Stock Repurchase
14.5 Corporate Dividend Behaviour

14.5.1
Legal and Procedural Aspects in Connection with Payment of Dividend
14.6 Summary
14.7 Keywords
Objectives
Discuss the connotation of management of profits
Describe the various aspects of dividend policy
Explain the theories of dividend
Recognize the corporate dividend behaviour
Introduction
Finance is the life-blood of business, without which a firm cannot promote, maintain and expand
and achieve its predetermined objective. Whether it is big, medium or small it needs finance.
288
Profit is the primary motivating force for any economic activity, a business enterprise essentially
being an economic organization, it has to maximise the welfare of its stakeholders. To this end,
the business undertaking has to earn profit from its operations. Profit is the excess of revenue
over expenses on conducting operations. In fact, profits are useful intermediate beacon towards
which a firms capital should be directed. In this connection McAlpine rightly remarked that
profit cannot be ignored since it is both, a measure of the success of business and the means of its
survival and growth. To quote Bradly, if an enterprise fails to make profit, capital invested is
eroded and if this situations, prolongs the enterprise ultimately ceases to exist. A well organised
profit planning programme will help towards maintaining a level of profit, which will ensure
the concentration of the business and fulfillment of other responsibilities. Certainly, profit
growth coupled with high level of profit and the ability to maintain reasonable profit will help
towards:
1.
Ensuring that shareholders receive an adequate dividend;
2.
Preserving the assets worth of the business;
3.
Generating a sufficient cash flow out of profits to provide capital for expansion; and
4.
Providing funds for research, and development of new and improved products to replace
the existing products before they decline.
Notes
14.1 Management of Profits

From the point of view of dividend decision it is better to call management of profits as
management of earnings. Earnings mean net earnings available to equity shareholders from
where a firm actually declares dividends or retain profits for financing of investment
opportunities.
Net earnings = Operating Profit (Interest + Tax + Preference Dividend)
Management of earnings means, how the earnings of a firm are determined and how they are
utilised or appropriated or allocated or distributed. In other words, how the business firm
apportions their earnings is between dividends and retentions for financing of investment
opportunities. Retention of earnings also known as plough back of profits. Management of
earnings is an important finance activity of a business undertaking. Since proper management
of earnings helps to maximise shareholders wealth. Particularly in Joint Stock companies where
owners are different from the management team, who are selected/appointed by owners. Usually
management team or Board of Directors (BoDs) does not distribute the total net earnings to the
shareholders as dividends. They may retain a part of it for financing of investment opportunities
or expansion programmes by keeping future growth of the firm in mind. Management of
earnings policy must maximise value of the firm, thereby maximise benefits to its owners. On
the other hand improper retained earnings and absence of financial control measures are the
indicators of inefficient management of earnings that may not help to maximise value of the
firm, but they may lead to the liquidation of the company.
When a corporation makes a profit, it can spend that profit in two ways:
1.
Return the profits to stockholders by way of dividends, share buy-backs or bonus issues;
2.
Use the money to increase the profitability of the company
Example: A company makes a profit of 100. It can pay this entire amount to stockholders
who can then use that money as they think fitspend on consumer items, make further
investments, whatever. Or the company can use all that profit to invest in the business with a
view to increasing profits in future years. Or the company can do a bit of both.
289
Notes
Did u know? What is surplus?
Surplus is the amount of profit remaining after tax and distribution to stockholders that is
retained in a business and used as a reserve or as a means of financing expansion or
investment.
When sizing up a companys fundamentals, investors need to look at how much capital is kept
from shareholders. Making profits for shareholders ought to be the main objective for a listed
company and, as such, investors tend to pay most attention to reported profits. Sure, profits are
important. But what the company does with that money is equally important.
Typically, a portion of the profit is distributed to shareholders in the form of a dividend. What
gets left over is called retained earnings or retained capital. Savvy investors should look closely
at how a company puts retained capital to use and generates a return on it.
It is sometimes rather loosely stated in management texts and business journals that retained
profits are reinvested in the assets of the company or that profits are ploughed back, thus
giving management a reasonably cheap and easily accessible source of funds to finance growth.
These internally generated funds are easily accessible provided a company makes good profits,
because directors can, within limits, choose dividend levels. They can choose to retain and use
(reinvest) the resulting increase in company assets. The funds are also cheap because there are no
costs involved in issuing more shares and no borrowing costs. What this really means is that the
managers of profitable businesses have more assets to use in productive activities.
Sometimes companies will convert part of retained profits into permanent share capital by
issuing bonus shares to existing shareholders, free of any cash contribution (because the increase
in assets from profit making has already been received). From a company viewpoint bonus
shares have no effect on financing or investing activities
The ability to use retained earnings wisely is a sign of good company management. If the
company management cannot do any better with earnings than he can, then he is better off if the
company pays him the full amount in dividends.
In broad terms, capital retained is used to maintain existing operations or to increase sales and
profits by growing the business.
Some companies need large amounts of new capital just to keep running. Others, however, can
use the capital to grow. When you invest in a company, you should make it your priority to
know how much capital the company appears to need and whether management has a track
record of providing shareholders with a good return on that capital.
Fortunately, for companies with at least several years of historical performance, there is a fairly
simple way to gauge how well management employs retained capital. Simply compare the total
amount of profit per share retained by a company over a given period of time against the change
in profit per share over that same period of time.
!
Caution When evaluating the return on retained earnings, you need to determine whether
its worth it for a company to keep its profits. If a company reinvests retained capital and
doesnt enjoy significant growth, investors would probably be better served if the board
of directors declared a dividend.
Another way to evaluate the effectiveness of management in its use of retained capital is to
measure how much market value has been added by the companys retention of capital. Suppose
shares of Company A were trading at 10 in 1993, and in 2003 they traded at 20. Thus,
290
5.50 per share of retained capital produced 10 per share of increased market value. In other
words, for every 1 retained by management, 1.82 ( 10 divided by 5.50) of market value was
created. Impressive market value gains mean that investors can trust management to extract
value from capital retained by the business.
Notes
Managing and improving your cash flow should result in a cash surplus for your business. A
cash surplus is the cash that exceeds the cash required for day-to-day operations. How you
handle your cash surplus is just as important as the management of money into and out of your
cash flow cycle.
Notes Two of the most common uses of extra cash are:

1.
Paying down your debt
2.
Investing the cash surplus
Like so many other things you do for your business, deciding where to use your cash surplus
requires some planning and your better judgment.
1.
Paying Down Debt: Paying down any debt you may have is generally the first option
considered when deciding what to do with a cash surplus. Rightfully so because a shortterm investment of your cash surplus is not likely to yield a return equal to or greater than
the rate of interest on any of your debt. It doesnt make any sense to invest a cash surplus
at 5 percent when you can pay down a bank loan that is charging interest at 12 percent.
However, the decision to automatically pay down debt may not be correct in all cases.
One of the key advantages of managing your cash flow is the ability to predict the future
cash requirements for your business. That is, it should help you determine when your
business may need to rely on external financing as a source of cash. The need for external
financing may be the result of expanding your business, purchasing new property or
equipment, or just getting you through a normal seasonal down period.
Whatever the reason, preparing a cash flow budget is the best way of predicting these
future needs for cash. With at least some indication of your future cash needs, you can then
make some decisions regarding the best way to finance those needs.
Example: You may feel that interest rates are relatively low at this time and that you
look for them to rise in the near future. Therefore, instead of using your cash surplus
to pay off a two-year loan at 10.5 percent, it may be beneficial to invest the surplus
temporarily, and avoid a much higher interest rate on a bank loan one year from now.
2.
Investing the Cash Surplus: When investing a cash surplus, its only natural to seek the
highest rate of return for your investment. Four factors must be considered when making
your investment decisions:
(a)
Risk
(b)
Liquidity
(c)
Maturity
(d)
Yield
Each factor plays an important role in determining the rate of return you receive on your
invested cash surplus. These factors can also help you determine how much to invest and
when to invest your surplus.
291
Notes
There are many investment opportunities available for your cash surplus. You must
consider the advantages and disadvantages as well as the levels of risk, maturity, liquidity,
and the yields of each of your investment opportunities. The following are just a few of the
investment opportunities you may have:
(a)
Checking accounts with interest
(b)
Sweep accounts
(c)
Treasury bills and notes
(d)
Certificates of deposit (CDs) and money market funds
Risk in Investing Surplus

The investment of your cash surplus should never be speculative - that is, high risk. As in most
businesses, your cash surplus may only be a temporary surplus of cash inflows over your cash
outflows. Any permanent losses resulting from a high risk investment could be devastating,
even to the point of making you unable to continue your business.
The level of risk you are willing to accept ultimately determines the yield of your investment.
A higher level of risk will generally provide you with a higher yield. On the other hand, a low
level of risk will result in a lower yield on your investment. In some cases, you choose to invest
in an investment with a higher level of risk to gain a higher yield. But as a rule, a conservative
approach to the level of risk is recommended when investing your cash surplus.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1.
...is the amount of profit remaining after tax and distribution to stockholders that
is retained in a business.
2.
The ability to use retained earnings wisely is a sign of .company management.
3.
mean net earnings available to equity shareholders from where a firm actually
declares dividends.
14.2 Dividend Policy

Since, management of earnings means allocation of earnings among dividends and plough of
profits. The term dividend refers to that portion of companys net earnings that is paid out to
the equity shareholders (not for preference shareholders, since they are entitled to have a fixed
rate of dividend). Dividend policy of a firm decides the portion of earnings is to be paid as
dividends to ordinary shareholders and the portion that is ploughed back in the firm for
investment purpose. The total net earnings of equity may be paid as dividends (100% dividend
payout ratio), which may consequently result in slower growth and lower market price or a part
of net earnings may be paid as dividends, higher capital gains and higher market price. When a
company uses a part of its net earnings for dividend payments then, the remaining earnings are
retained. Thus, there is an inverse relationship between retained earnings and payment of cash
dividend-the larger the cash dividends and lesser the retention, smaller the cash dividends and
larger retentions. Hence, the alternative use of net earnings or net profit dividends and retained
earnings are competitive and conflicting.
Dividend decision affects the value of the firm. The cash available for the payment of dividends
is affected by the firms investment decision, and financing decision. A decision, which is related
292
to investment leads to less cash available for payment of dividends. Thus, there is a relation
between investment decision and financing decision. Distribution of net earnings between
dividends and retention would obviously affect owners wealth. Now the company is in dilemma
which alternative is consistent to maximise shareholders wealth. The firm has to pay dividends
to shareholders if dividends lead to the maximisation of wealth for them, otherwise the company
should retain them for financing profitable investment opportunities.
Notes
14.2.1 Types of Dividend Policies

The firms dividend policy is formulated with two basic objectives in mind providing for
sufficient financing and maximizing the wealth of the firms shareholders. Three of the more
commonly used dividend policies are:
1.
Constant Payout Ratio Dividend Policy
2.
Regular Dividend Policy
3.
Low Regular and Extra-dividend Policy
Constant Payout Ratio Dividend Policy

With constant target payout ratio, a firm pays a constant percentage of net earnings as dividend
to the shareholders. In other words, a stable dividend payout ratio implies that the percentage
of earnings paid out each year is fixed. Accordingly, dividends would fluctuate proportionately
with earnings and are likely to be highly volatile in the wake of wide fluctuations in the
earnings of the company. As a result, when earnings of the firm decline substantially, or there
are a loss in a given period, the dividends according to the target payout ratio, would be low or
nil.
Example: If a firm has a policy of 50% target payout, its dividends will range between
5 and zero per share, if the earnings per share are 10 per share and zero (or less) per share
respectively.
Did u know? What is payout?
The term payout refers to the ratio of dividend to earnings or the percentage of share of
earnings used to pay dividend.
Regular Dividend Policy

The regular dividend policy is based on the concept of a fixed rupee dividend in each period.
This policy provides the owners with positive information thereby minimizing the uncertainty.
Another variant of this policy is to increase the regular dividend once a proven increase in
earnings has occurred.
Often, a regular dividend policy is built around a target dividend payout ratio but without
letting the dividends fluctuate, it pays a stated rupee dividend and adjusts that dividend towards
the target payout as proven earnings happen.
Low Regular and Extra Dividend Policy

Some firms have the policy of low regular and extra dividend, meaning the firms keep the
regular earnings as low as possible which is supplemented by additional dividend when earnings
293
Notes
are higher than normal in a given period. By terming the additional dividend as extra dividend,
the firms avoid giving shareholders false hopes. This policy is especially common among
companies that experience cyclical shifts in earnings.
14.2.2 Factors affecting Dividend Decisions

Most investors have two forms of return from the purchase of common shares. These are:
1.
Capital gains: The investor expects an increase in the market value of the common shares
over a period of time.
Example: If the stock is purchased at 40 and sold for 60, the investor will realize a
capital gain of 20. Capital gain may be defined as the profit resulting from the sale
of capital investments, in this case common shares.
2.
Dividends: The investor expects at some point, a distribution of the firms earnings. From
mature and stable organizations, most investors expect regular dividends to be declared
and paid on the common shares. This expectation takes priority over the desire to retain
earnings to finance expansion and growth.
The three major factors explain the investors priority of dividends over capital gains:
1.
Reduction of uncertainty: The promise of future capital gains or a future distribution of

earnings, involves more uncertainty than a distribution of current earnings.
2.
Indication of strength: The declaration and payment of cash dividend carries some sort of
confidence that the firm is reasonably strong and healthy.
3.
Need for current income: Many shareholders require a regular flow of income through
their investments, for their day-to-day expenses.
Constraints on paying dividends from the firms point of view: Though most firms recognize
the investors demand for dividends, several factors may restrict the firms ability to declare and
pay dividends. These are:
1.
Insufficient cash: Although a firm may have earned enough income to declare dividends
but may not have sufficient cash to pay the dividends. The firms liquid funds may have
been tied up in receivables or inventory or may be short on liquid funds because of
commitment to fixed assets.
2.
Contractual restriction: Like a bond indenture that restricts the dividend pay out to 20%
of earnings during the tenure of the bond or the firm, agreeing as a part of a contract with
a creditor to restrict dividend payments.
3.
Legal restrictions: Occasionally, a firm will be legally restricted from declaring and paying
dividends unless a certain portion of current profits is ploughed back into business by way of
retained earnings. Companies (Declaration of Dividend out of Reserves) Rules 1975 provides
for such restrictions. Further dividends can be paid only out of the profits earned during the
financial year after providing for depreciation (Sec. 205 of the Companies Act, 1956).
Importance of Stability of Dividends

A number of arguments can be given to underline the importance of steady dividend payments
including:
1.
294
Perception of stability: When a firm pays regular dividend it is considered as a sign of

continued normal operations. On the other hand, a reduction in dividend payment will be
treated as a sign of impending trouble for the company. Many investors will sell their
shares, without checking further and this set up pressure will result in the loss of sentiment
in the market and decline in the market price.
2.
Preference of investors: The common shareholders of mature firms generally prefer to

receive steady dividends.
3.
Dividend decisions as a routine: By establishing a stable dividend policy, the board of

directors avoids a lengthy discussion on dividend levels.
4.
Flexibility of the extra dividend: With a steady dividend policy, the firm can flexibly
handle period temporarily high earnings, by giving a slightly large distribution of earnings
without raising the expectation of investors.
5.
Desire for current income by the shareholders: Desire for current income by some investors,
such as, retired persons and widows. Obviously, such group of investors may be willing
to pay a higher share price to avoid the inconvenience of erratic dividend payment, which
disrupts their budgeting. They would place positive utility on stable dividends.
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
4.
The regular dividend policy is based on the concept of a ..dividend in each

period.
5.
A ratio implies that the percentage of earnings paid out each year is
fixed.
6.
When a firm pays regular dividend it is considered as a sign of continued .

operations.
14.3 Theories of Dividend Decisions

A few models, which studied the relationship between the dividend policy and the equity
returns, are given below:
14.3.1 Traditional Approach

The traditional approach to the dividend policy was given by Mr. B Graham and D.L. Dodd and
it lays clear relationship between dividends and the stock market prices. According to this
approach, the stock value responds positively to higher dividends and negatively with low
dividends.
The following expression expresses the relationship by using a multiplier:
P = m (D + E/3)
Where, P = Market Price
D = Dividend per share
M = Multiplier
E = Earnings per share
The traditional approach, further states that the P/E ratio (Price/Earnings Ratio) are directly
related to the dividend payout ratio i.e., a high dividend payout ratio will increase the P/E ratio
and vice versa.
295
Notes
Limitations
A firms share price may rise even in case of low pay out ratio if its earnings are increasing. Here
the capital gains for the investor will be higher than the cash dividends. Similarly, for a firm
having a high dividend payout ratio with a slow growth rate, there will be a negative impact on
the market price (because of lower earnings). In addition, some investors may prefer cash
dividends to the uncertain capital gains that may arise in future.
14.3.2 Walters Model

Walters Model supports the doctrine that dividends are relevant. The investment policy of a
firm cannot be separated from its dividend policy and both are, according to Walter, interlinked.
The choice of an appropriate dividend policy affects the value of an enterprise.
The relationship between dividend and share price on the basis of Walters formula is shown
below:
Vc =
D+R a /R c (E D)
Rc
Where,
Vc = Market value of the ordinary shares of the company
R a = Actual capitalization rate
Rc = Normal capitalization rate expected by the investors
E = Earnings per share
D = Dividend per share
Analyzing the Walter Formula:
We know that the value of share =
EPS(Earning per share)

Divident Re tained Earnings
=
Capitalization rate
Ra
The Walter formula gives an added weight to the retained earning portion of the earnings
Ra
formula. The factor R is placed in front of retained earnings to change its weighted value
c
under three different situations as follows:

1.
If Ra/Rc is greater than I i.e., the firms earnings are more than the norm. In this situation
we want the firm to retain its earnings since other alternative investment offer a lower
return than the firm is about to secure.
Example: A firm has EPS 5 and pay dividend of 2. Its actual capitalization rate is
15% and normal capitalization rate is 10%. What is the value of the firm using
capitalization earnings and Walter formula?
Capitalization earnings = Value =
Walter formula value = 2 + 2
296
5/10 % = 50
15
6.5
(5 2)
10
10%
65
2.
Ra/Rc is equal to I, when the actual and normal capitalization rates are identical. In this
case, the retained earnings have the same weighted value as dividends and the Walter
Formula gives the same value as the Capitalization Earnings formula.
3.
Ra/Rc is less than I i.e., retained earnings have a lower weight than dividends. Thus less the
firm retain, the higher its value. In the above example, if the capitalization (actual) is 5%.
Value of the firm Capitalization of earnings 5/10% =
Notes
50
Value of the Firm Walter formula = 2 5/10
(5 2) 3.5
10%
10%
35
Assumption of the Walter Model

1.
Retained earnings are the only source of finance available to the firm, with no outside
debt or additional equity used.
2.
Ra and Rc are assumed to be constant and thus additional investments made by the firm
will not change its risk and return.
Profiles
1.
Firm has an indefinite life.
2.
For a given value of the firm, the dividend per share and the earnings per share remain
constant.
Limitations of the Walter Model

1.
Exclusive financing by retained earnings make the model suitable only for all equity
firms.
2.
The assumption that the return on investment remains constant will not be true for firms
making high investments.
3.
It ignores the business risk of the firm, which has a direct impact on the value of the firm.
Example: To illustrate approaches to dividend decisions using Walter Model
Let us consider a firm with 4 earnings per share and 3 current dividend. The firm is currently
selling for 22 per share and thus has an actual capitalization rate of 4/22 or 18%. The normal
capitalization rate for the industry is 12 per cent. The firm has a need for cash and is considering
lowering the dividend to 2 per share. What effect would this have on the value of common
share by using Walter Model?
3 dividend
3 18/12 1
.12
4.5
.12
37.5
2 dividend
2 18/12 2
.12
.12
41.67
14.3.3 Gordons Dividend Capitalization Model

Another model that has given importance to dividend policy of the firm is the Gordon Model.
Gordon Model assumes that future dividends are the sole determinant of the intrinsic value of
the common shares.
297
Notes
The model may be written:

Div. Curr.
Value of the share = CR
norm (CR act )(%RE)
Where Div. Curr = Current Dividend in rupees (annual basis)

CRnorm = Capitalization rate demanded by the market for the stock of the type.
CRact = Actual capitalization rate based on the firms current earnings
(provided they are relatively normal) and current market price.
%RE = Percentage of Future earnings, the firm is likely to retain.
The dividend growth model shows the value of a share as the shares current dividend divided
by the amount that the demanded profit exceeded the rate of growth in the dividend, stated
graphically. The model shows value as:
Current dividend
Value of the share = Demanded after tax profit dividend growth
Example: If a firm has a 10% actual capitalization rate, a dividend payout of 40% and
declares a 1 dividend in 2005. What is the growth rate? What is the likely stream of dividends
through 2009? If the firm is in industry with a 12% normal capitalization rate, what is the
intrinsic value using the dividend growth model?
Solution: Multiplying the actual capitalization rate by the percentage of retained earnings gives
the growth rate in dividend per share, assuming no change in dividend payout.
The firm retains a 60% share of the 10% post-tax profits for a 6% growth rate. The stream of
dividend payments at a 6% growth rate is as follows:
Year
2005
Dividend factor
Dividend
2006
2007
2008
2009
1.06
(1.06)2
(1.06)3
(1.06)4
1.12
1.19
1.26
1.06
1
1
Value of the share = 12% (10%)(60%) 0.06
16.67
Factors Incorporated in the Dividend Growth Model
298
1.
Restriction of the shareholders return to a single variable: In this model the income factor
is limited to the current dividend earnings retained in the firm are part of the growth
factor that will operate to increase the current dividend, but only the dividend and its
expected increases are considered as a return.
2.
Inclusion of two capitalization rates:

(a)
Normal Capitalization Rate (CRnorm) i.e., reciprocal of PE ratio: If the firm is not able to
achieve such a return at the existing market price, shareholders will sell their shares,
thus depressing the market price and raising the rate of return.
(b)
Actual Capitalization Rate: The firms actual capitalization rate is the relationship of its
actual EPS to the market price of its stock. This is an important factor influencing
growth. A firm with higher profits will have more funds to retain and hence more
money to finance growth, as compared with firms with lower profits.
3.
Inclusion of a growth factor: In common shares valuation, we are primarily

concerned with firms growth financed from retained earnings. We eliminate the
sources of funds for growth:
(a)
Use of debt or other fixed return securities.
(b)
Issuing additional common shares.
Notes
Analyzing the Dividend Growth Model

There are three possible situations. To do this, let us consider a company with EPS of
actual capitalization of 10%.
1.
2 and
Normal capitalization rate less than actual capitalization rate: The shareholder in this
case will gain more by investing in the company. For example, he may be expecting an 8%
rate and the firm is actually achieving 10%. The shareholders want the firm to retain the
earnings and achieve 10% return on them from similar investments. Thus, he would
expect that raising the growth rate of a highly profitable firm. The intrinsic value at
different payout ratios are worked out as below:
.6
.6
30% Div. Payout = 8% (10% 70%) 1%
60
1
1
50% Div. Payout = 8% (10% 50%) 3%
33.33
1.4
1.4
70% Div. Payout = 8% (10% 30%) 5%
28
2
2
100% Div. Payout = 8% (10% 0%) 8%
The intrinsic value drops from
25
60 at a 30% dividend payout to
25 at 100% payout.
2.
Normal capitalization rate equal to capitalisation rate: In this case, the firm is doing
about as well as expected and the shareholder probably does not care about the level of
dividends. Intrinsic value will be 20 at all payout levels.
3.
Normal capitalisation rate more than actual capitalization rate: In this situation, the firm is
not doing as well as expected. It is expected that the intrinsic value to rise if the firm increased
its dividend payout. Since the shareholders would like to have cash to invest at higher return
elsewhere. The intrinsic value at different payout ratios are worked out as below:
.6
.6
30% Div. Payout = 12% (10% 70%) 5%
12
1
1
50% Div. Payout = 12% (10% 50%) 7%
14.3
1.4
1.4
70% Div. Payout = 12% (10% 30%) 9%
15.55
2
2
100% Div. Payout = 12% (10% 0%) 12%
16.67
299
Notes
The intrinsic value increases from

100%.
12 to
16.67 when the payout ratio is raised from 30% to
14.3.4 Miller and Modigliani Model

The irrelevance of dividends is provided by the MM Hypothesis. MM maintains that dividend
policy has no effect on the share prices of the firm. What matters, according to them, is the
investment policy through which the firm can increase its earnings and thereby the value of the
firm given the investment decision of the firm, the dividend decision splitting the earnings
into packages of retentions and dividends is a matter of detail and does not matter.
Under conditions of perfect capital markets, rational investors, absence of tax discrimination
between dividend income and capital appreciation, given the firms investment policy, its
dividend policy may have no influence on the market price of shares.
Assumptions
MM Hypothesis is based on the following critical assumptions:
1.
Perfect capital markets, in which all investors are rational. Information is available to all
free of cost, there are no transaction costs, securities are infinitely divisible; no investor is
large enough to influence the market price of securities, there are no floatation costs.
2.
There are no taxes. Alternatively, there are no differences in tax rate applicable to capital
gains and dividends.
3.
A firm has a given investment policy which does not change. The operational implication
of this assumption is that financing of new investment out of retained earnings will not
change the business risk complexion of the firm and therefore, no change in the required
rate of return.
4.
There is a perfect certainty by every investor as to future investments and profits of the
firm. In other words, investors are able to forecast future prices and dividends with certainty.
This assumption is dropped by MM later.
MM Hypothesis: The Crux of the Argument

The crux of the MM position on the irrelevance of dividend is the arbitrage argument. Arbitrage
refers to entering simultaneously into two transactions, which balance each other. The two
transactions involve the payment of dividend on one side and raising external funds either
through the sale of new shares or to raise loans to finance investment programmers. Suppose
a firm has some investment opportunity, it has two alternatives (1) it can retain its earnings to
finance the investment or (2) distribute the dividend to the shareholders and raise an equal
amount externally through sale of new shares. In case, the firm selects the second alternative,
arbitrage process is involved in that the payment of dividends is associated with raising of funds
through other means of financing. The effect of dividend payment on the shareholders wealth
will be exactly offset by the effect of raising additional shares.
When dividends are paid, the market price of the shares will increase. But the issue of additional
shares will cause a decline in the terminal value of the shares. What is gained by investors
through increase dividends will be offset by the reduction in terminal value of the shares. The
market price before and after payment of dividend would be same. The investors according to
MM, is indifferent between dividend and retention of earnings. Since the shareholders are
indifferent, the wealth would not be affected by current and future dividend decisions of the
firm. It would depend entirely upon the expected future earnings of the firm.
300
Notes
Notes There would be no difference as per MM, if external funds are raised in the form of
debt instead of equity. This is because of their indifference between debt and equity with
respect of leverage. The cost of capital is independent of leverage and the real cost of debt
is the same as the real cost of equity.
The arbitrage process also implies that the total market value plus current dividends of two
firms, which are alike in all respects except Dividend Payout Ratio, will be identical. The
individual shareholder can retain and invest his own earnings and do this, as well as the firm.
With dividends being irrelevant, a firms cost of capital would be independent of its Dividend
Payout Ratio.
Finally, the arbitrage process will ensure that under conditions of uncertainty also the dividend
policy is irrelevant.
When two firms are similar in respect of business risk, the prospective future earnings and
investment policies, the market price of their shares must be the same. This MM considers, due
to the rational behaviour of the investors who prefer more wealth to less wealth. Differences in
current and future dividend policies cannot affect the market value of the two firms, as the
present value of prospective dividends plus terminal value are the same.
MM Hypothesis Proof
MM provides the proof in support of their argument in the following way:
In the first step, the market value of a share in the beginning of the period is equal to the present
value of dividend paid at the end of the period plus the market price of the share at the end of the
period. Symbolically:
1
P0 = (1 + K ) (D 1 + P1 )
e
(1)
where,
P0 = The prevailing market price of a share
Ke = The cost of equity capital
D1 = the dividend to be paid at the end of the period one
P1 = The market price of a share at the end of period one with no external financing
the total value of the firm will be as follows:
nP0 =
where,
1
(nD 1 + nP1 )
(1 + K e )
...(2)
n = No. of shares outstanding
Now, if the firm finances its investment decisions by raising additional capital issuing n 1 new
shares at the end of the period (t = 1), then the capitalized value of the firm will be the sum of the
dividends received at the end of the period and the value of the total outstanding shares at the
end of the period less the value of the new shares. Since this adjustment is actually adding and
reducing the value of the new shares. Thus we have:
1
nP0 = (1 + K ) [nD 1 + (n + n 1 )P1 - n 1 P1 ]
e
. (3)
301
Notes
Firms will have to revise additional capital to fund its investment requirement, if its investment
requirement is more than its retained earnings, additional equity capital (n 1P1) after utilizing its
retained earnings will be as follows:
n1 P1 = I (E nD1)
where,
. (4)
I = Total investment required

nD1 = Total dividends paid
E = Earnings during the period
And (E-nD1) = retained earnings

Simplifying the above equation we get,
N1 P1 = I E + nD1
. (5)
Substitute the value of the new shares in equation (3) we get
1
nP0 = (1 + K ) [nD 1 + (n + n 1 )P1 - 1 + E - nD1 ]
e
nD 1 + (n + n 1 )P1 - 1 + E - nD1
1 + ke
(n + n 1 )P1 - 1 + E
(1 + k e )
. (6)
[Since the positive nD1, and negative nD 1 cancels]

Since dividends (D) are not found in equation (6), MM concludes that dividends do not count and
that dividend policy has no effect on share price.
Let us take an example to explain MM theory:
Example: The capitalization rate of A Ltd. is 12%. The company has outstanding shares to
the extent of 25,000 shares selling @ 100 each. Assume, the net income anticipated for the
current financial year of 3,50,000. A Ltd. plans to declare a dividend of 3 per share. The
company has investment plans for new project of 500,000. Show that under the MM Model, the
dividend payment does not affect the value of the firm.
Solution: To prove that MM model holds good, we have to show that the value of the firm
remains the same whether dividends are paid or not.
1.
The value of the firm, when dividends are paid:

Step 1: Price per share at the end of year I
1
P0 = (1 + k ) (d1 + P1 )
e
100 =
P1 =
302
1
(3 + P1 )
1.12
109
Step 2: Amounts to be raised by the issue of new shares to finance investment requirement:
Notes
N1P1 = I (E nD1)
= 500,000 (350,000 25000 3)
= 225,000
Step 3: No. of shares to be raised
n1 =
225000
Nos.
109
Step 4: Value of the firm

nP0 =
=
Value of the firm nPo =
2.
(n n 1 )P1 I E
(1 k e )
(25,000 225,000 /109) 109 (500,000) 350,000)

1.12
25,00,000
Value of the firm when dividends are not paid:

Step 1: Price per share at the end of year I
1
P0 = (1 k ) (D 1 P1 )
e
100 =
P1 =
P1
Or
1.12
112
Step 2: Amount to be raised from the issue of shares

500,000 350,000 = 150,000
Step 3: No. of shares to be raised = 150,000/1.12
Step 4: Value of the firm
nP0 =
=
Value of the firm nPo =
(n n 1 )P1 I E
(1 k e )
(25,000 150,000 /1.12) 1.12 (500,000) 350,000

1.12
25,00,000
Thus the value of the firm in both the cases remains the same.
Critical Analysis of the Assumptions

1.
Tax effect: The assumption cannot be true since the tax rate for the dividend and capital
gains are different.
2.
Floatation costs: The proceeds that the firm gets from the issue of securities are net off. the
issue expenses the total issue expenses include underwriting expenses, brokerage and
other marketing costs, of the tune of 10 15% of the total issues in India. These high costs
cannot be ignored.
303
Notes
3.
Transaction costs: It is an unrealistic assumption that investors do not have to incur

transaction costs like brokerage when disposing off the shares. Further, the inconvenience
and the uncertainty involved in the share price movements make the investors prefer
current income by way of dividend to plough back of profits by the company.
4.
Market conditions: Sometimes, market conditions do effect the investment decisions of

the firm. For instance, though a firm has profitable investment opportunities, the bad
market condition may not allow it to mobilize the funds. In such cases, firm will have to
depend on the retained earnings and will have a low dividend payout ratio.
14.3.5 Rational Expectations Model

According to rational expectation model, there would be no impact of the dividend declaration
on the market price of the share so long as it is at the expected rate. If the dividend declared is
higher or lower than the expected level it may show some adjustments. For example, in case the
firm declares dividend higher than what was expected, it would result in an upward movement
of the share price, as there would be expectations of higher earnings in future. Similarly, low
dividends would be taken as a fall in future earnings and hence market price will fall.
Example: The Agro Chemicals Company belongs to a risk class for which the appropriate
capitalization rate is 10%. It currently has 100,000 shares selling at
100 each. The firm has
proposed to declare 5 as dividend at the end of the current financial year, which has just begun.
What will be the price of the share at the end of the year, if a dividend is not declared? What will
be the price if one is? Answer on the basis of Modigliani and Miller model and assume no taxes.
Solution:
1.
According to Walters formula, the optimum dividend payout ratio would be 0%

as Ra > Rc
V =
=
2.
(a)
D R a /R c (E D)
Rc
0 12 /10
10%
60
Price of the shares, when dividends are declared (MM)

1
P = (1 k ) (D 1 P1 )
e
100 =
Hence P1 =
(b)
105
Price of the shares when dividends are not declared

100 =
Hence P1 =
304
1
( 5 P1 ) ,
1.10
1
P,
1.10 1
110
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
7.
Walters Model supports the doctrine that dividends are ..
8.
Gordon Model assumes that future dividends are the sole determinant of the ..value
of the common shares.
9.
According to .model, there would be no impact of the dividend declaration

on the market price of the share so long as it is at the expected rate.
14.4 Forms of Dividends

In addition to cash dividends, the firm has other options for distributing profits to shareholders.
These options are:
1.
Bonus shares (stock dividend)
2.
Stock (share) split
3.
Stock repurchase
14.4.1 Bonus Shares (Stock Dividend)

Bonus shares occur when new shares are issued on a pro rata basis to the current shareholders
while the firms assets, its earnings, the risk being assured and the investors percentage
ownership in the company remain uncharged.
Example: If a shareholder owns 100 shares of common stock at a time when the firm
distributes bonus shares in the ratio of 1:20 (1 share for every 20 shares held), the shareholder
will receive 5 additional shares.
There are several favourable aspects of a bonus issue:
1.
Conserves cash: The stock dividend (bonus shares) allows the firms to declare a dividend
without using up cash that may be needed for operations or expansion.
2.
Indicates higher future profits: Normally a bonus share is an indication of higher future
profits.
3.
Raises future dividends for investors: If the regular cash dividend is continued after the
bonus issue, the individual shareholder will receive higher total dividends.
4.
Has high psychological value: Because of the positive aspects of bonus shares, issue of
bonus shares receives positive response by the market.
5.
Retains proportional ownership for shareholders: It helps the majority shareholders in

retaining the proportional ownership as compared to rights issue of shares where the
shareholders are expected to pay for the shares including the premium as per issue criteria.
14.4.2 Stock (Share) Split

A stock split is a change in the number of outstanding shares through a proportional reduction
or increase in the par value of the shares. Only the face value (par value) and number of
outstanding shares are affected. The market price of the stock will adjust immediately to reflect
the stock split. Example: a firm may have 20,00,000 outstanding shares selling for 20 per share.
305
Notes
The firm declares a 2for1 stock split. After the split, the outstanding share will go up to
40,00,000 and will sell for approximately 10 per share. A shareholder with 100 shares worth
2000 before the split will hold 200 shares worth 2000.
Notes Why firms go for stock splits?

1.
Reduction of market price of stock: The major objective behind most stock split is to
reduce the per share price of a firms common shares. A lower price per share makes
the stock more affordable in marketable lots (usually 100 shares) to more investors.
2.
Indication of future growth: The announcement of the stock split is perceived as a

favourable news by the investors in that with growing earnings, the company has
bright prospects and the investors can reasonably look for increase in future
dividends.
3.
Reverse split: An indication of trouble. In case of reverse split, the firm reduces the
number of outstanding shares. The declaration of reverse split is an indication that
the firm does not have good prospects.
14.4.3 Stock Repurchase

This occurs when a firm brings back outstanding shares of its own common shares. Firms
repurchase stock for three major reasons:
1.
For stock option: A stock option is the right to purchase a specified number of shares of
common shares during a stated time period and a stipulated price. Stock options are
frequently given to senior officers of a company as an incentive to work to raise the value
of the firm. As for example, a firms stock is currently selling for 20 per share when the
president is given the option to buy 1000 shares for 22 at anytime in the next three years.
If the stock value rises to 40 the president can exercise the option, purchase the stock for
22,000 (1000 shares @ 22) and sell it for 40,000 immediately. The capital gain arising on
the sale will be a profit for the president as a direct result of the success of the firm.
2.
To have shares for acquisition: When a firm is seeking control of another firm, it may be
willing to offer its own common shares for the shares of the other firm. In this exchange of
shares, the firm can repurchase stock to make the acquisition. This allows take over without
increasing the number of outstanding shares and avoids a dilution of earnings.
3.
To retire the stock, thus increasing earnings per share: When a firm retires a portion of its
shares or buys back its own shares (as per procedure laid down by statute), the repurchase
increases the firms earnings per share.
Stock Repurchase Viewed as Cash Dividend

When common shares are repurchased for cancellation, the motive is to distribute excess cash to
the owners. Generally, as long as earnings remain constant, the repurchase reduces the number
of outstanding shares raising the earnings per share and therefore the market price per share.
Besides, the advantage of an increase in per share earnings, certain tax benefits to owner also
result. In case of cash dividend, the owner is required to pay income taxes on it, whereas, the
increase in market value of the shares, that resulted from repurchase would not be taxed till the
owner sells the shares. Of course, when the stock is sold, the capital gain is taxed at a favourable
rate than one applied to ordinary income.
306
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
10.
A stock split is a change in the number of shares through a proportional reduction
11.
The ..shares allows the firms to declare a dividend without using up cash that may
be needed for operations or expansion.
12.
A is the right to purchase a specified number of shares of common shares

during a stated time period and a stipulated price.
14.5 Corporate Dividend Behaviour

A firms dividend policies consider division of the firms after tax income into two categories:
1.
Funds to finance long-term growth: These are represented in the Balance Sheet as Retained
Earnings, also known as ploughing back of profits in the firm.
2.
Funds to be distributed to shareholders: These are cash dividends declared by the Board of
Directors and paid to common shareholders.
Two possible approaches to dividend decisions

1.
As a long-term financing decision: In this approach, all the firms after tax profits can be
considered as source of long-term financing. Thus, the payment of cash dividends reduces
the funds available to finance growth and either restricts growth or forces the firm to find
out other financing sources. Thus, the firm might accept a guideline to retain earnings as
long as either of the conditions exists.
(a)
Sufficient profitable projects are available: Acceptances of highly profitable projects

represents a growth goal for most of the firms. As long as such projects are available,
the firm can retain earnings to finance them.
(b)
Capital structure needs equity funds: Among a variety of sources of long-term funds
and to avoid, the high risk associated with excessive debt, the firm must have a
balance of debt and equity financing. Because of the costs of floating common shares,
retained earnings are profitable as equity financing.
With either of the guidelines, cash dividends are viewed as a remainder.

2.
As maximization of wealth: With this approach, the firm recognizes that the payment of
dividends has a strong influence on the market price of the common shares.
14.5.1 Legal and Procedural Aspects in Connection with Payment of

Dividend
Legal Aspects
The amount of dividend that can be legally distributed is governed by the company law, judicial
pronouncements in leading cases and contractual restrictions. The important provisions of
company law pertaining to dividends are given below:
1.
Company can pay only cash dividends (with the exception of bonus shares)
2.
Dividends can be paid only out of the profits earned during the financial year after providing
for depreciation and after transferring to reserves, such percentage of profits as prescribed
by law.
307
Notes
!
Caution The Companies (transfer to Reserves) Rules, 1975 provide that before dividend
declaration a certain percentage of profits as specified below should be transferred to the
reserves of the company:
(i)
Where the divident exceeds 10% but not 12.5% of the paid up capital - Not less than
2.5% of the current profits
3.
(ii)
Where dividend exceeds 12.5% but not 15% - Not less than 5% of the current profits
(iii)
Where dividend exceeds 15% but not 20% - Not less than 7.5% of the current profits
(iv)
Where dividend exceeds 20% - Not less than 10% of the current profits
Due to inadequacy or absence of profits in any year, dividend may be paid out of the
accumulated profits of previous year provided conditions as stipulated by the Companies
(Declaration of Dividend out of Reserves) Rules, 1975 are satisfied:
(a)
The rate of dividend should not exceed the average of the rates at which the dividend
was declared by it in 5 years immediately preceding that year or 10% of its paid up
capital whichever is less.
(b)
The total amount to be drawn from the accumulated profits carried in previous
years and transferred to reserves shall not exceed an amount equal to 1/10th of the
sum of its paid up capital and free reserves and the amount so drawn shall first be
utilized to set off the losses incurred in the financial year before any dividend in
respect of preference or equity shares is declared and
(c)
The balance of reserves after such drawl shall not fall below 15% of its paid up
capital.
(d)
Dividend cannot be declared for past years for which accounts have been closed.
Procedural Aspects
The important events and dates are given below:
1.
Board resolution: Dividend is the prerogative of the Board of Directors. Hence the Board
of Directors should in a formal meeting resolve to pay the dividend.
2.
Shareholders approval: The resolution of the Board of Directors to pay the dividend has
to be approved by the shareholders in the Annual General Meeting.
3.
Record date: The dividend is payable to members whose names appear in the Register of
Members as on the record date.
4.
Dividend Payment: Dividend warrants must be posted within 30 days of the declaration
date.
Task Do you think payment of dividends is an obligation for the corporate. Justify.
308
Notes
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
13.
The amount of dividend that can be legally distributed is governed by the .law.
14.
With approach, the firm recognizes that the payment of dividends has a
strong influence on the market price of the common shares.
15.
Dividend warrants must be posted within days of the declaration date.
Case Study
Case: Ramesh Products
This case allows the reader to apply the concept of future EPS in evaluating a course of
action in terms of its effect on the market value of the firms common stock.
Ramesh Products (RKP) is a medium-sized producer of chemicals and vinyl coating used
in a variety of industrial processes. The companys main facilities are located in an industrial
park in East Baltimost, a central site by a rail line that is linking the firm with its major
customers on the east coast.
Last year the firm recorded over $200 million in sales, showed a net income of $53 million
and concluded a very successful year. For the coming year, the firm expects a 15 per cent
improvement in sales and operating income figures.
The firms management committee, consisting of the president and the vice-presidents of
production, marketing, and finance, will be meeting with in a week to discuss a major new
activity for the next year. Products has been invited to bid on a long-term contract to
produce a line of plastics for a large chemical company in Wilmington, Delaware. It
appears that the firm can easily get the $50 million contract which should yield an additional
$14 million in operating income. These figures are for next year only, and the firm estimates
even higher sales and profits in the future.
Chowdhary vice-president of finance, has been studying the financial data related to the
new line of plastics. The production manager knows of a small plastic company located
about three miles from RKPs facilities. The plastics company has all the equipment needed
to produce the new line of plastics; the company is for sale for $104 million. This price
represents largely the value of the assets, since the company has lost its only large contracts.
Chowdhary Prasad has discussed the purchase of this plastics company with a local real
estate agent and has confirmed that it is available for $100 million.
Chowdhary Prasad figures that RKP has sufficient working capital to add the new plastics
line but does not have the cash to buy the 100 million of machinery and equipment needed
to begin the production. Discussion with a representative of a large Baltimore bank reveals
that RKP can borrow $39 million through a 12 per cent mortgage on its main facilities. A
mortgage company has indicated that it would help finance the plastic machinery with a
$51 million, 13.6 per cent mortgage. Chowdhary Prasad is considering these choices but
knows that RKP has traditionally kept its debt-asset ratio below 41 per cent. He does not
want to borrow if the additional debt causes the ratio to exceed 41 per cent.
Chowdhary Prasad discussed equity financing with RKPs investment banker on a recent
trip to New Jersy City.He learned that the firm could probably issue upto $150 million in
15 per cent preferred stock or class A common stock. If the common stock were offered, it
Contd...
309
Notes
could net $20 per share to RKP. Chowdhary Prasad called new Jersy and confirmed that
these options were still open to the firm.
In making decision on new investments, Chowdhary Prasad believes in the validity of the
future-earnings per share technique. He knows that RKP has traditionally traded at a 6/1
price-earning multiple and he expects that this will hold. Thus, if a new project increases
future earnings per share, it will increase the value of the firm for its shareholders.
Question
According to the future earning share approach and after detailed analysis what do you
feel about the plastic project. Is it worth while to accept.
14.6 Summary
Management of earnings means, how the earnings of a firm are determined and how they
are utilised or appropriated or allocated or distributed.
The firms dividend policy is formulated with two basic objectives in mind providing
for sufficient financing and maximizing the wealth of the firms shareholders.
Three of the more commonly used dividend policies are Constant Payout Ratio Dividend
Policy, Regular Dividend Policy and; Low Regular and Extra-dividend Policy
According to traditional approach of dividend policy the stock value responds positively
to higher dividends and negatively with low dividends.
According to Walter model, the investment policy of a firm cannot be separated from its
dividend policy and both are interlinked.
Gordon Model assumes that future dividends are the sole determinant of the intrinsic
value of the common shares.
The irrelevance of dividends is provided by the Miller and Modigliani Hypothesis
According to rational expectation model, there would be no impact of the dividend

declaration on the market price of the share so long as it is at the expected rate.
In addition to cash dividends, the firm has other options for distributing profits to
shareholders. These options are Bonus shares (stock dividend), Stock (share) split and
Stock repurchase
The amount of dividend that can be legally distributed is governed by the company law,
judicial pronouncements in leading cases and contractual restrictions.
14.7 Keywords
Dividends: It refers to that portion of companys net earnings that is paid out to the equity
shareholders.
Dividend Policy: It decides the portion of earnings to be paid as dividends to ordinary
shareholders and what portion is ploughed back in the firm for investment purpose.
Payout Ratio: The ratio of dividend to earnings is known as payout ratio.
Profit: It is the excess of the revenue over the expenses on conducting the operations.
Stability: it refers to the consistency or lack of variability in the stream of dividend payments.
310
Notes

1.
What do you think are the determinants of the dividend policy of corporate enterprise?
2.
Explain the terms bonus shares and share splits. What is their rationale?
3.
What factors determine the dividend policy of a company? Do you believe it will be
justifiable for a company to obtain a short-term loan from a bank to allow payment of a
dividend?
4.
To what extent are firms able to establish definite long run dividend policies? What
factors would affect these policies? To what extent might these policies affect market value
of firms securities? Explain.
5.
What is stable dividend policy? Why should a firm follow such a policy?
6.
In a world of no taxes and no transaction costs, a firm cannot be made more valuable by
manipulating the dividend payout ratio. Explain the validity of the statement.
7.
What assumptions and arguments are used by Modigliani and Miller in support of the
irrelevance of dividends? Are dividends really irrelevant? If not, what are the arguments
for relevance of dividend policy?
8.
(a)
Explain the following formula given by Walter for determining dividend policy:
V =
where,
D R a /R c (E D)
Rc
V = value of ordinary shares

R a = Internal productivity of retained earnings
Rc = Market capitalization rate
E = Earnings per shares
D = Dividends per share
(b)
What are the merits and limitations of the formula in designing the dividend policy
for a company?
9.
How far do you agree with the proposition that dividends are irrelevant?
10.
Payment of dividend involves legal considerations. Discuss.

1.
Surplus
2.
good
3.
Earnings
4.
fixed rupee
5.
stable dividend payout
6.
normal
7.
relevant.
8.
intrinsic
9.
rational expectation
10.
outstanding
11.
bonus
12.
stock option
13.
company
14.
maximization of wealth
15.
30
Books
311

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INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT SCIENCE

Unit 9: Capital Budgeting

Capital Budgeting Characterization

Capital Budgeting Process

Methods of Analyze Capital Budgeting Decisions

Traditional Techniques of Evaluation

Discounted Cash Flow Methods

Comparison NPV and IRR Methods

Net Present Value vs Profitability Index

Interrelation between Payback, Net Present Value, IRR and

The Concept of Project IRR

Break-Even Time and Capital Budgeting for New Products

BET vs. Payback Method

Financial Data for Sample Problem

Capital Decision under Risk and Uncertainty

Conventional Techniques to Handle Risk

Risk Adjusted Discount Rate Approach (RAD)

Certainty Equivalent Approach

Probability Distribution Approach

DecisionTrees Approach (DT)

Applied Utility Theory

Statistical Techniques to Handle Risk

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Unit 9: Capital Budgeting

Explain the meaning and process of Capital budgeting

Describe the methods of analyzing capital budgeting decisions

Define the conception of capital rationing

Discuss capital decision under risk and uncertainty

9.1 Capital Budgeting Characterization

Difficulties in evaluation: Evaluation of capital investment proposals is difficult since the

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Notes Kinds of Proposals

Diversification: A business can reduce the risk by operating in several markets

Research and development: Firms in industries where technology is rapidly changing

9.2 Capital Budgeting Process

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Unit 9: Capital Budgeting

Include working capital requirements: Most projects require additional investment in

Effect of depreciation: Depreciation is a non-cash expense; it is important because it reduces

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A capital budgeting decision is a process.

It is important to include all ..effects on the remainder of the business.

9.3 Methods of Analyze Capital Budgeting Decisions

Traditional Techniques of Evaluation

1,60,000 10,000 Cost of the project

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Unit 9: Capital Budgeting

The Payback Reciprocal

Accounting Rate of Return (ARR)

Annual revenue from project Annual exp. of project

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timing of cash inflows is not considered.

Discounted Cash Flow Methods

Net Present Value (NPV)

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Unit 9: Capital Budgeting

Less: Present Value of Cash outflows

Net present value of the project