Ecovatives Breakthrough Biomaterials

by Penelope Zeller and Dena Zocher

Ecovative Design LLC (Ecovative)

is a leading-edge biocomposite
materials firm that employs
the mushroom kingdom in
an array of products, most of
which supersede common uses
of polystyrene and aldehydes.
The companys grown (not
manufactured) packaging
products, trademarked
EcoCradle, are used by
Dell Inc., Steelcase Inc. and
Crate and Barrel. Ecovatives
innovations are proving to be a
powerful impact to the future
of business, the environment
and the field of mycology.
What a Long Strange (Career)
Trip it was . . .
How One of Our Own Became a
Private Enterprise Mycologist

dream workshop led former

biology professor Sue Van Hook
to her true calling as a mycologist
and a new career as an executive with
biomaterials developer Ecovative.
A lifelong outdoor enthusiast, Van Hook
discovered her passion for mycology
as a botany student at Humboldt State
University in California. My Botany 101
professor, David Largent, convinced me
to enroll in his Fleshy Fungi course. I did,
and I fell in love with the fungal kingdom.
Van Hooks graduate studies in biology,
also at Humboldt State, focused on the
identification and ecology of macrofungi.
Along the way, she and Largent helped
found the Humboldt Bay Mycological
Society. Van Hooks vocation led to
stints with the Nature Conservancy and
Maine Coast Heritage Trust, followed by

a successful teaching career at Skidmore

College in Saratoga Springs, New York.
One day in the summer of 2007 Van Hook
came back to her office to find an article
from the local paper pinned to her door:
Eben Bayer and Gavin McIntyre, recent
graduates of Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute (RPI) in Troy, New York were
in the process of commercializing a
new sustainable biomaterial they had
developed using fungi.

What does the Chief Mycologist Do

at Ecovative?
As Ecovatives chief mycologist, my primary
role consists of procuring and preserving the
strains of fungal species from the wild that we
test and develop. I identify fungi in the field
according to their ecological functions and roles
in the environment whether they are a white
rot fungus, a brown rot fungus, or a mycorrhizal
fungus. I harvest fungi and get them into pure
culture in the laboratory. I also participate
in the research and development of new
products and new applications requested by
our customers, and perform scientific overview.
And, I serve in an evolving educational role,
helping Ecovative employees at all levels learn
to enjoy and respect the fungal kingdom.
Sue Van Hook, Chief Mycologist,
Ecovative Design, LLC

CEO Eben Bayer and Chief Scientist Gavin

MacIntyre.

I ignored it for a few days, but I

finally sat down to read it. Two RPI
graduates had developed a mushroombased insulation, says Van Hook. As a
mycologist, I was excited. I had to get in
touch with them!
My first phone call with Eben lasted
a few hours. I asked him if he or Gavin
knew anything about fungi, and the
answer was, Not that much. I knew
nothing about starting a business or
filing patents.
But we agreed that our interests were
complementary, says Van Hook.

Engineers and Mycomaterials

Innovators
The companys co-founders, CEO
Eben Bayer and Chief Scientist Gavin

McIntyre, met while studying engineering

and product design at RPI, and quickly
realized their values, interests and career
goals were in alignment. Like Van Hook,
Bayer and McIntyre have deep, abiding
respect for our planet and environment,
and are committed to making a positive
difference. They have also learned to be
open to the unexpected, to see something
that was always there suddenly pop into
focus in a whole new way.
Growing up on the family farm in
Vermont provided constant stimulation
for Bayers curiosity. One of my jobs was
shoveling the wood chips lots and lots
of wood chips to fuel the gas fire to boil
the sap for maple syrup, says Bayer. I
was fascinated by how mycelium would
grow on that pile of wood chips, and how
tenacious that material was.
McIntyres background similarly
prepared him to see unique opportunities
in mycelium. My mother is a biologist
and my father is a mechanical engineer,
he says. As a kid, I had this happy

It took two engineers to observe the tenacity of rhizomorphs and to see with new
eyes what mycologists have known for centuries.
Sue Van Hook

FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012

51

Celandine poppy growing in Ecocradle

compost.

medium between the two, playing in the

dirt with mom and building things in the
garage with dad.
Another major inspiration was a class
at RPI called Inventors Studio, where
we were challenged to come up with
socially responsible, unique, disruptive
technologies, says Bayer.
At the end of the course, Bayer told his
Inventors Studio professor about his idea
for grown materials using mycelium as
glue. He basically flipped out about the
concept of a grown material and urged
me to pursue it, says Bayer.
Bayers next big step was teaming
up with McIntyre. Says McIntyre,
When Eben pitched the idea to me, I
immediately saw the value. It was exciting
for me.
We both wanted to start a business, we
both wanted to do something that would
have a positive impact for our planet, says
Bayer. And we were presented with a core
technology we knew could meet those
goals. It was a matter of proving it wasnt
going to work or making it happen.
Says McIntyre, We bought some
materials from Fungi Perfecti. We started
with Pleurotus ostreatus, the common
tree oyster. We initially tried concoctions
of whole wheat flour and vermiculite as
our substrate.
During a busy final semester at RPI,
the two wrote a business plan, grew the
first samples of an insulation material and
tested them. They made over 100 samples
in their home kitchens, drying them
in toaster ovens. Bayer and McIntyre
needed to test the sample materials to see
how they stacked up against traditional,
expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam, but
didnt have money to spend on a testing
facility. They decided to go out on a limb
and cold call the National Institute of

52 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012

Standards and Technology (NIST) in

Gaithersburg, Maryland.
NIST was very good to us. They
offered us the use of their labs, along
with training to use the equipment, so we
could test the thermal, strength and fireretardant qualities of our samples, says
McIntyre.
The initial product benchmarked
extremely well against foam. Not only did
the material have thermal performance
comparable to foam, but it also performed
as a Class 1 firewall due to the mineral
content of the substrate. The test results
were the tipping point that convinced the
two engineers they had a commercially
viable concept.
We both had job offers, but after
graduation we realized we had to make
a decision, says Bayer. My first day
working for a defense contractor I drove
in and quit my job to go work on our
idea.
This was an opportunity to have a
positive effect on the world by displacing
synthetic materials, says McIntyre. We
really believed in the technology, and
thats why we dove head-first into the
company.
The two partners financed their startup through business plan competitions,

Cellulose substrate with hyphae.

fully funding the company in its first year.

Bootstrapping the company like we
did allowed us to maintain control of
the Firm and pursue our own ideals and
goals for Ecovative as a triple-bottom-line
business, says McIntyre.
When Van Hook called Bayer, the
partners hadnt given much thought to the
mycological aspect of their new venture.
Sue came in and gave Eben and
me a great gift. She taught us aseptic
technique, says McIntyre. As two
engineers, it didnt occur to us to
sterilize our substrate materials. We

Ecovative Garners
Global Recognition:
Greener Package Innovator of the
Year (non-FDA regulated packaging),
2011
World Economic Forum Technology
Pioneer, Clean Tech category, 2011
DuPont Awards for Packaging
Innovation, Diamond level, 2011
National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) Clean Energy
Ventures, Best Venture, 2009
Postcode Lottery Green Challenge,
500,000 winner, 2008
were extremely fortunate that our initial
samples didnt get contaminated.
Bayer and McIntyre set up a lab in the
Rensselaer Business Incubator in 2007,
with Van Hook as their mycological
consultant. Van Hook facilitated a
Biological Materials Agreement with
Skidmore College that gave the team
access to spawn from multiple fungal
strains.
We were fortunate to have connected
with Sue early on. Sue helped enhance
the perspective Gavin and I have about
treating our planet well, says Bayer.
Not only did she bring insight into the
mycology, but also an appreciation of the
mycological community and what fungi
mean for our planet.
Winning the 500,000 Postcode
Lottery Green Challenge1 award in 2008
provided the financial boost needed
to set up manufacturing facilities and
ramp up production. In 2009, Ecovative
moved to its current 10,000 square foot
office and warehouse in Green Island,
NY. In September 2010, Van Hook came
on board as Ecovatives full time chief
mycologist.
I wound up creating a new job, but I
didnt approach Eben and Gavin with that
intention. I had a hunger for more fungi
in my life. And this was the answer, says
Van Hook.
Sue was really phenomenal without
her it would have been more of a tortuous
path, says McIntyre.
Says Van Hook, It took two engineers
to observe the tenacity of rhizomorphs
and to see with new eyes what
mycologists have known for centuries.

Is The World Ready For Industrial

Mushrooms?
The archeological record of humans
use of mushrooms dates back thousands
of years to the early Neolithic era. The
tinder mushroom may have been used as
early as 3,000 BCE. Archeologists believe
rock paintings of mushroom effigies in
the Sahara Desert thought to have
shamanic significance may be 9,000
years old. Mushrooms have been used
extensively as medicines and entheogens
over thousands of years of human
history, and are still an important part of
the pharmacopeia today. While Bavarian
felt hats made from Fomes2 are still made
in the traditional way, and Ganoderma
applanatum3 is a very popular art
medium, mushrooms never really caught
on as a material.
Until now. What Ecovative has done
puts the mushroom kingdom in a new
domain: materials science.
This fresh look at the binding
properties of mycelium is a step in the
right direction for the manufacturing
economy. For example, traditional
manufacturing processes consume raw
materials to produce both a product
stream and a waste stream. Ecovative
procures someone elses low-value waste
stream, and 100 percent of that waste
stream will make it into a final product.
Even if a packaging piece is defective, it
can be broken down to use as substrate
for more product or composted.
Bayer and McIntyre point out their
goal is to produce materials that are not
just green, but better economically and
in terms of performance.
When youre introducing a new
product, sustainable or otherwise, you
cant make compromises in performance
or cost. If you want the customer to
easily adopt the technology, the biggest
factors you can provide are a better
product at a lower cost, says McIntyre.

Hyphae alone.

Were letting the mycelium do the

work the fungus is our manufacturing
system for the most part and using
agricultural waste, a low-value material,
enables us to easily hit those metrics.

Every cubic inch of EcoCradle

material grows a matrix of eight
miles of tiny mycelial fibers.
Growing Industrial Materials:
Mycelium Binding Technology
A finished Ecovative product for
packaging or insulation requires two
material inputs: agricultural crop waste
and mycelium.
The first step in the production
process is to pasteurize the feedstocks
such as cottonseed hulls, rice hulls,
corn stover or hemp hulls by way of a
proprietary process that uses pressurized
steam. Next, the sterile plant material
is injected with mycelia and put into
forms in which the mycelia will grow into
the desired shape. The mycelia grows
aseptically, completely filling a form in
five days without any need for light,

Binding hyphae.

watering or petrochemical inputs. At the

end of the growth process, the product
is dehydrated and heat-treated. The
finished product then undergoes rigorous
biological quality control to ensure that
the material is completely dead.
We work only with the vegetative
mycelium; no spores are ever
introduced, says Van Hook. It is only
when spores become involved that some
molds might invoke toxicity.
The physiology of the mycelium is
a key determinant of the strength and
characteristics of the final product. The
cell walls of mycelia are composed of
chitin, the same biopolymer as insect
bodies and lobster shells.
That means this material is incredibly
tough and also water resistant. It

Ecovative Design LLC

Headquarters: Green Island, NY
Website:
www.ecovativedesign.com
Industry: Biomaterials and
biocomposites research and
development (R&D)
Commitment to mycology:
Ecovative is committed to
maintaining valuable fungus
strains, ongoing research and
development of mycelium-based
biomaterials, and promoting
opportunities for practitioners
of the science of mycology. The
company currently maintains over
70 strains in its strain library.

has unique characteristics you dont

typically see in natural materials of this
type, says McIntyre.
Using different wild-type mushroom
species, Ecovatives researchers promote
the expression or operation of particular
genes using phototropic organisms to
drive specific gene expression. They
can isolate strains that show the desired
growth characteristics in different settings.
There are ways of using the
surrounding environment, chemotaxis
simple chemistry to get these genes
expressed, says McIntyre.
Different agricultural feedstocks in
various mixtures are used to create
diverse material properties. Ecovatives
team can fine-tune the specifications for
the application and adjust the density,
strength, texture, appearance, and more,
as needed by the customer. For example,
Ecovative uses rice hulls in insulation
products because the silica in the rice
hulls is naturally fire retardant.
Mycelia binding technology also works
with both natural and synthetic textiles.
Materials like burlap, hemp, jute, wood
veneers, fiberglass, and even carbon fiber
can be adhered using mycelium instead of
volatile chemical resins.

Replacing EPS: Conserving

Precious Petro-molecules
The fact is, cheaply extracted
petroleum supplies are a thing of the past
and its more important than ever that
every molecule of petroleum extracted is
put to long-term productive use and not
FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012

53

consigned to a landfill.
Ecovatives grown materials use
fully renewable resources, require
very little energy to produce, and meet
industrial and consumer needs. These
mycomaterials can replace engineered
woods, oriented strand-board (OSB)
and medium-density fiberboard. While
traditional, chemical adhesives produce
a lot of volatile organic compounds

Substrate with hyphae.

(VOCs), Ecovatives products are VOCneutral.

According to EPA data provided by
Ecovative, plastics especially plastics
like EPS take up 25 percent of US
landfills by volume. Consumer recycling
rates for EPS are less than 2 percent in
the United States, primarily because
the transportation costs and emissions
make it not viable.

sound than petroleum-based

counterparts. But detailed analyses,
performance measurement, accurate
reporting and peer reviews help
document that the company is truly
meeting its people, planet and profit
goals. Thats why Ecovative is using
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tools to
optimize the design and operation of its
new manufacturing facility and validate
the sustainability of its products and
practices.
A key outcome of the LCA
process will be an embedded-energy
comparison of EcoCradle with EPS,
paper pulp and other protective
packaging alternatives for which reliable
published data are available.
Ecovative also has to be smart in
sourcing the raw materials it purchases
from farmers. The Firm utilizes
many materials already collected in
processing, such as cottonseed hulls
and rice hulls. But not all agricultural
waste that would be useful is readily
accessible. Some viable materials are
hard to come by because farmers dont
normally collect them they might be
plowed under or disposed of. Hemp
waste provides superior substrate
materials, but can only be sourced
from Canada. Its critical to ensure that
raw materials and collection methods
are consistent, reliable and trackable.
Toward that end, the company has
a cooperative research agreement
in place with the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA) and works closely

Walking the Sustainability Talk:

Managing the Triple Bottom Line

Current Applications
For Ecovative Products:

Were focused on our financial

bottom line, but were just as concerned
with how people use these materials and
how our materials affect society. And
most importantly, how the materials
return to the earth at the end of use,
says McIntyre.
As product design engineers, Bayer
and McIntyre want to develop materials
that offer a positive environmental
impact through their use. They also
want to manage Ecovative using
principles and practices based on
managing the triple bottom line: people,
planet, profit.
By their very nature, Ecovatives
products are more environmentally

Protective packaging: packaging

materials that are environmentally
responsible, with equal
performance at a similar cost

54 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012

Building products: insulation,

structural insulating panels (SIPs),
acoustical tiles
Automotive: specially tuned
materials replace foams found
in bumpers, doors, roofs, engine
bays, trunk liners, dashboards and
seats
Home and garden: containers,
garden planters, wine shippers/
caddies, candle holders

with the agency to evaluate and develop

new sources.
We have a great relationship with
the USDA, says McIntyre. They help
us determine which ag wastes are best
for our needs. For example, we like the
potential of corn stover as a substrate,
but we need to work out collection and
front-end logistics.
Still, Ecovative doesnt have to
compete with other manufacturers or
industries for resources. For example,
feedstocks for biofuels require cellulose,
and Ecovative uses materials high in
lignin. And, its products dont impact
food production. Because the companys
materials are inherently cradle-tocradle, any defective or excess product
can be broken down and fed right back
into Ecovatives own process.
We dont want to compete for
food-grade resources. We have a
social obligation to the people using
our products. They shouldnt have to
pay more for food in order to use an
ecologically viable, sustainable material,
says McIntyre.
Just as important, using Ecovatives
products helps customers validate their
own sustainability initiatives.
We do a great deal of education
with clients to help them understand
why its important and how to
communicate the benefits to their
stakeholders, says Bayer.

The Hyphae That Bind:

Sustainable Corporate Culture
Ecovative is not only paving the way
with new mycotechnology, but we are
also changing how business is done,
says Van Hook. We are working as
hard on creating our corporate culture
as we are on our products. To help
us maintain that commitment as we
grow, were incorporating a business
model document called a State of Grace
Contract into our policies.
The document validates personal and
professional development goals, and
helps employees focus on collaboration
and positive outcomes. As engineers
new to managing people and growing
a business, Bayer and McIntyre see the
State of Grace Contract as a powerful
management tool to create and
maintain a collaborative, sustainable
company culture.
It sets us apart from the top-down
hierarchical business model. We function

more like a mycelial network; with the

nodes where the mycelia gather and
exchange information, and the dendritic
tendrils that go out and do the work,
says Van Hook. Weve got less hierarchy,
and a more interactive, collaborative
model.

Mycelia Dancing: Advancing the

Field of Mycology 4
Nanotechnology is moving toward
complex microstructures that are
assembled molecule-by-molecule, and
are really efficient. Mycelia already do
this, and it run on lignin and cellulose,
says Bayer. Im in awe of them and the
possibilities of their applications.
Says McIntyre, Were measuring the
structural integrity and physical aspects
of fungal mycelia. But were starting to
learn there is little existing research into
the physical characteristics and how
tenacious fungal mycelia really is.
Alongside Paul Stamets, we are

the northeastern United States in its

strain library.
The government agencies see value
in this technology and material, says
McIntyre. In the past four years, weve
brought in over $4 million in federal
and state grants to continue to develop
mycological materials.
We are hoping our business venture
will encourage students to go into
mycology, knowing that there are
jobs to be had, says Van Hook. As
Ecovative grows, we will need more
mycologists trained in mycophysiology,
molecular mycology and genetics, and
mycochemistry to conduct our research.
Well also need technicians to handle
culturing and inoculation procedures.
According to Van Hook, Ecovative is
already engaged with several universities
as subcontractors for a percentage of
their research and development grants.
This trend will only increase as the
demand for mycoproducts grows.
When we started, we were pushing
our concept and product into the
industry, and having to educate the
market, says Bayer. But now were
seeing a shift, where customers are
coming to us because they already get
it, and they know why they want it and
theyre happy its there. People in many
industries are coming to us to solve
sustainable materials challenges using
mushrooms.

Breakthrough Mycotechnology
Breaks Out: Whats Next?

Ecocradle protective packaging corner block.

putting mycology on the map in the

business world, says Van Hook.
In addition to sourcing their first
mycelia from Fungi Perfecti, Bayer and
McIntyre consulted with Stamets on
building a business in the mycology
space and he continues to be an
inspiration and a resource for Ecovative.
Were looking at how we can partner
with Pauls organization, says Bayer.
For example, giving our customers the
option to use Fungi Perfectis Life Box
with EcoCradle protective packaging.5
Van Hooks team also works at
preserving the strains of wild fungal
species that the materials research team
tests and develops. Today, Ecovative has
approximately 70 strains selected from

Ecovative remains focused on the

vision of building a materials science
company that grows sustainable
materials for many industries and
uses. Bayer says the companys success
with its packaging products has
provided freedom of movement to
expand that vision.
The core concept of our business
model is growing materials, and we
see this as a platform technology
within that concept, says Bayer. Were
making it clear to industry that this
underutilized kingdom is proving to
have some good industrial applications.
Requests for new materials and
applications come from all over the
globe. Current projects include apparel
fabrics, liquid-absorbing mats and
a grown-materials process that can
be replicated in developing nations.
Ecovative and 3M are partnering on

Whats your favorite

mushroom?
Eben Bayer, co-founder and CEO,
Ecovative; We made our first
prototypes with the common tree
oyster, and its still my favorite. I admire
its tenacity to grow under any condition
on almost any substrate.
Gavin McIntyre, co-founder and Chief
Scientist, Ecovative: I dont actually
eat mushrooms. My favorite in terms
of aesthetics is Polyporus squamosus,
the dryads saddle. It is just a beautiful
mushroom, in every season.
Sue Van Hook, Chief Mycologist,
Ecovative: My favorite mushroom
changes frequently as I gain new
appreciation for their beauty, function,
and spirit. My current favorite is Chaga,
Inonotus obliquus.

R&D to adapt the mycelium technology

platform to new uses.
The companys strategy for US
expansion incorporates a network
of regional manufacturing facilities
located to minimize the transportation
miles and carbon dioxide emissions
for transporting feedstocks and final
products. Researchers are already
testing a range of agricultural waste
feedstocks, for future sourcing
from within regions based on native
fungi and the types of crop waste
readily available. The fully optimized
production facility that is scheduled to
come on line in 2012 in Green Island
will become the model for future
regional sites.
Ecovative continues to develop
advanced building materials and
composites that offer the performance
features of standard engineered
products without the gas emissions.
Products for the construction industry
meet or exceed performance standards,
and have the possibility to take LEED
certification in commercial structures
to new levels of healthy workspaces.
The automotive industry is
also paying attention: Ecovatives
biocomposites can replace
polypropylene foams commonly used
in cars. Specially tuned mycomaterials
FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012

55

here as a sort of mycelial glue. This is

a break-through technology that has
immense ramifications for our future
on the planet. How can anyone not be
excited about this?
Author bios
Penelope Zeller is a project manager,
business development specialist and
passionate mycophile. Her favorite
mushroom is any edible species of
fungus. penelope@zellerdistrict8.com
Dena Zocher is an independent
business writer, urban shaman and
mother dedicated to leaving the planet
better than she found it. Her favorite
fungus is the fairy ring (Marasmius
oreades). Dena.z@q.com
Acknowledgements

can replace synthetic foams found in

bumpers, doors, roofs, engine bays,
trunk liners, dashboards and seats.
The materials have the same or better
ability to absorb impact, insulate,
dampen sound, and provide lightweight
structure within an automobile.
The patented pasteurization
process Ecovative uses to sterilize the
agricultural feedstocks ensures that
the material meets International Safe
Transit Association6 standards for
shipping agricultural products out of
the country. And, Ecovatives insulation
product already meets rigorous
standards mandated by the European
Union End Of Life Vehicle (ELV)
Directive.7
An especially exciting new area of
research is the field of self-repairing
materials. Just as exciting, Ecovative is
looking into creating a replacement for
the ubiquitous Styrofoam clamshell
used in the food service industry.
To aspiring mycomaterials
innovators, Bayer says, Make sure
youre passionate about it, and make
sure youre solving a real problem
there are plenty of real problems that
require sustainable solutions.

56 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012

McIntyre says his biggest lesson

learned is, Go out and do it: prototype,
test, put the results in the hands of
potential users and get feedback.
Then go back and do it again. Its rare
that your first iteration is the perfect
solution.

Do try this at home! Ecovative

is currently beta testing a
simple Grow-It-Yourself (GIY)
kit that skirts the need for
aseptic technique, making it
easy for budding mycomaterials
enthusiasts to grow their own
at home or in the classroom.
Contact Ecovative at
www.ecovativedesign.
These materials help stimulate our
manufacturing and farming industries,
says McIntyre. Ecovative has to take
advantage of local waste streams to
stay competitive. But it beats using
extracted resources from half way
around the world and transporting
them with fossil fuels.
After spending most of her career
in academia and non-governmental
organizations, Van Hook comments: I
never imagined working in the business
world. Im at Ecovative for more than
just my mycological knowledge, Im

As dirt-worshipping tree huggers

and lovers of the Fungi Kingdom,
Penelope and Dena are honored to
have the opportunity to tell this story.
Thanks and accolades to Ecovative
Design LLC, FUNGI Magazine and a
growing mycelial network of friends
and supporters, including: Ecovatives
Sam Harrington, our volunteer editors
and reviewers, and all the people who
participated in our crowd-funding
campaign on INDIE GOGO.
Endnotes
Postcode Lottery Green Challenge,
a joint initiative of the Dutch Postcode
Lottery and the Amsterdam based
cross-media event PICNIC; http://www.
greenchallenge.info/.
2
Fomes fomentarius, commonly known
as the Tinder Fungus, Hoof Fungus,
Tinder Conk, Tinder Polypore or Ice Man
Fungus.
3
Ganoderma applanatum, commonly
known as artists conk.
4
Tip of the hat to Paul Stamets
Mycelium Running.
5
The Life Box re-invents the cardboard
box, implanting tree seeds and friendly
spores of mycorrhizal fungi within its
corrugations. Used boxes can be torn up
and planted. http://lifeboxcompany.com/.
6
International Safe Transit Association
(ISTA) develops and delivers standards,
educational programs and tools for the
economic, social and environmental
optimization of transport packaging
systems.
7
European Union Directive 2000/53/
EC; http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
waste/elv_index.htm.
1