Computer Science

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Computer Science

IGCSE

Revision

Computer Science Revision

Binary Systems and Hexadecimal:
Name of Memory Size
1 kilobyte (1 KB)
1 megabyte (1 MB)
1 gigabyte (1 GB)
1 terabyte (1 TB)
1 petabyte (1 PB)

Number of Bits
210
220
230
240
250

Equivalent Denary Value

1 024 bytes
1 048 576 bytes
1 073 741 824 bytes
1 099 577 627 776 bytes
1 125 899 906 842 624 bytes

Turning Binary to Hexadecimal:

1. Split the binary into 4 bits, for E.G. (010001011010) (0100 0101 1010)
Binary Value
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
2.

Hexadecimal Value
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

Denary Value
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
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The Uses of Hexadecimal:

Memory Dumps
o Because using hexadecimal makes it much easier to work with, a developer
can easily look at hexadecimal code and find the errors.
o It is a powerful fault-tracing tool.
Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)
o HTML is used when writing and developing web pages.
It isnt a programming language; it is a mark-up language.
A mark-up language is used in the processing, definition and
presentation of text E.G. (specifying the colour of text)
o Hexadecimal is used in HTML when you need to determine a colour.
Media Access Control (MAC)
o A MAC address uniquely identifies a device on the internet.
It is usually made of 48bits.
It refers to the Network Interface Card (NIC)
o Types of MAC Address:
Universally Administered MAC Address (UAA)
Most common type of MAC address set by the manufacturer
at the factory.
Locally Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Web addresses

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Each character on the keyboard is known as an ASCII (American Standard

Code for Information Interchange).

It is represented by a hexadecimal value.
o % signs are used to denote that hexadecimal is being used.
Assembly code and machine code

Memory and Storage

Memory can be split into three different categories:

Primary memory
Secondary storage
Off-line storage
Primary Memory
RAMROM

Secondary storage
HDDSSD

Off-line storage
DVD/CDDVD-RAM
Blu-ray disk
USB memory stick/ flash memo
Removable hard drive

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Primary memory
o Random Access Memory(RAM)
It is volatile/temporary memory
Used to store:
Data
Files
Part of an operating system that is currently being used.
It can be written and read and the memory in it can be changed.
In general, the larger the RAM the faster the computer.
As the RAM starts to get full the computer starts to slow
down because the processor has to continually access the hard

drive to overwrite old data on RAM with new data.

Buffers use RAM, this is because they need to be a fast memory and
the data is only held temporarily.
There are two types of RAM technology:
Dynamic ram (DRAM)
o Consists of a number of transistors and capacitors
Capacitor holds bits of information (1 or 0)
Transistor acts as a switch, allows the chip
control circuitry to read the capacitor or change
o

the capacitors value.

The ram needs to be constantly refreshed
If it wasnt refreshed then the capacitors
charge would leak away very quickly leaving all

the capacitors value at 0.

o Advantages compared to an SRAM:
Much less expensive.
Consume less power.
Have a higher storage capacity.
Static ram (SRAM)
o Makes use of flip flops, this holds each bit of
o

memory.
Advantages compared to a DRAM:
Much more faster (access time is 25

o
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Read Only Memory (ROM)

nanoseconds than 60 nanoseconds)

Memory cache is the high speed portion of the
memory.

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Non-volatile memory/ permanent memory.

Used to store the start-up instructions when the computer is first

switched on (BIOS)
Data on the chip can only be read not changed.
Secondary storage
o Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Most common way of storing data on a computer.
Data stored in digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the

platters.
The hard disk has many platters which spin 7000 times a second.
There are a number of read-write heads which can access all the

surfaces in the disk drive.

A sector on a given track will have a fixed number of bytes.
Hard disk drives have a very slow data access compared to something

like RAM.
Many applications require the read-write heads to constantly seek for
the correct blocks of data; this requires large number of head
movements.
The effects of latency become significant.
o Latency is the time it takes for a specific block of data
on a data track to rotate around to the read-write
o

head.
Latency can be seen when the computer responds with

please wait or not responding.

Solid State Drives (SSD)
SSDs remove the problem of latency by not having any moving parts,

and any data retrieved is done at the same rate.

SSDs also dont rely on magnetic properties.
The most commonly used type of SSD stores data by controlling
movement of electrons within the NAND chip.
The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors

within the chip.

o This produces a non-volatile rewritable memory.
Advantage of using SSD instead of an HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Lighter (more efficient when making a laptop)
Dont need time to get up to speed.
Very thin.
Data access is considerably faster.

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Off-line Storage

Disk type

Laser colour

Wavelength of laser

Disk construction

light

Track pitch
(Distance between
tracks)

CD

Red

780nm

Single 1.2mm

1.6m

polycarbonate layer

DVD

Red

650nm

Two 0.6mm

0.74m

polycarbonate

Blu-ray

blue

405nm

layers
Single 1.1mm

0.30m

polycarbonate layer

All optical storage media are used as back-up systems (photos, music and multimedia files).
Cds and DVDs can also be used to transfer files from one computer to another. The most
common use for DVDs and Blu-ray disks are to supply movies and games, CDs arent used
as they lack in memory capacity.
o

CD/DVD disks
These are optical storage devices
A red laser light is used to read and write data on the surface of the

disk.
Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light sensitive

organic dye to store the data.

Both the disks use a single, spiral track which runs from the centre

of the disk to the edge.

The data is stored in the pits and bumps on the spiral track.
DVDs are slightly different to CDs:
DVDs have dual-layering which increases the storage capacity

of the disk.
Pit sizes are smaller on the DVDs.

DVD-RAM
Have a number of concentric tracks.

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Having concentric tracks means that you can simultaneously read and

write.
It allows for numerous read and write operations and has a great

longevity which makes it good for archiving.

Blu-ray disk
Optical storage medium.
Differences between DVD and Blu-ray disk:
A blue laser is used instead of a red laser; a blue laser has a
shorter wave length.
o With a shorter wave length it means the pits and bumps

will be smaller, so Blu-ray disks are able to store more.

Blu-ray disks use a single polycarbonate disk instead of a
sandwich of two disks.
o When using sandwich layers it can cause birefringence
(light refracted into two separate beams causing read
errors). Since Blu-ray disks dont use this type of disk

they avoid birefringence.

Blu-ray disks come automatically with secure encryption
system which helps to prevent privacy and copyright

infringement.
USB flash memories
Uses solid-state technology.
Connects to the computer through the USB port.
Advantages:
Very small and light, makes them suitable for transferring
files between computers.
Can be used for small backup for files such as music
Removable hard disk drives
Are essential HDD.
Can be connected through the USB port.
They can be used as a back-up device or as another way to transfer

files.
Estimating the size of a file
o Each character equals 1 byte.
o The size of a picture is basically the area of it in pixels.

Communication and internet technologies

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Data transmission
Data transmission can be both of short and long distance. There are three factors that
are taken to consideration when transmitting data:

Direction of the transmission.

Method of transmission.
Method of synchronisation.

Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (i.e. from sender to receiver), e.g.

computer sending a file to be printed from a printer.

Half-duplex transmission is in both directions however not at the same time (i.e.
data can be sent from A to B or from B to A along the same line, but not at the
same time). E.g. a phone conversation between two people, usually only one person

speaks at a time.
Full-duplex transmission is in both directions simultaneously (i.e. data can be sent
from A to B and data can be sent from B to A on the same line at the same time)
e.g. Broad band connection on a phone line.

Serial and parallel data transmission

Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a time over a single wire or
channel.
1 bit at a time down the wire

Sender

o
o
o

Receiver

This method works well over long distances.

However data is transferred slower than parallel data transmission.
E.G. sending data from a computer to a modem for transmission over a
Telephone line.

Parallel data transmission is when several bits of data are sent down wires or
channels at the same time
o One wire is used to transmit each bit.

Sender

Receiver

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8 bits at a time sent down 8 wires/channels

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It doesnt work well with long distance data transfers as the bits can

o
o
o

become unsynchronised.
Its a faster method compared to serial data transmissions.
E.G. sending data to a printer from a computer using a ribbon connector.
Parallel data transmission is mainly used in the internal electronics of the

computer system.
Integrated circuits use parallel data transmission due to the need for high
speed data transfers, using 8bit, 16 bit, 32 bit and 64 bit buses allow for
much faster data transfers.

Asynchronous and synchronous data transmission

Asynchronous data transmission refers to data being transmitted in an agreed bit
pattern
o The receiver of the data knows when the data starts and ends.
It prevents the data from being mixed up, without the controlled bits
it would be impossible to separate groups of data as it arrives.
Synchronous data transmission is a continuous stream of data.
o The data is accompanied by timing signals generated by an internal clock.
It ensures that the sender and receiver are synchronised with each
o

other.
The receiver counts how many bits were sent and then reassembles them
into bytes of data.
The timings must be very accurate as there is no control bits sent in

this type of data transmission.

It is faster than asynchronous data transmission and is used when there is
an important issue.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method.

It is one of the most standard ways of transferring small files from one computer
to another.
USB cables consists of:
o Four-wire shielded cable
Two wires are used for power the other two are the earth
Two wires are used in the data transmission.
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The computer automatically detects a USB.

o This is due to a change in the voltage level on the data signal wires in the
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cable.
When it gets recognised the appropriate device driver is loaded up so the

computer and USB can communicate effectively.

If a new device is to be detected the computer will look for the device driver.

Benefits

Drawbacks

The devices that are plugged in are

automatically detected, and then the drivers

are also automatically downloaded.
The connector fits only one way, therefore it

Maximum cable length is only 5 metres.

prevents incorrect connections made.

It is industry standard so it has considerable

support to its users.

Several data transmission rates are

Present transmission rate is limited to less

supported.

than 500 megabits per second.

Newer USB standards are backward

Older USB standard may not be supported in

compatible with older USB standards.

the near future.

Error-checking methods

When this type of transmission is used there is a risk that the data will be
corrupted or changed.
o This problem can when transmitting over long and short distances.
A computer will make no sense of small mistakes.
o This is why error checking is important.
Parity checking
o Method used to check whether data has been changed or corrupted during
o

the transmission.
A byte of data is allocated a parity bit, this allocation happens before
transmission happens

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o Systems of which use an even parity have an even number of 1-bits.

o Systems of which use an odd parity have an odd number of 1-bits.
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
o It is another method to check whether the data has been sent correctly.
o It uses an acknowledgement and timeout.
Acknowledgement message sent by the receiver indicating that data

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is sent properly.
Timeout time allowed to elapse before and acknowledgement.
If acknowledgement isnt sent back to the sender before the timeout

occurs, then the message is automatically sent.

Checksum
o The data is sent in blocks and an additional value for the checksum is sent
at the end of the block of data.
Divide the sum, X, of the bytes by 256
Round answer down to the nearest whole number, Y. Z = Y * 256

Calculate the difference X-Y

This value found is the checksum.

Echo check
o The data is sent back to the sender and the sender will check if there are
o

will do a side by side comparison to check if the data was correctly sent.
However the downside is that if the data comes back wrong the sender
doesnt know if the data was incorrectly sent or received.

Internet technologies

Computers that are connected to the internet can communicate with each other
providing a number of rules and protocols are adhered to.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
o An ISP is a company that provides people with an internet connection.
Internet Protocol (IP)
o Each device has a unique IP address.
o 32-bit number e.g.: 109.108.158.1
o A home computer is given an IP depending on what the ISP assigned.
o An IP address can be used instead of a URL.
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Difference between IP address and MAC address:

A MAC address identifies a device connected to the internet

uniquely.
An IP address gives the location of a device on the internet.
Hypertext transfer protocol (http)
o Set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring files across the
internet.
o When a form of security is involved the http becomes an https.
The s stands for secure.
Web browsers
o Allows a user to display a webpage on the users screen.
o Web browsers translate the HTML code from websites and show the results

o
o
o

of the translations.
It can be in the form of video, images or sound.
Web browsers share the following features:
A HOME page
Ability to store users favourite websites/pages
Keeps a history of the websites visited by the user
Give the ability to go backward and forward to websites opened.
Using URL users can enter the sites they want to visit.
http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/igcse_computer_science
protocol, web servers name and file name

Hardware and software

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Logic gates and logic circuits

o

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Operating

o
o
o
o

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Software running in the background of a computer system.

It manages basic functions.
Without an operating system the computer isnt user friendly.
Features of an operating system:
Human Computer Interface (HCI)
Multitasking
Multiprogramming
Batch Processing
Error Handling
Loading and running of applications/software
Management of user accounts
File utilities (e.g. copy, save, sort, delete)
Processor management
Memory management

systems

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Real-time processing
Interrupt handling routines
Security (manages log on, password)
Input and output control
Most Common operating system is windows, others include:
Linux
Android
UNIX
DOS
Windows is an example if of a single-user multitasking operating system.
This means that only one user can use it at a time but can have a
number of applications open at any given time.
When a computer is first powered up all the initiating programs are loaded
from the ROM chip.
The programs are there to run checking procedures, it makes sure
that the hardware, processor, internal memory and bio (basic input-

output system) are all functioning correctly.

Interrupts and buffers
o An interrupt is a signal that causes the processor to temporarily stop what
its doing and service the interrupt. Interrupts can occur when:
a disk drive is ready to receive more data
an error has occurred, such as a paper jam in a printer
the user has pressed a key to interrupt the current process e.g.

<CTRL><ALT><BREAK> keys pressed simultaneously.

A software error couldve occurred.
Once an interrupt signal is received the processor either carries on doing
what it was doing or stops to service the device/program that generated the

interrupt.
Buffers are used in computers as a temporary memory area.
Buffers are essential as processors are much faster than hardware

devices.
If there werent buffers most of the processors time would be spent

idling waiting for the hardware devices to complete their operations.

Buffers are used for e.g. to load up videos.
Computer Architecture
Earlier computers were fed data whilst they were actually running.
They couldnt store programs consequently they needed human
intervention to run.

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In 1945 John von Neumann developed the idea of a stored program

computer, often referred to as the von Neumann architecture
concept.

Processor
(includes
the control
unit)

Memory
unit

Input and
output

Address bus

I/O device

Data bus
I/O device

Control bus
Type of bus
Address bus

Description of bus
Carries signals associated

Data/signal direction
Unidirectional

with the address between

the processor and the
Data bus

memory.
Sends data between the

Bi-directional

processor, the memory unit

and the input/output
Control bus

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devices.
Carries signals relating to

Unidirectional and bi-

the control and coordination

directional due to the

of all activities within the

internal connections within

computer.

the computer architecture.

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An Address is the location where data can be found in a computer memory.

o Each address in the memory is unique.
Memory unit
o A computer memory unit is made out of many partitions.
Each partition contains an address and its contents
The address will uniquely identify every location in the memory and
o

the contents will be the binary value stored in each location.

Examples of registers:
MAR memory address register
MDR memory data register
ALU arithmetic and logic unit
PC program counter
CIR current instruction register
The processor contains arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).
The ALU allows arithmetic (+, - etc.) and logic (AND, OR, NOT etc.)
operations to be carried out.

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