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Beneficial Microorganisms
Kim M. Wilkinson and David P. Janos

13

The web of life depends on microorganisms, a vast network of small, unseen

allies that permeate the soil, water, and air of our planet. Many kinds of microorganisms existed for billions of years before any plants or animals came into
being. Microorganisms created the atmosphere, turned bare rock and lava into
soil, helped plants colonize land, and remain vital to the survival of plants, animals, and people today.
For people who work with plants, the greatest interest in microorganisms is in
the complex living communities that are part of the soil. One gram (the weight of
a small paperclip) of healthy soil can contain between 1 and 10 billion microorganisms. The living component of soil has a central role in ecosystem and plant
health. Communities of bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and other microorganisms make nutrients available to plants, create water and air channels, maintain
soil structure, counterbalance pathogen populations, and recycle nutrients from
organic matter that enable plants to grow.
This chapter focuses on two of the most important beneficial microorganisms
for nurseries: nitrogen-fixing bacteria (rhizobia, the generic term for species in
the genera Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium)(figure 13.1) and mycorrhizal fungi
(figure 13.2) that form mutually beneficial partnerships with their plant hosts.
Scientists call this mutualistic symbiosis. In this manual, these beneficial microorganisms are called microsymbionts. Partnerships between beneficial microorganisms and plants are essential to plant health, as well as to healthy ecosystems
and agro-ecosystems.

Facing Page: The nitrogen-fixing bacteria rhizobia (Bradyrhizobium) form nodules on roots of legumesin this case, on a
native Acacia koa seedling in Hawaii. Photo by J.B. Friday.

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In natural ecosystems, the root systems of most

plants have microbial partnerships that enable them
to survive and grow even in harsh conditions. In fact,
microbial partnerships played a key role in enabling
plants to first colonize land as they evolved out of the
sea. Without microsymbiont partners, plants remain
stunted and often die. These failures are frequently
attributed to poor nursery stock when the real problem
was the lack of the proper microsymbionts. In the nursery, microsymbionts can be introduced by inoculating
the root systems of plants with the appropriate beneficial
microorganisms to form effective partnerships.

Mutualistic Symbiosis
Symbiosis technically refers to two or more organisms living intimately interconnected. As a scientific
term, symbiosis can be mutualistic (both organisms
benefit), parasitic (one organism benefits and the other
is harmed), or commensal (one benefits, the other is
unaffected). In popular usage, however, symbiosis
is considered synonymous with mutualistic symbiosis
both organisms benefit. In this chapter, we employ
the popular usage to refer to nitrogen-fixing bacteria
and mycorrhizal fungi as microsymbiontsmicroorganisms that form a mutually beneficial partnership
with their plant hosts.

Figure 13.1Nitrogen-fixing bacteria include rhizobia, which

form relationships with plants in the legume family. Pictured are
native rhizobia nodules on the roots of the native Hawaiian forest
tree koa (Acacia koa). Photo by J.B. Friday.

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Figure 13.2Myco means fungus and rhiza means

root; the word mycorrhizae means fungus-roots. Mycorrhizal root tip (arrow) on a pine tree root (the white filaments
are the fungus extending beyond the root) (A). Dichotomously
branched, ectomycorrhizal roots of Pinus elliottii in Florida; the
finest rootlets are entirely ensheathed by white fungus filaments
(B). Arbuscule of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (C) that
serves as a nutrient exchange site between the host plant and
the fungus. Photo A by Thomas D. Landis, photo B by Tania
Wyss, and photo C by Mark C. Brundrett.
Tropical Nursery Manual

The Importance of Beneficial

Microorganisms in the Nursery
In natural ecosystems, the root systems of many plants
have microbial partnerships with mycorrhizal fungi and,
if applicable, with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. In the nursery,
where plants have easy access to water and fertilizer, the
benefits of these partnerships may not be apparent and
their absence may go unnoticed. But in the field, plants
need every advantage. Plants that have been inoculated
in the nursery will be outplanted with microbial partnerships in place and often are better able to survive in the
field. Noninoculated plants, however, must fend for themselves and establish microbial partnerships in the field.
Many plantings take place on deforested or degraded land
where native microsymbiont populations may be low or
nonviable (figure 13.3).

Figure 13.4Plants with established microsymbiont partnerships often have a better chance of survival after outplanting.
This photo shows a palm species, Bactris gasipaes; the plant on
the right has a mycorrhizal partnership in place and the same
age plant on the left does not. Photo by David P. Janos.

Inoculating plants in the nursery is an opportunity to

introduce select microsymbionts (figure 13.4). Similar to
using seeds from specific seed sources, the nursery manager can match plants with optimal microsymbionts for
specific site conditions. The presence of microsymbionts is
often an important target plant characteristic.
Using microsymbionts in the nursery has the following
benefits:
Reduced environmental effects and fertilizer use in
the nursery.
Improved plant health and vigor.
Improved resistance to disease.
Better performance on outplanting sites.

Figure 13.3Microsymbionts often do not survive in the soil

without their host plants. Native microsymbiont populations
may be low on degraded sites, such as this formerly forested
pasture in Hawaii (A) and this test bauxite surface mine in
southwestern Costa Ricawhen the aluminum-rich topsoil was
removed from the mine, most mycorrhizal fungi were removed
with it (B.) Photo A by J.B. Friday, and photo B by David P. Janos.

Beneficial Microorganisms

Although this manual is for tropical nurseries, some tropical regions have montane habitats and species, and so a broad
range of plant species and microsymbionts are mentioned in
this chapter. Not all species and microsymbiont partners are
present in a given region, so it is important to check about
native species needs before using microsymbionts.

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Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria
Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for plant
growth. Nitrogen (N2) is abundant in the Earths atmosphere,
but the N2 gas must be converted to either nitrate (NO3-) or
ammonium (NH4+) ions before most plants can use it. In
nature, nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert (fix) N2 from the
air into a form usable to plants. When the growing roots of
a plant capable of forming a partnership with rhizobia come
in contact with a compatible strain of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil or growing media, the rhizobia bacteria will enter
(infect) the roots. Nodules then form on the plants roots
where the contact occurred. The bacteria live and multiply

in the nodules on the hosts root system, providing nitrogen

from the atmosphere to their plant host (figure 13.5). Each
nodule contains millions of the bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen.
Although plants that form a partnership with nitrogenfixing bacteria are sometimes called nitrogen-fixing plants
or nitrogen-fixing trees, the plant itself is unable to obtain
atmospheric nitrogen. Through the mutualistic symbiotic
partnership, the bacteria give nitrogen accumulated from
the atmosphere to the plant, and in exchange, the bacteria
get energy in the form of carbohydrates from the plant (Singleton and others 1990). When the host plant sheds leaves,

Figure 13.5The Nitrogen Cycle. All nitrogen in plants originates as an atmospheric gas, which is fixed by microorganisms (such
as rhizobia and Frankia), fixed by humans in fertilizers by an energy-intensive industrial process, or to a very minor extent fixed
by lightning or volcanism. The dashed lines in the diagram represent minor pathways; the solid lines represent major pathways.
Adapted from Brown and Johnson (1996) by Jim Marin.

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Tropical Nursery Manual

Figure 13.6Because nitrogen-fixing species improve soil fertility on degraded lands, they are widely used for restoration and
sustainable agriculture. Examples of native Hawaiian legume species that form relationships with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria include Caesalpinia kavaiensis (Uhiuhi) (A) and Sophora chrysophylla (mmane)(B). Other nitrogen-fixing species are known
throughout much of the tropics, such as Samanea (C), Gliricidia (D), and Sesbania (E) species. Some nitrogen-fixing trees are considered
weeds outside their native range, such as Leucaena species (F). Photos A through E by J.B. Friday, and photo F by Tara Luna.

dies back, or dies, the nitrogen stored in the plants tissues

is cycled throughout the ecosystem. The process of nitrogen
fixation provides the major source of nitrogen fertility in
tropical ecosystems (figure 13.5).
In the early 20th century, human beings also learned to
convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into fertilizers through an
energy-intensive industrial process called the Haber-Bosch
process. The process requires a source of hydrogen gas to
react with nitrogen from the air under heat and high pressure. The most common sources for the hydrogen are fossil
fuels, and additional energy is expended to power the reaction. Growers who use synthetic nitrogen fertilizers such as
ammonium nitrate and urea are using products generated by
this process. In contrast to industrial/synthetic nitrogen fixation, biological nitrogen fixation by bacteria associated with
green plants is powered by the sun, and thereby is renewable
and effectively inexhaustible.
Nitrogen-fixing trees and plants are usually outplanted
to help restore fertility, nutrient cycling, and organic matter
to the ecosystem. Soils at the outplanting site, however, may
not contain a viable strain of bacteria to form an effective
partnership with the plant. Inoculating plants in the nursery
Beneficial Microorganisms

ensures that an effective partnership is formed to enhance

plant survival and growth and to accelerate rehabilitation of
degraded land. Unlike mycorrhizal fungi, which affect most
trees and plants, only a fraction of plants can form partnerships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria; however, nitrogen-fixing
plants play a vital role in nutrient cycling.
Two types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria form symbiotic
partnerships with plants: rhizobia (consisting of several genera) and the genus Frankia. Rhizobia nodulate many (but
not all) members of the legume family (Fabaceae, sometimes called Leguminosae) (figure 13.6). The legume family is made up of three subfamilies (Mimosoideae, Caesalpinioideae, and Papilionoideae [Faboideae]). Rhizobia also
nodulate species of the genus Parasponia in the elm family
(Ulmaceae). Frankia are a genus of filamentous bacteria
(in a group called actinomycetes because of their somewhat fungus-like appearance) that form partnerships with
about 200 different plant species distributed across eight
families (figure 13.7). The species affected by Frankia
are called actinorhizal plants (table 13.1).

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Benefits of Inoculating With

Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

In the field, however, is where the benefits of the

partnership are most apparent. Nitrogen-fixing trees
and plants sent from the nursery with their root systems
already nodulated have faster early growth than plants that
were not inoculated. Nursery inoculation can reduce costs
in establishment and maintenance. The benefit from a few
dollars worth of inoculant applied in the nursery not only
offsets the need for purchased nitrogen fertilizer but is also
much cheaper than replacing a tree that dies from nitrogen
deficiency. Also, instead of providing spurts of fertilizers
in the field (which may benefit surrounding weeds as well
as the desired plant), the natural nitrogen fixation process
provides a steady supply of nitrogen for the plants growth.
Faster early field growth can lead to faster canopy closure,
which in turn shades the soil and understory, reduces weed
management expenses, and leads to faster restoration of
the natural nutrient cycling and fertility role of nitrogenfixing species in the ecosystem.

Applications of inoculant for nitrogen-fixing bacteria

can have some direct benefits in the nursery. If an effective
partnership is formed, most of the plants requirements for
nitrogen will be met, thereby reducing or eliminating the
need to apply nitrogen fertilizer and decreasing the nurserys need to manage pollution from fertilizer runoff.

Inoculating in the nursery ensures both the effectiveness

and the timeliness of the nitrogen-fixing partnership. Noninoculated plants may eventually form a partnership in the
field with a Frankia or rhizobia strain if some of the bacteria
are present on the outplanting site. This partnership does
not guarantee, however, that the plant will benefit. Some

Figure 13.7 Non-leguminous species that form relationships with

nitrogen-fixing Frankia bacteria include Casuarina species. Photo by
J.B. Friday.

Table 13.1Plants that form partnerships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Adapted from NFTA (1989) and Wall (2000).
Bacteria

Rhizobia

Frankia

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Plant family

Legume (Fabaceae)

Subfamily (notes)

Examples (genus)

Caesalpinioideae
(about 1,900 species; about 23% fix nitrogen)

Cassia and Senna

Mimosoideae
(about 2,800 species; about 90% fix nitrogen)

Enterolobium, Leucaena,
Pithecellobium, Acacia, Albizia,
Prosopis, and Mimosa

Papilionoideae
(about 12,300 species; about 97% fix nitrogen)

Sesbania, Cajanus, Erythrina,

Gliricidia, and Robinia

Birch (Betulaceae)

Alnus

She-oak (Casuarinaceae)

Casuarina, Allocasuarina, and

Gymnostoma

Coriariaceae

Coriaria

Datiscaceae

Datisca

Buckthorn (Rhamnaceae)

Ceanothus and Rhamnus

Myrtle (Myricaceae)

Myrica, Comptonia, and Myrtus

Oleaster (Elaeagnaceae)

Elaeagnus and Hippophae

Rose (Rosaceae)

Cercocarpus, Chamaebatia,
Cowania, Purshia, and
Chamaebatiaria

Tropical Nursery Manual

Figure 13.8Some legumes can nodulate with a broad range of

rhizobia strains, but not all strains are equally effective at fixing
nitrogen. These tropical legume seedlings were inoculated with
different rhizobia strains. Some partnerships were very effective
(a green, thriving plant such as the one labeled 18b indicates that
adequate nitrogen is being fixed at a low cost to the host plant)
and others were not (a plant such as 4b is a little green, but not
thriving and a plant such as 8b has no green). Careful selection
of microsymbiont partners is important to ensure a productive
partnership. Photo by Harold Keyser.

plants will nodulate with a broad range of rhizobia strains,

and not all strains are equally effective at fixing nitrogen
(Keyser 2002). Some strains are very effective and productive, supplying plenty of nitrogen at a low cost to the host
plant. Other strains are not productive, requiring a great deal
of energy from the host plant with little return of nitrogen
(figure 13.8). In other words, partnerships can range from
mutually beneficial to parasitic (Evans 2002, Schmidt 2007,
Baker and others 2009). Selecting microsymbionts that form
healthy, productive partnerships is believed to warrant as
much mindfulness as selecting seed sources (Schmidt 2007).
In addition to source, time is also a factor for noninoculated
plants after outplanting. It can take months or even years for
effective partnerships to form if microsymbiont populations
in the soil are low or inactive. Until the partnership forms,
the plants are dependent on inputs of nitrogen fertilizers or
the nitrogen available in the soil. Without fertilizer on poor
sites, noninoculated plants will grow very slowly, and sometimes are outcompeted by weeds.

Acquiring Inoculants for

Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria
Inoculants are live nitrogen-fixing bacteria cultures
that are applied to seeds or young plants, imparting the
beneficial bacteria to the plants root system. Inoculants
for nitrogen-fixing bacteria tend to be very specialized. In
other words, they are not one size fits all. Care must be

Beneficial Microorganisms

Figure 13.9Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are commercially available as pure-culture inoculant (A), often in a carrier (B). Photo A
by Tara Luna, and photo B by Mike Evans.

taken to select appropriate and effective nitrogen-fixing

partners for specific plant species. Two forms of inoculant
can be used for nitrogen-fixing plants in the nursery: pureculture inoculant is purchased from commercial suppliers,
seed banks, or sometimes, universities (figure 13.9) and
homemade (often called crude) inoculant is made from
nodules collected from the roots of healthy nitrogen-fixing

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plants of the same species to be inoculated (figure 13.10).

Whichever form is used, care should be taken when handling
nitrogen-fixing bacteria inoculants because they are very perishable. These soil bacteria live underground in moist, dark
conditions with relatively stable, cool temperatures. Similar
conditions need to be maintained to ensure the viability of
inoculant during storage, handling, and application.
Using Pure-Culture Inoculant
Pure-culture inoculants of nitrogen-fixing bacteria usually come in small packets of finely ground peat moss. Some
manufactured inoculants contain select strains that have
been tested for forming optimally productive partnerships
with their host species. Select-strain inoculants should be
considered if they can be obtained; these inoculants contain optimal partners for the host species to which they
are matched, providing a good supply of nitrogen at a low
cost to the plant. Superior strains can yield significant differences in the productivity and growth rate of the host
plant; in some cases, they yield more than 40 percent better growth (Schmidt 2000). Not all manufactured inoculants are selected and matched to native species, however,
so be sure to check the source. If a match cannot be found,

use the crude inoculant method instead. Manufactured

products usually come with application instructions; these
directions need to be followed. In general, about 3.5 oz (100
g) of cultured inoculant is sufficient to inoculate up to 3,000
plants, usually exceeding the recommended 100,000 bacteria per plant. Because they contain living cultures of bacteria, these inoculants are perishable and need to be kept in
cool, dark conditions, such as inside a refrigerator.
Peat-based inoculants are added to chlorine-free water to
create a slurry. (If the nurserys water supply is chlorinated,
allowing a bucket of water to stand uncovered for 24 hours
is a good way to let the chlorine evaporate.) A blender or
electric mixer is recommended to blend the inoculant with
water to ensure the bacteria are evenly mixed in the solution.
If a blender is not available, a whisk can be used. After plants
begin to nodulate, nodules from their roots can serve as the
basis for making crude inoculant to use on future crops. This
way, inoculant need be purchased only once for each plant
species and can thereafter be perpetuated in the nursery.
Preparing Crude Inoculant
Nodules, the small root structures that house the bacteria, are used to make crude inoculant. Nodules can be col-

Figure 13.10To make crude rhizobia

inoculant, pick nodules off healthy plants
in the nursery (A) or in the field. Make sure
the nodules are active (indicated by a pink
to red color inside)(B). Then, blend the nodules collected from root systems (C) in clean,
chlorine-free water (D) and immediately water onto 2-week-old seedlings (E). Photos by
Craig R. Elevitch, courtesy of Wilkinson and
Elevitch 2003.

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Tropical Nursery Manual

lected from the roots of nursery stock that were previously

inoculated with cultured, select inoculant, or nodules can
be collected from healthy, established host plants. For rhizobia, a brown, pink, or red color inside is usually a good
indicator that the millions of bacteria in the nodule are
actively fixing nitrogen. For Frankia, desirable nodules will
be white or yellow inside. Grey or green nodules should be
avoided, because they likely are inactive.
To make crude inoculant, choose healthy, vigorous plants
of the same species as the plants to be inoculated. Dig shallowly around the base of the nodulated plant to expose some
of its root system. Young roots often contain the most active
nodules. Search for nodules with the proper color and pick
them off cleanly (figures 13.10A, 13.10B). Collect nodules
from several healthy plants of the same species to ensure
diversity (figure 13.10C). Put the nodules in a plastic bag
or container and place them in a cooler for protection from
direct sunlight and heat. As soon as possible after collection
(within a few hours), put the nodules in a blender with clean,
chlorine-free water (figure 13.10D). About 50 to 100 nodules
blended in about 1 qt (1 L) of water are enough to inoculate
about 500 plants. This solution is a homemade liquid inoculant, ready to apply in the same way as cultured inoculant
(figure 13.10E).

Applying Inoculant
Inoculant for nitrogen-fixing bacteria is commonly
applied when seedlings are emerging, usually within 2
weeks of sowing, or just after cuttings have formed roots.
This helps ensure successful nodulation and maximizes
the benefits of using inoculants. The liquefied inoculant,
made from either nodules or cultured inoculant as per the
instructions in the previous sections, is then watered into
the growing media or soil in which seedlings are growing
(figure 13.10E).
Verifying the Nitrogen-Fixing Partnership
After 2 to 6 weeks, the noticeable signs in the following list
should appear and are indications that the plant has formed
a symbiotic partnership with nitrogen-fixing bacteria:
Plants begin to grow well and are deep green despite
the absence of added nitrogen fertilizer (figure
13.11A).
Root systems give off a faint but distinctive ammonialike scent.
Nodules are visible on the root system.
When a nodule is broken open, its inside is pink, red,
or brown (for rhizobia) (figure 13.11B), or yellow or
white (for Frankia).

Beneficial Microorganisms

Figure 13.11The 6-week-old native Acacia koa seedlings

(right) were inoculated with rhizobia at 2 weeks of age; the
seedlings on the left were not inoculated (A). Nodules from an
Acacia koa seedling showing pink inside, signifying nitrogen is
being fixed (B). Photo A by Craig R. Elevitch, and photo B by
J.B. Friday.

Management Considerations
As with any nursery practice, becoming familiar
with the application and management of nitrogen-fixing
microsymbionts is a learning process. Several factors are
of primary concern to the nursery manager when using
inoculants for nitrogen-fixing bacteria:
TimingEnsure the inoculant is applied when
seedlings have just emerged or when cuttings have
formed new roots to ensure successful nodulation and
maximize the benefits of using inoculants.
Fertilization and MicronutrientsThe use of nitrogen-fixing bacterial inoculant requires some adjustments in fertilization. Excessive nitrogen fertilizer will
inhibit formation of the partnership. If an optimal
partnership is formed, the application of nitrogen
may be eliminated from nitrogen-fixing plants and
they may need to be isolated from nonnitrogen-fixing
species to implement this change in fertilization.

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Some nutrients, including calcium, potassium, molybdenum, and iron, are necessary to facilitate nodulation. These nutrients need to be incorporated into the
growing medium. Phosphorus is also necessary for
nodulation, supplied from the growing medium or,
better yet, through mycorrhizal partnerships.
Water QualityExcessive chlorine in water is detrimental to rhizobia and Frankia. The water supply
may need to be tested and a chlorine filter obtained
if excessive chlorine is a problem in the water supply. As an alternative, chlorine will evaporate if clean
water is left to stand uncovered in a container for 24
hours before use.
Sourcing InoculantsLocating appropriate sources
of viable inoculants (either cultured or obtained
as nodules) matched to native species may require
some research and time but benefits of successful
inoculation are well worth the effort.
Client EducationMake sure nursery clients
and people outplanting the plants understand the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria so they appreciate the presence of nodules and are careful not to expose root
systems to full sun. Also, educate clients so they
know that only some species of plants can form this
partnershipotherwise some might think all species
can fix nitrogen.
Outplanting Site ConsiderationsAfter nodules
form, rhizobia are enclosed and usually less affected
by soil conditions such as pH or aluminum toxicity
than are other beneficial microorganisms such as
mycorrhizal fungi. In very harsh outplanting conditions (such as extremely low pH in some rehabilitation sites), however, the rhizobia are not likely to
spread in the soil, and so might not be available
to spread to subsequent cohorts of the outplanted
species. Therefore, inoculating subsequent crops in
the nursery before outplanting on the same site is
advisable.

Tripartite Symbiosis
Most plants that form partnerships with nitrogen-fixing
bacteria also require mycorrhizal partners. When a nitrogenfixing plant has effective partnerships with both nitrogenfixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, this is called tripartite symbiosis because three partners exist (a host plant and
two microsymbionts) (figure 13.12). When working with
both types of microsymbionts, simply apply each inoculant
separately, as described in the sections of this chapter.
Several studies have shown that legumes may need to
first form arbuscular mycorrhizae before they can form
262

Figure 13.12The Gliricidia sepium plants on the far left were

inoculated with both rhizobia (R) and mycorrhizal fungi (M) and
show tripartite symbiosis: a beneficial partnership among the plant
host, rhizobia bacteria, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Photo by
Kenneth W. Mudge

rhizobia nodules. This may occur because nitrogen fixation

is an energy-demanding process, and the plants energy
metabolism is highly phosphorus-dependent. In other
words, a grower who applies only rhizobia inoculant may
have difficulty getting good nodulation if the mycorrhizal
partnership is not in place (or if adequate phosphorus is
not available in the growing medium). The next section
describes how to introduce mycorrhizal fungi to nursery
cropsthey often are incorporated in the growing medium
before the rhizobia inoculant is applied.

Mycorrhizal Fungi
Unlike nitrogen-fixing bacteria, mycorrhizal fungi form
partnerships with nearly all plant families and forest trees.
Myco means fungus and rhiza means root; the
word mycorrhizae means fungus-roots. Most of the
worlds plants depend on their partnership with mycorrhizal fungi to grow and thrive. The host plants roots provide
a substrate for the fungi and supply food in the form of
simple carbohydrates. In exchange, the mycorrhizal fungi
offer the following benefits to the host plant:
Increased Water and Nutrient UptakeMycorrhizal
fungi help plants absorb mineral nutrients, especially
nitrogen, phosphorus, and several micronutrients
such as zinc and copper. The fungal hyphae extend
out into the soil far beyond the hosts roots, expanding the mineral- and water-absorbing surface area for
the host plant. Researchers estimate that mycorrhizal
fungus hyphae can explore volumes of soil hundreds
to thousands of times greater than roots can alone.
Stress and Disease ProtectionMycorrhizal fungi
protect the plant host in several ways. With ectomycorrhizal fungi, for example, a fungus sheath (called a
mantle) completely covers fragile root tips and acts
Tropical Nursery Manual

Figure 13.13The three types of mycorrhizal fungi. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (A). Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi (B)the
mantles of ECM may be visible to the unaided eye, although ECM on Eucalyptus can be inconspicuous. Ericoid mycorrhizal (ERM) fungi (C).
Both AM and ERM can only be seen on plant roots with the aid of a microscope. Photos A and B by Michael A. Castellano, and photo C by
Efren Cazares.

as a physical barrier to dryness, pests, and toxic soil

contaminants. Other mycorrhizal fungi may produce
antibiotics, which provide chemical protection.
Increased Vigor and GrowthPlants with mycorrhizal roots may have an improved hormone status,
and they survive and grow better than noninoculated
plants after they are planted out on a project site.
Studies show that establishing a partnership with
mycorrhizal fungi while the plants are in the nursery
results in improved field growth (Habte and others
2001, Baker and others 2009).
The following three types of mycorrhizae are important
to tropical native plant nurseries (table 13.2):
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM)Formed by the
most ancient and predominant type of mycorrhizal fungi. AM fungi are found on the roots of most
tropical plants and many of the worlds food crops
(including rice, corn, and legumes), associating with
more than 80 percent of the worlds plant families
(figure 13.13A).
Ectomycorrhizae (ECM)Partnerships with many
temperate forest trees and a few abundant tropical
trees including pines (Pinus), eucalypts (Eucalyptus), poplars (Populus), and dipterocarps (Dipterocarpus) (figure 13.13B).
Ericoid Mycorrhizae (ERM)Partnerships with
plants in the heath or heather (Ericaceae) family,
including the genera of blueberries, cranberries,
azaleas, and rhododendrons (figure 13.13C).
Beneficial Microorganisms

Mycorrhizal fungi are not one size fits all, but they
often are one size fits many. Also, one plant can partner simultaneously with several species of mycorrhizal
fungi, and a plant may change partners over time as it
grows and adapts to its environment (Amaranthus 2010).
Table 13.2Plants and their mycorrhizal partners. Adapted
from Castellano and Molina (1990) and Wang and Qiu (2006).
Mycorrhizal fungi

Arbuscular
mycorrhizal (AM)

Ectomycorrhizal
(ECM)

Plants
More than 80% of the worlds plant families
including most tropical trees, herbs, and
ferns

Fewer than 10% of plant families,

including the genera pine (Pinus), oak
(Quercus), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus)

AM and ECM

Some Allocasuarina, Acacia, Eucalyptus,

juniper (Juniperus), poplar (Populus), and
willow (Salix)

Ericoid mycorrhizal
(ERM)

Heather or heath family (Ericaceae in

the broad sense, including the former
Epacridaceae and Empetraceae), including
blueberry (Vaccinium) and Rhododendron
(including azaleas)

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Because most plants are associated with a particular type

of mycorrhizal fungus, however, different plant species
have different fungal partners that must be matched
appropriately to be effective (table 13.2).
Mycorrhizal fungi may be obtained either from commercial suppliers or from roots around a healthy host plant
of the species being propagated. In all cases, mycorrhizal
inoculum must physically contact living roots of the plant
to colonize most effectively. Ways to acquire and successfully apply mycorrhizal fungi are explained in subsequent
sections. Although the fungi are similar in how they function and in their benefits to host plants, they appear differently on roots. Also, each mycorrhizal fungi type has a
unique application method that must be described separately. Management practices in the nursery are similar
and will be discussed together at the end of this section.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) Fungi

AM fungi are essential for most tropical trees and other
plants and for many annual crops and grasses. AM fungi
are not visible on plant roots to the unaided eye and must
be observed under a microscope. The large spores of AM
fungi are not easily disseminated by wind, unlike the winddispersed microscopic spores of ECM fungi.
Inoculant for AM fungi is sometimes collected from root
systems of AM host plants or soil underneath them and
incorporated into growing media. This method can work
well because the fungi collected are likely to be adapted to
prevailing site conditions (Janos and others 2001). Freshly
collected and chopped mycorrhizal roots must be used
within six days of collection or their efficacy will decline.
This method is often discouraged, however, because of
damage to plants and natural ecosystems, variable effectiveness, and the risk of introducing pests and pathogens
along with the soil or roots. The two main sources of AM
fungi inoculant for nurseries are pot culture made from
a known fungus species, and commercially available cultures. Because AM spores are relatively large, it is critical to
ensure that spores come in direct contact with the root systems. Spores will not pass easily through irrigation injectors or nozzles. Therefore, for all inoculant types, thorough
incorporation into growing media is the best practice.

Figure 13.14In pot culture inoculant, a specific arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungus species is acquired as a starter culture and added to a sterile growing medium with a fast-growing host plant (A).
The shoots of host plants are later removed, and the substrate, now
rich in roots, spores, and mycelium, is chopped up (B) and incorporated into the growing medium before containers are filled. Photos
by Thomas D. Landis.

(figure 13.14). After the host plant roots have spread

throughout the medium, their shoots are removed and
the substrate, now rich in roots, spores, and mycelium, is
chopped up and incorporated into fresh growing medium
before containers are filled and seeds are sown or cuttings
stuck. This technique is highly effective for propagating
AM fungi in the nursery. For further details on how to use
this method, consult the publications in the References section of this chapter (particularly Habte and Osorio 2001,
Miyasaka and others 2003).

Pot Culture Inoculant

Commercial Inoculant Sources

In pot culture inoculant, a specific AM fungus species

is acquired either commercially or from a field site as a
starter culture and then incorporated into a sterile growing medium. A host plant such as corn, sorghum, clover, or
an herbaceous native plant, is grown in this substrate. As
the host plant grows, the AM fungi multiply in the medium

Commercial sources of AM fungi inoculant are also

available, usually containing several species or strains.
Because AM fungus spores are fragile, they are usually
mixed with a carrier such as vermiculite or calcined clay
to aid in application. These products are thoroughly incorporated into the growing medium before filling containers.

264

Tropical Nursery Manual

Figure 13.15In this microscope photo (400 times magnification), a tropical tree root has been clarified and stained with a blue
dye so that an AM fungus vesicle within the walls of a root cortical cell is clearly visible (A). Vesicles are places where AM fungi
store excess energy-rich materials, such as lipids. Vesicles always are attached to AM fungus filament (a hypha), which distinguishes
them from the spore-bearing structures of some root-parasitic fungi. Although AM fungi are visible only under a microscope, nursery
workers may observe differences in plant growth of inoculated versus noninoculated plants. A mosaic pattern of nutrient deficiencies
as shown by these mahogany (Swietenia species) seedlings, may indicate that some plants have formed successful partnerships while
others have not (B). Photo A by David P. Janos, and photo B by Tara Luna.

Inoculation effectiveness has been shown to differ considerably between different products so it is wise to test before
purchasing large quantities of a specific product. Laboratories can provide a live spore count per volume, which is the
best measure of inoculum vigor.
Verifying the Effectiveness of AM Fungi Inoculation
To verify the effectiveness of AM fungi inoculation,
roots must be stained and examined under a microscope
(figure 13.15A). This verification can often be done through
a soil scientist at a local agricultural extension office. After
some practice, nursery staff may get a feel for when inoculation is successful, because noninoculated plants often
grow more slowly and may have higher incidence of root
rot issues. The plants also may exhibit signs of phosphorus
deficiency (a frequent consequence of lack of mycorrhiza),
indicated by purple coloration of leaves or other symptoms
(figure 13.15B).

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) Fungi

Many recognizable mushrooms are fruiting bodies of
ECM fungi. These fruiting bodies are a small portion of the
total organism; underground, the amount of fungus covering the short feeder roots of plants may be enormous.
ECM fungi extend the volume of the feeding area of roots
by many times and protectively coat the feeder roots. On
some species, such as pines (Pinus), the mantles of ECM are
visible on the roots of the host plant. For other species, such
as many Eucalyptus ECM, the mantles can be inconspicuous. ECM are important to many temperate forest species,
especially evergreens. In the tropics, far fewer plant species
Beneficial Microorganisms

partner with ECM fungi than with AM fungi. In Hawaii,

for example, no native ECM are known, although some
strains may have been introduced along with introduced
trees (Amaranthus 2010). ECM only affect a small percentage of tropical species, including pines, eucalypts, poplars,
oaks, dipterocarps, and some legumes (table 13.3).
Four sources of ECM fungi inoculant have been used in
nurseries. Nurse plants and soil spores have been used historically while spores and pure culture inoculant are usually recommended for nurseries.
Nurse Plants as Inoculum Sources
In the early days of trying to establish pines in the
tropics where they were not native, nurse plants were
sometimes used. Conspicuously vigorous mycorrhizal
seedlings were transplanted to nursery beds at 3- to 6-ft
(1- to 2-m) intervals and allowed to become established,
maintaining the ECM fungi on their roots. Seeds were
then sown or germinants transplanted around and between
these mycorrhizal nurse plants. After becoming colonized
by ECM fungi spreading from the nurse plants, the seedlings were transplanted to the outplanting site. Some plants
were left in the beds to serve as nurse plants for the next
crop of seedlings. Sometimes the spread of mycorrhizal
fungi from the nurse seedlings was slow (roughly 2 ft per
year), which suggested that some unfavorable soil property
(such as high pH) should have been remedied. The mycorrhizal fungi usually spread fastest among seedlings in sterilized soil. This method was laborious, and, as with all bareroot crops, care had to be taken not to cause damage when
lifting seedlings (Mikola 1973).
265

Table 13.3Tropical families and genera with ectomycorrhizal associations. Adapted from Brundrett (2009).
Family

Genera

Gnetaceae

Gnetum

Pinaceae

Cedrus, Keteleeria, Larix, Picea, and Pinus

Nyctaginaceae

Guapira, Neea, and Pisonia

Polygonaceae

Coccoloba

Myrtaceae

Allosyncarpia, Agonis, Angophora, Baeckea, Eucalyptus, Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Tristania, and Tristaniopsis

Fabaceae: Caesalpinioideae

Afzelia, Anthonotha, Aphanocalyx, Berlinia, Brachystegia, Cryptosepalum, Dicymbe,

Didelotia, Eperua, Gilbertiodendron, Gleditsia, Intsia, Isoberlinia, Julbernardia,
Microberlinia, Monopetalanthus, Paraberlinia, Paramacrolobium, Pellegriniodendron,
Tetraberlinia, and Toubaouate

Fabaceae: Papilionoideae

Aldinia, Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, Jacksonia, Lonchocarpus, Mirbelia, Oxylobium, and Pericopsis

Fabaceae: Mimosoideae

Acacia and Calliandra

Casuarinaceae

Allocasuarina and Casuarina

Fagaceae

Castanea, Castanopsis, Fagus, Lithocarpus, and Quercus

Phyllanthaceae (Euphorbiaceae)

Uapaca and Poranthera

Salicaceae

Populus and Salix

Rhamnaceae

Cryptandra, Pomaderris, Spyridium, and Trymalium

Dipterocarpaceae

Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Marquesia, Monotes, Shorea, Vateria, Vateriopsis, and Vatica

Sarcolaenaceae

Leptolaena, Sarcolaena, and Schizolaena

Soils as Inoculum Sources

Spores as Inoculum Sources

Topsoil, humus, or duff from beneath ECM fungi host

trees has historically been used to inoculate nursery plants.
This practice is more common in bareroot nurseries in
temperate regions than in container nurseries. Because
sterilization would kill these beneficial fungi, unsterilized
soil and organic matter are incorporated into the growing
medium, up to 10 percent by volume. Today, this practice
is generally discouraged for ECM fungi because (1) large
quantities of soil are required, which can make the process
labor intensive and have a detrimental effect on the natural
ecosystem, (2) the quality and quantity of spores may be
highly variable, and (3) pathogens may be introduced along
with the inoculant. If soil is used, inoculum should be collected from plant communities near the outplanting site.
Small amounts should be collected from several different
sites, then thoroughly mixed, and care should be taken not
to damage the plants during soil collection.

Nurseries can make their own ECM inoculum from

spores. Collected from the fruiting bodies (figure 13.16) of
mushrooms, puffballs, and especially truffles, these fruiting bodies, full of spores, are rinsed, sliced, and pulverized
in a blender for several minutes. The resulting thick liquid
is diluted with water and poured into the growing media of
germinating seedlings or newly rooted cuttings. Plants are
usually inoculated 6 to 12 weeks after sowing (figure 13.17).
Two applications 2 to 3 weeks apart are recommended to
ensure even inoculation.

266

Pure-Culture Inoculum
ECM fungi are available commercially as pure cultures,
usually in a peat-based carrier (figure 13.18). The quality
of commercial sources varies, however, so it is important
to verify vigor by testing formation of mycorrhizae. Most
commercial sources contain several different species of

Tropical Nursery Manual

Figure 13.16Fruiting bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi. A puffball of Pisolithus

tinctorius, showing the cavities where the
spores are located (A). An Amanita from
pine forest in Guatemala (B), and gilled
ectomycorrhizal mushrooms and roots
from dipterocarp forest in Malaysia (C).
Photo A by Michelle M. Cram, and photos
B and C by David P. Janos.

Figure 13.17Inoculating tree seedlings with ectomycorrhizal fungi. Two applications 2 to 3 weeks apart are recommended
to ensure even inoculation. Photo by Michael A. Castellano.

Figure 13.18Forms of commercial ectomycorrhizal inoculants

available for nurseries. Photo by Thomas D. Landis.

ECM fungi. Commercial inoculum can be purchased separately and mixed into the growing medium as per the
instructions on the product and before filling containers.
In some areas, bales of growing medium with inoculum
already premixed may be purchased. It is important to
inquire if selected strains to match site needs are available
through suppliers.

see and often involve conspicuous morphological changes

of the finest roots. During the hardening phase, short feeder
roots need to be examined for a cottony white appearance
on the root surface or a white or brightly colored mantle
or sheath over the roots (figure 13.19A). Unlike pathogenic
fungi, mycorrhizae never show signs of root decay. Sometimes, mushrooms or other fruiting bodies will appear
in containers alongside their host plants (figure 13.19B).
Although these structures are visible to the unaided eye, it
is also recommended to send plant samples to a laboratory
for verification. A local soil extension agent or university
likely can assist with this process.

Verifying the Effectiveness of ECM

Fungi Inoculation
With practice, nursery staff can learn to recognize ECM
fungi on the root systems of plantsthey are fairly easy to
Beneficial Microorganisms

267

Figure 13.20A native Hawaiian Ericoid, Vaccinium reticulatum, helo, growing on a recent lava flow. Partnerships
with ericoid mycorrhizal fungi enable these plants to survive
and thrive in harsh conditions. Photo by Kim M. Wilkinson.

Ericoid Mycorrhizal (ERM) Fungi

Plants that form partnerships with ERM fungi are able to
grow in exceptionally nitrogen-poor soils and harsh conditions, including bogs, alpine meadows, tundra, and even in
soils with high concentrations of certain toxic metals (figure 13.20). ERM fungi form partnerships in the plant order
Ericales in the heath (Epacridaceae), crowberry (Empetraceae), and most of the rhododendron (Ericaceae) family
(table 13.4). Similar to ECM fungi and AM fungi, ERM fungi
must come in contact with the host plants roots to form
partnerships. Ericoid mycorrhizal inoculant is available as
commercial cultures or from soil near healthy host plants.
The product or soil is mixed into nursery growing medium.
The fungus forms a net over the narrow hair roots (the
fine, ultimate rootlets of the plants that are only a few cells
Table 13.4Genera known to associate with ericoid mycorrhizal
fungi. Adapted from Read (1996) and Smith and Read (1997).

Figure 13.19Nursery staff can learn to recognize the presence

or absence of ectomycorrhizal fungi by examining plants. Cottony
white ectomycorrhizae may be visible on roots of some species (A),
fruiting bodies may be growing from containers (B). Photo A by
William Sayward, and photo B by Michael A. Castellano.

268

Family

Genera

Ericaceae

Acrotriche, Andersonia, Astroloma, Brachyloma,

Cassiope, Calluna, Ceratiola, Conostephium, Corema,
Cyathodes, Dracophyllum, Empetrum, Epacris, Erica,
Gaultheria, Kalmia, Ledum, Leucopogon, Lissanthe,
Lysinema, Melichrus, Monotoca, Needhamiella,
Oligarrhena,
Pentachondra, Richea, Rhododendron, Rupicola,
Sphenotoma, Sprengelia, Styphelia, Trochocarpa, Vaccinium, Woollsia

Tropical Nursery Manual

wide), infecting the outer cells. As with AM fungi, nutrients

are shared through the membranes that form the boundary
between the fungus and plant roots. Laboratory confirmation is recommended to verify that successful inoculation
has taken place.

Management Considerations for

Mycorrhizal Fungi
When using mycorrhizal inoculants for the first time,
it is recommended to start small and evaluate a few techniques and sources. Compare some trays or benches with
and without mycorrhizae to determine how management
and scheduling need to be modified to culture mycorrhizal
roots. In some cases, working with a manufactured product
of known quality may be the easiest way to begin; the nurs-

ery can then expand into collecting and processing its own
inoculant sources. Monitor the effectiveness of inoculation
and keep records of crop development. See Chapter 20,
Discovering Ways to Improve Nursery Practices and Plant
Quality, to learn more about how to create some small trials
and experiments.
Although mycorrhizal fungi are not very specialized,
different strains of mycorrhizae are believed to perform
differently for given site challenges. Some select or pureculture inoculants may support high productivity in certain site conditions but may be less productive than native
strains on other sites. For example, some strains may be
more beneficial if lack of nutrients is the main challenge
while others may be particularly helpful to their hosts in
withstanding soil pathogens or even heavy metals. If possible, working with several strains for diversity in the
field may be a good safeguard, especially because plants
can partner with multiple strains simultaneously and can
change partners if necessary to adapt to site conditions.
The nursery can do a little research or work with a specialist to help with the following tasks:
Select optimal mycorrhizal partners for the species
and outplanting sites.
Determine the most appropriate sources of inoculant
and evaluate their effectiveness in the nursery.
Design outplanting trials to evaluate plant vigor and
survival and modify the inoculant sources if improvements are needed.

Figure 13.21Four-month-old guava seedlings (Psidium guajava) in the nursery in a low fertility (about 8 ppm available phosphorus) lowland tropical acid clay soil; the plant on the right has a mycorrhizal partnership in place while the plant on the left does not (A).
Even with abundant phosphorus fertilization, lack of mycorrhizal fungi can slow plant growth. The photo shows lychee (Litchi chinensis)
air layers grown for 16 months in 25 gal pots of a soil-free medium after cutting from the source trees (B). Although phosphorus fertilization
did not affect growth, AM fungus inoculation with field-collected inoculant improved shoot growth by 39 percent (see Janos and others
2001). Photos by David P. Janos.
Beneficial Microorganisms

269

Inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi affects plant growth

(figure 13.21). Fertilization practices will need to be adjusted
to support the formation of mycorrhizal partnerships in the
nursery. An excessive amount of phosphorus inhibits formation of the partnership; therefore phosphorus must be
reduced. Enough phosphorus must be present to keep the
mycorrhizal fungi from competing with its host plant for
the nutrient, however, and potentially becoming parasitic
instead of symbiotic. The recommendation is to use low
but sufficient levels of phosphorus to facilitate the partnership (Miyasaka and others 2003). In some cases, the overall
quantity of fertilizer may need to be reduced by half or more
because of the efficiency of nutrient uptake by mycorrhizal
fungi. Fertilizer type and form is also important. If nitrogen is applied, ammonium-nitrate is better used by a wide
variety of plants than nitrate-nitrogen alone (Castellano and
Molina 1990). In general, controlled-release fertilizers may
be better than liquid fertilizers for inoculated plants because
they release small doses of nutrients gradually rather than
sudden high doses periodically. Excessive or inadequate
water will inhibit the presence of mycorrhizal fungi and the
formation of the partnership, so watering schedules need to
be modified accordingly. Nursery staff who are willing to be
observant and flexible as the nursery embarks on the use of
mycorrhizal fungi will be the best decision makers in terms
of modifying fertilization and watering regimes to support
the microsymbionts.
Other management adjustments may be necessary
because of improved survival and growth. Improved
survival percentages will affect estimates and oversow
rates. Scheduling also may be affected; inoculated plants
may be ready for outplanting sooner than noninoculated
plants. Applications of certain fungicides are detrimental
to mycorrhizal fungi; susceptibility varies by species and
pesticide applications need to be assessed and adjusted.
Some plants form partnerships with both AM fungi and
ECM fungi. These plants include some of the Allocasuarina,
Acacia, Eucalyptus, Juniperus, and Populus species. In these
cases, trials should be done to see which inoculant produces
the best results in the nursery, and if those results persist
after outplanting. For some species, additional inoculation
with the second type of mycorrhiza (usually ECM fungi following AM fungi) may be necessary before outplanting.
Also, most plants that form partnerships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria also require mycorrhizal partners.
For example, many leguminous trees partner with both rhizobia and AM fungi; in these cases, it may be beneficial to
apply the AM fungi before the rhizobia (as discussed previously). Trees such as alders (Alnus) partner with both Frankia and ECM fungi. In these cases, inoculants can be applied
separately to the same crop of plants.
270

Other Beneficial Microorganisms

In natural soil, communities of bacteria, fungi, algae,
protozoa, and other microorganisms make nutrients available to plants, create channels for water and air, maintain
soil structure, and cycle nutrients and organic matter. A
healthy population of soil microorganisms helps to maintain ecological balance, preventing the onset of major problems from soil viruses or other pathogens. Realizing that
soil is alive, and reducing or eliminating practices that may
be harmful to soil microlife is important. As Aldo Leopold
advised, The first rule of intelligent tinkering is to keep
all the parts. Using compost, mulch, and organic matter
is important for soil life. Protecting soil from erosion and
unnecessary disturbances, eliminating pollution from soluble fertilizers, and minimizing the use of fungicides, disinfectants, and other chemicals that may kill microlife are
all key practices. Introductions of mycorrhizal fungi and
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the nursery can support the balance of beneficial soil microorganisms.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the following people for sharing their assistance and expertise while this chapter was being developed:
Mike Amaranthus, Grants Pass, OR. Microbiologist; Adjunct Associate Professor, Oregon State University; President, Mycorrhizal
Applications, Inc.
Mitiku Habte, Honolulu, HI. Professor of Soil Science, University of
Hawaii at Mnoa Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences.
Harold Keyser, Kahului, HI. Maui County Administrator, University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human
Resources (CTAHR).
Jim Trappe, Corvallis, OR. Professor, Oregon State University,
Department of Forest Science.
Kenneth Mudge, Ithaca, NY. Associate Professor, Cornell University Department of Horticulture.

References
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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest
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Brown, L.; Johnson, J.W. 1996. Nitrogen and the hydrologic
cycle. Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet AEX-463-96.
Tropical Nursery Manual

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Biological Engineering. http://ohioline.osu.edu/aex-fact/0463.
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Brundrett, M.C. 2009. Mycorrhizal associations and other means
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Castellano, M.A.; Molina, R. 1990. Mycorrhizae. In: Landis, T.D.;
Tinus, R.W.; McDonald, S.E.; Barnett, J.P.; The Container Tree
Nursery Manual, Volume 5. Agriculture Handbook 674. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 101-167.
Evans, J. 2002. Plantation forestry in the tropics. 2nd ed. New
York: Oxford University Press Resources. 47 p.
Habte, M.; Miyasaka, S.C.; Matuyama, D.T. 2001. Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi improve early forest tree establishment. In:
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Human. 47 p.
Janos, D.P.; Schroeder, M.S.; Schaffer, B.; Crane, J.H. 2001.
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of Litchi chinensis Sonn. trees after propagation by air-layering.
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Keyser, H. 2002. Personal communication. Paia, HI: University of
Hawaii NifTAL Project.
Landis, T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; McDonald, S.E.; Barnett, J.P. 1989. The
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171 p.
Mikola, P. 1973. Application of mycorrhizal symbiosis in forestry
practice. In: Marks, G.C.; Kozlowski, T.T., eds. Ectomycorrhizae:
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Miyasaka, S.C.; Habte, M.; Friday, J.B.; Johnson, E.V. 2003. Manual on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus production and inoculation techniques. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii at Mnoa,
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Read, D.J. 1996. The structure and function of the Ericoid mycorrhizal root. Annals of Botany. 77: 365374.
Schmidt, L. 2000. Guide to handling of tropical and subtropical
forest seed. Humlebaek, Denmark: Danida Forest Seed Centre.
511 p.
Schmidt, L. 2007. Tropical forest seed. Berlin, Germany: SpringerVerlag. 409 p.
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H.J.; Ferguson, P.I. 1990. Applied BNF technology: a practical
guide for extension specialists. Module Number 3: Introduction
to rhizobia. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii-Mnoa,
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Additional Reading
Alexander, I.; Selosse, M.A. 2009. Mycorrhizas in tropical forests:
a neglected research imperative. New Phytologist. 182: 1416.
Brundrett, M.C. 2008. Mycorrhizal associations: the Web
resource. http://mycorrhizas.info/info.html http://mycorrhizas.
info/info.html. (February 2013).
Dawson, J.O. 2009. Ecology of Actinorhizal plants. In: Pawlowski,
K., ed.; Newton, W.E. series ed. Nitrogen-fixing Actinorhizal
symbioses. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer: 199227.
Chapter 8.
Margulis, L.; Sagan, D. 1997. Microcosmos: four billion years of
evolution from our microbial ancestors. Berkley, CA: University
of California Press. 301 p.

Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association (NFTA). 1989. Why nitrogen fixing trees? NFTA 89-03: 1-2. Morrilton, AR: Forest, Farm
and Community Tree Network (FACT Net), Winrock International. http://www.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/FACTSH/
WhyNFT.htm.
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