19

Cropping Systems in Vegetables

R.P. SINGH, PADMAJA PANDE, S.S. SOLANKEY AND ANTRA CHATTERJEE

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world, with an annual production
of 133.74 m tonnes from an area of 7.98 mha (NHB, 2010). Our requirement of vegetables has
increased to about 220 million tonnes/annum to meet the nutritional requirement of an estimated
1200 million population expected by 2020 (Singh, 2004). Recent statistics indicates increase in
productivity levels of vegetables, though ample quantities of vegetables are still required to feed
the highly increasing population. For ensuring a healthy and prosperous nation, we have to
increase our production by modify our cropping pattern and dietetic habits. Cereals are India’s
mainstay and cereal production is essential for sustaining the livelihood of the rural poor. But a
key step to the economic development of Indian farmer’s will be to diversify their cereal based
production system. Diversified agriculture is profitable, it generates additional employment for
rural masses and conserves natural resources. Inclusion of horticultural cash crops in cropping
sequence is a good option to achieve the above requisites. Vegetables are an excellent choice of
cash crops as they can be grown easily, produce good yields and generate higher price in market
compared to cereals. Most of the vegetables, if properly grown, can give higher yield than many
cereal crops. The available resources, if properly managed, can not only help in the food self
sufficiency drive but will also provide means to earn foreign exchange by exporting fresh vegetables
and vegetable seeds. Moreover, these vegetable crops are suitable for production on small pieces
of land and their inclusion in traditional cropping systems can improve the nutritional potential
of the system as vegetables are rich in vitamins, minerals and other health factors.
Cropping system refers to the principles and practices of cropping pattern followed on a
farm and their interaction with farm resources, technology, other farm enterprises, aerial and
edaphic environment to suit the regional or national or global needs and production strategy. In
other words, a cropping system refers to a combination of crops in time and space. Combinations
in time occur when crops occupy different growing periods and combinations in space occur
when crops are inter-planted. When annual crops are considered, a cropping system usually
means the combination of crops within a given year (Willey et al., 1989). Cropping systems
348 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

involving vegetable are generally practiced near urban or peri-urban areas and have higher cash
flow. With higher cropping intensities higher returns are expected, but lower cropping intensity
with high market value crops results in higher price than the crops of low market value with high
cropping intensities. In general, cropping system is the form and sequence of crops grown on a
given area of land over a period of time. The term cropping system is often used interchangeably
with multiple cropping, which in fundamental nature represents an idea of maximum crop
production per unit area of land within a year or some other relevant time unit with minimum
land degradation (Singh, 1972).
Cropping systems approach enables to address issues pertaining to :
(a) System productivity maximization on annual basis,
(b) Resources utilization with advanced efficiency by considering various interactions and
direct, residual and cumulative effect in soil, plant and environmental system,
(c) Intensive input use vis-a-vis quality of environment, and
(d) Sustainability of farm resources and environment in long term perspective.

Fig. 1. Major Crop Production Categories with the help of Best Management Practices (BMPs).
Source : Efficient Fertilizer Use-Maximum Economic Yield Strategies : by Bill Griffith.

Types of cropping system

1. Monoculture. Under monoculture system, one crop is grown on a piece of land year after
year or repetitive growing of the same sole crop in the same land. Farmers use monoculture in
high value crops e.g. growing of two crops of tomato on the same piece of land every year.
Monoculture may also be called as single cropping or mono-cropping or sole culture. Monoculture
encourages the intensity of insect-pests and diseases. In a monoculture system the cropping
intensity is always 100%.
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 349

2. Multiple cropping. In this system, more than two crops are cultivated in a year in
succession on the same field. Multiple cropping can also be defined as intensification of cropping
both in time and space dimensions. The main aim of multiple cropping is to make effective use
of modern farm technologies and farm inputs with minimum cost of cultivation and without
affecting the fertility of land. In multiple cropping systems, the possibility of more efficient use
of resources like sunlight, nutrients and water is higher leading to increased biological diversity
and higher production stability. It includes sequential cropping, mixed cropping, ratoon cropping
and intercropping.
TERMINOLOGY FOR MULTIPLE CROPPING
Agri-silviculture. Growing of trees for wood purpose (timber) and cultivated crops beneath.
Area-time equivalency ratio (ATER). The ratio of number of hectare-days required in monoculture to the number
of hectare-days used in intercropping to produce identical quantities of each of the components.
Caloric index. A single productivity index which incorporates caloric equivalents produced by all crops in a system.
Competition effect. Competition arises in inter-cropped species for light, nutrients, water, carbon dioxide and other
growth factors.
Complementary effect. The effect of one component on another for enhancement of growth and productivity rather
than competition for resources.
Farm enterprise. An individual crop or animal production function within a farming system which is the smallest
unit for which resource use and cost-return analysis is normally carried out.
Farming systems research (FSR). The analysis of complete farm systems, which include all the enterprises on
the farm, by adoption of biological, economic and cultural operations moreover, imply some involvement of
the farmer in the research process.
Interculture. Growing of arable crops beneath perennial crops.
Maximum cropping. Ability to obtain highest possible production per unit area per unit time.
Monetary index. A solitary productivity index which evolves monetary value of all crops in a system.
Over yielding. In an intercrop if the production of component crops is higher than the sum of appropriate monoculture
crops, indicated by a Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) greater than unity.
Residual effect. The effect of previous grown crop in a sequential/ relay cropping pattern on the productivity of the
succeeding crop.
Simultaneous poly-culture. Simultaneous growth of two or more useful plants on the same field, including mixed
cropping, intercropping, interculture, interplanting and relay planting.
Spatial arrangement. In a multiple cropping system, the physical or spatial organization of component crops.

Strategy for multiple cropping

1. For raising crops, an advanced schedule must be prepared.
2. Laboratory tests should be conducted to predict initial fertility status of soil.
3. Recommended dose of manure and fertilizers should be applied to each crop.
4. Micronutrients should be applied to crops, if needed.
5. Legume crops must be included in the system for the fixation of elemental nitrogen.
6. Early maturing and high yielding varieties of crops must be selected.
Merits of multiple cropping
1. Under multiple cropping, available resources (land, water, light, manpower, machinery
and finance) can be utilized efficiently throughout the year.
350 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

2. Multiple cropping has the capacity of generate employment for unskilled rural people
throughout the year.
3. It results in increase in the total outcome per unit area and per unit time.
4. With considerable addition of organic matter an increase in the soil fertility and
improvement in the physical properties of soil has been seen.
5. Protection from soil erosion.
6. Multiple cropping helps to control the weed population.
7. Utmost utilization of soil fertility.
Demerits of multiple cropping
1. Assured irrigation facilities are required.
2. Quick growing crops/varieties can only be utilized.
3. Adoption of modern technology is important for the success of multiple cropping
systems which is generally not available with the farmers.
4. More input is needed to grow the crops.

Types of multiple cropping

(a) Sequential cropping. It is growing of two or more crops in quick succession on the
same piece of land in a farming year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop
has been harvested in which crop intensification is only in the time dimension. The sowing of
succeeding crop and harvesting of the preceding crop may be done simultaneously or in a quick
succession e.g., soon after harvesting of okra, potato is sown or after digging of potato, chilli is
planted. It is also called as non-overlapping crop because of no overlapping between two or more
crops. The basic advantage of sequential cropping system is there is no intercrop competition and
growers manage only one crop at a time in the same field.
(b) Double cropping. It refers to growing of two crops a year in sequence on the same piece
of land e.g., growing of brinjal (July-December) followed by onion (January-May).
(c) Triple cropping. It refers to growing of three crops a year in sequence on the same piece
of land. e.g., growing of cucumber (June-Sept) followed by cauliflower (October-January) and
watermelon (February-May).

(d) Quadruple cropping. It refers to growing of four crops a year in sequence on the same
piece of land. In this system very intensive farming practices are carried out. For example,
growing of okra (July-September) followed by early cauliflower (September-December) followed
by French bean (December-March) followed by round melon (April-July).
(e) Relay cropping. In a relay cropping system, planting of succeeding crop is done before
the harvest of preceding crop. Planting of succeeding crop may be done before or after flowering,
before or after attainment of reproductive stage, completion of active life cycle, senescence of
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 351

leaves or attainment of physiological maturity. Planting of chilli in sweet corn field and sowing
of cucurbits in potato field are the most common example of vegetable based relay cropping. By
adapting this system early crop can be sent to the market for getting premium prices. The main
advantage of relay cropping is that, there is no need of land preparation for sowing/planting
thereby reducing cost of cultivation.

Intercropping. Intercropping is the growing of two or more dissimilar crops simultaneously

on the same piece of land. Base crop necessarily should be distinct/definite in row arrangements.
The recommended optimum plant population of the base crop is suitably combined with appropriate
additional plant density of the associated crop. High density multi-species cropping system is also
practiced at certain places. Intercropping is a very important cultural practice in disease and pest
management and is based on the principle of reducing insect pests and diseases by increasing
diversity of ecosystem. In vegetables, for successful intercropping system in a geographical
location, effective cultural practices must be determined with respect to plant population. For
instance in a sweet corn and cowpea based intercropping there was no effect on the number of
ears of sweet corn per plant but yield increase as the plant population density increased.
Intercropping can improve the crop productivity due to increased plant efficiency for
utilization of sunlight with an adequate spatial distribution of various plant architectures.
The intercropping can be classified into following :
(i) Row intercropping. In this intercropping system at least one crop is planted in rows.
(ii) Mixed intercropping. There is no distinct row arrangement in such types of
intercropping.
(iii) Stripe intercropping. Raising of two or more crops simultaneously in different stripes
e.g., growing of one stripe of sweet corn and one strip of potato.
To evaluate the performance of intercrop components, the concept of land equivalent ratio
(LER) is used. It measures the advantages of using intercropping systems on combined yield of
both crops. It provides a standardized basis for comparing systems under different situations and
crop combinations.
The distinct aspects of intercropping are :
• Detailed planning
• Timely planting of each crop
• Adequate fertilization at optimal rate and times
• Effective weed, pest and disease control
• Precaution in harvesting.
Planning for intercropping should involve selection of crop species, appropriate cultivars,
water availability, plant population, spacing and labour requirements throughout the season,
tillage requirements and predicted profitability of intercrops, timely planting, proper fertilization,
pest and disease control. Sometimes vegetable crops are economically grown as intercrop in
352 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

newly planted fruit crops like papaya, mango, coconut, etc. It is the best way to utilize lot of inter-
space available in widely spaced fruit crops. The cultural practices of one crop are beneficial for
other crop. Intercrops earn running cost for maintaining base crop. They are allowed to grow till
base crop start giving economic returns and trees develop good canopy. When trees develop wide
canopy then less space is available between two rows for raising secondary crop and also trees
have shading effects on secondary crop.
TABLE 1
Examples of intercropping in vegetables followed at different part of India
Main Crop Intercrops Place of work
Okra Beetroot, Knol-khol, Pea Bangalore (Karnataka)
Capsicum Beetroot, Knol-khol, Pea Bangalore (Karnataka)
Cabbage Radish, Turnip, Methi, Palak Hisar (Haryana), Akola (MH)
Cauliflower Radish, Palak Akola (Maharashtra)
Cauliflower Tomato Ludhiana (Punjab)
Chilli French bean, Onion Dharwad (Karnataka)
Tomato Spinach, Onion, Radish Hisar (Haryana)
Pigeon pea Urd, Moong, Cowpea, Okra New Delhi
Turmeric Fenugreek, Onion, Bean + Beetroot Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)
Source : Singh, S. P. (1997). Cropping systems in vegetable crops, Principles of vegetable production. Agrotech
Publishing Academy.

Intercropping systems include row intercropping, strip intercropping, mixed inter cropping
and relay intercropping, which depends mainly on the characteristics of various crops in spatial
distribution and cropping goals. For example, row intercropping of sweet corn with vine vegetables,
such as Dolichos bean or sweet potato results in improved productivity of the latter crop since
their vines can climb on the former plants to take the advantage of space and sunlight, in which
the former crop usually may be expected to produce optimal yield because of their sacrifices to
support the latter crop. Selection of vegetable crops or varieties on the basis of different maturity
dates may helpful in the staggered harvesting.
Some of the important intercropping systems are :
(i) Parallel intercropping. Under such cropping system both crops have different growth
habit but zero competitiveness. e.g., Cowpea + Sweet corn
In this intercropping system the peak nutrient demand period for cowpea is around
30-35 days after sowing whereas for sweet corn it is about 45-50 days after
sowing.
(ii) Companion Cropping. In this cropping system the production of both the intercrops
is equal to the production of both the crops grown individually. e.g., Potato/onion +
Sugarcane
If these two crops grown separately, the production is not much affected insignificant as
compare to individual crop.
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 353

TABLE 3
Companion planting chart for home and market gardening
Crop Companions Incompatible
Asparagus Tomato, Parsley, Basil —
Beans (Bush type) Potato, Cucumber, Corn, Strawberry, Onion
Celery, Summer Savoury
Beans (Pole type) Corn, Summer Savoury, Radish Onion, Beets, Kohlrabi, Sunflower
Cole crops Aromatic herbs, Celery, Beets, Onion, Dill, Strawberry, Pole type, Beans,
Spinach, Chard Tomato
Carrot Garden Pea, Lettuce, Onion, Tomato Dill
Celery Onion, Cole crops, Tomato, Bush Beans —
Corn Irish Potato, Beans, Garden Pea, Pumpkin, Tomato
Cucumber, Squash
Cucumber Beans, Corn, Garden Pea, Sunflower, Potato, Aromatic herbs
Radish
Eggplant Beans, Marigold —
Lettuce Carrot, Radish, Strawberry, Cucumber —
Onion Beets, Carrot, Lettuce, Cole crops Beans, Garden Pea
Parsley Tomato, Asparagus —
Garden Pea Carrot, Radish, Turnip, Cucumber, Corn, Onion, Gladiolus, Potato
Beans
Potato Beans, Corn, Cole crops, Marigold, Pumpkin, Squash, Tomato,
Horseradish Cucumber, Sunflower
Pumpkins Corn, Marigold Potato
Radish Garden Pea, Nasturtium, Lettuce, Hyssop
Cucumber
Spinach Strawberry, Faba Bean —
Squash Nasturtium, Corn, Marigold Potato
Tomato Onion, Nasturtium, Marigold, Asparagus, Potato, Fennel, Cole crops
Carrot, Parsley, Cucumber
Turnip Garden Pea Potato

Source : http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/complant.html
(iii) Multistoreyed/multitier cropping : As the name indicates, under this system two or
more crops of different heights grown simultaneously on a certain piece of land in any certain
period. Multistoreyed/ multitier cropping system aimed at better use of the production components
such as soil, water, air, space, radiation and other inputs on sustainable basis. Some of the
examples of multi-storeyed cropping are :
Sugarcane + Okra + Onion
Cotton + Radish + Cluster bean + Beet root
Cotton + Radish + Beetroot + Coriander
354 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

(iv) Synergetic cropping. In such type of cropping system, the yield of one crop has the
synergetic effect on second crop therefore both the crops produce higher yield than when they
grown as a single crop on unit area basis. e.g., Sugarcane + Potato
(a) Additive series intercropping : If the plant population of base/main crop within an
intercropping system is same.
(b) Replacement series intercropping : If the plant population of both component crops is
less than their recommended population in pure stand.
Merits of intercropping
1. It reduces the risk of total crop failure due to crop diversification.
2. There is best utilization of interspaced available between two rows of main crop.
3. Efficient utilization of available resources.
4. Increases gross returns from per unit area.
5. Greater stability of yield over the seasons.
6. Better control over weeds, pests and diseases.
7. Prevent soil erosion.
Demerits of intercropping
1. Intercrops require more agricultural inputs.
2. Creates obstruction in free use of machines for intercultural operations.
3. Allelopathic effect (harmful effect of one crop on the other due to biochemical exudation).
Results of experiments under different agroclimate indicate yield advantage in intercropping.
Intercropping has gained importance in dryland agriculture than in irrigated agriculture,
probably due to elimination of total crop failure than marginal yield advantage. Yield advantage
is largely due to efficient use of natural resources and applied inputs. Yield advantage occurs
because the component crops differ in their use of resources in such a way that when they are
grown in combination they are able to complement each other than when grown separately.
Annidation is the complementary use of resources by exploiting the environment in different
ways by the components of a community. Maximizing intercropping advantage is a matter of
maximizing the degree of complementarily between the components and minimizing intercrop
competition. Complementarily occurs when the growth patterns of the component crops differ in
time so that the crops make their major demands on resources at different times. This type of
complementarily is said to give better temporal use of resource (annidation in time). Substantial
yield advantages occurred when there are marked differences in maturity period of component
crops.
Light is instantaneously available, and it has to be instantaneously intercepted for use in
photosynthesis. For maximum yield, the crop must fully intercept the incoming solar radiation,
make efficient use within the canopy and produce the canopy at a time when incoming radiation
is at its maximum. Given optimum plant populations, sole crop itself is usually capable of
achieving a peak value of light interception which leaves little scope for greater spatial interruption
by intercrops. There is scope for better spatial use of light through its more efficient use, than
greater interception. This can theoretically occur if light is better distributed over the leaves,
either because of better leaf inclination or due to better leaf dispersion. A tall cereal for high light
intensities at the top and a compact legume for lower intensities at bottom can lead to efficient
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 355

use of light for high yields. A practically good example of efficient spatial use of light would
seem to be from multi-storeyed cropping where crops ranging from tall trees to low growing
annuals from different canopy layers, each crop well adapted to its particular light niche. There
is some evidence that in intercropping systems, the micro-climate surrounding the lower crop is
more conductive to plant growth than in a sole crop (Mathews et al., 1991), and that an intercrop
is more efficient at using resources such as light and water (Azam-Ali et al., 1990). Component
crops in intercropping may exploit different soil layers thus exploiting greater volume of soil.
Deeper rooting component may be forced even deeper by the presence of a shallow rooting
component. Greater nutrient uptake by intercropping has been shown by several workers. This
has been often claimed as the basic cause of yield advantage, but usually it is impossible to
determine whether greater uptake was the cause or the effect of greater yield. The mechanisms
by which nutrient uptake is increased are not yet clear. One possibility is that, even where
growing periods are similar, component crops may have their peak demand for nutrients at
different stages of growth, a temporal effect which may help to ensure that demand does not
exceed the rate at which nutrients can be supplied.
The effects of intercropping on water use have received less attention than on nutrient
uptake and so for there is little evidence of beneficial effect. Better water use is probably a
common cause of yield advantage in semi-arid tropics because this is the most limiting resource.
Soil water status under sunflower intercropped with radish has been better in replacement treatments
of the two crops.
(v) Mixed cropping. Mixed cropping deals with growing two or more than two crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land without define row pattern or fixed ratio by mixing the
seeds of crops intended to be grown mixed or sowing alternate rows in various ratios. It is
commonly practiced in dry land areas. Sometime intercropping and mixed cropping are treated
synonymous to each other or mixed cropping is identified as a type of intercropping.
Classes of mixed cropping
1. Main crop may be permanent crop and associated crop may be also permanent in
nature.
2. Main crop is permanent crop and associated crop may be annual.
3. Agronomical type mixture of field crop.
Merits of mixed cropping
1. Dry farming support mixed cropping easily where monsoon is erratic.
2. In case of failure of one crop another crop can give some return.
3. There is economic utilization of space, light and nutrients.
4. In mixed cropping, leguminous vegetables have important role in improving soil fertility.
5. Mixed cropping system reduces certain pests and diseases.
6. It provides balance production.
7. Mixed cropping reduces soil erosion.
8. There is an effective control of weeds in mixed cropping.
Demerits of mixed cropping
1. Certain pests and diseases may increase.
2. Harvesting may be difficult due to different growth habit and maturity periods.
356 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

TABLE 4
Vegetable based mixed cropping systems
Sl.No. Main crop Associated crop
1. Turmeric + Sweet corn
2. Potato + Radish
3. Potato + Coriander
4. Cabbage + Radish
5. Cauliflower + Radish
6. Cabbage + Coriander
7. Cowpea + Cluster bean
8. Okra + Radish
9. Brinjal + Radish
10. Cabbage + Lettuce + Radish
Source : Singh, S. P. (1997). Cropping systems in vegetable crops, Principles of vegetable production. Agrotech
Publishing Academy.
(iv) Ratoon cropping. It refers to raising of regrowth coming out from roots or stalks of
the preceding crop. In vegetables it is practiced in brinjal, chillies, okra, pointed gourd and sweet
gourd.
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing crops on a particular piece of land in a systematic
sequence in order to maintain the soil fertility. It may also be defined as growing of crops in
recurrent succession on the same piece of land either for a year or for longer period of time. The
rotation of crop may be for one year, two year, three or more years.
Basic principles of crop rotation
1. A heavy nutrient feeder crop is followed by a crop that requires less nutrients. Doing
so the soil will not be depleted of its nutrients.
2. A crop having high water requirement is followed by the crop with low water requirement.
In this way residual soil moisture is used by the next crop, and hence saving energy
as well as water.
3. Deep rooted crop is followed by shallow rooted crop. Thus various layers of the soil
may be tapped for the essential nutrients for growth and development of plants.
4. A crop requiring more tillage operations is followed by a crop with less tillage. This
results in reduction of the cost of field preparation because in some cases harvesting
of previous crop takes care of field preparation for the next crop like digging of potato/
sweet potato tuber tilled the field sufficiently for the next crop like cucurbits, onion or
potato.
5. Legume crop is followed by non-legume crop. This pattern will maintain soil fertility
status. Moreover, investment on fertilizer application in legume crop is very less.
6. Crops which return very little organic matter (viz., lettuce, green onions, radish, spinach
etc.) should alternate with crops which return considerable amounts of humus forming
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 357

residues (cabbage, garden peas, beans etc.) Thus, physical condition of the soil does not
deteriorate.
Merits of crop rotation
1. Crop rotation makes vegetable farming systematic.
2. It is a potent way of controlling weeds, insect-pests and diseases.
3. It adds nitrogen and organic matter in the soil, and helps in maintaining balance between
soil nutrients.
4. It utilizes farm resources (land, labour, equipment etc.) efficiently and effectively
5. It regulates the use of plant nutrients from the soil due to an appropriate alternation of
crops.
6. It increases overall yield and quality of the produce.
TABLE 5
Some location specific vegetable based crop rotations
Zone Crop Rotation
(i) Recommended by G.B. Pant University (a) Colocasia-Radish-French bean
of Agriculture and Technology, (b) Brinjal-Vegetable pea-Chilli
Pantnagar for Tarai Region (c) Sponge gourd-Palak- Brinjal
(d) Okra-Tomato-Amaranth
(e) Cowpea-Cauliflower-Okra
(f) Paddy-Potato-Tomato
(g) Okra-Carrot-Bitter gourd
(h) Round melon-Radish-Onion
(ii) Recommended by I.I.H.R., Bangalore (a) Okra-Tomato-French bean
for Karnataka (b) Tomato-French bean-Okra
(c) Brinjal-Cauliflower-Chilli
(d) Cowpea-Cauliflower–Okra
(e) Paddy-Tomato-Bitter gourd
(f) Okra-Vegetable pea-Onion
(iii) Recommended by N.D.U.A.&T., (a) Maize-Potato-Okra
Faizabad for eastern Uttar Pradesh (b) Brinjal-Vegetable pea-Chilli
(c) Okra- Tomato- Bitter gourd
(d) Bottle gourd-Vegetable pea-Tomato
(e) Cowpea-Cauliflower-Onion
(f) Paddy-Radish-Onion
(iv) Recommended by C.S. Azad (a) Maize-Potato-Onion
University of Agriculture and (b) Paddy-Potato-Onion
Technology, Kanpur for western U.P. (c) Maize-Potato-Okra
(d) Okra-Tomato-Okra
358 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

(e) Brinjal-Vegetable pea-Chilli

(f) Cowpea-Potato-Chilli
(v) Recommended by J.N.K.V.V. Jabalpur (a) Maize-Potato-Onion
for M.P. (b) Maize-Potato-Okra
(c) Okra-Tomato-Cowpea
(d) Cowpea-Cauliflower-Okra
(e) Brinjal-Vegetable pea-Chilli
(f) Round melon-Vegetable pea-Onion
(g) Potato-Green gram-Maize
(h) Potato-Cluster bean-Green gram
(i) Potato-Okra-Soybean
(vi) Recommended by Kerala (a) Paddy-Tomato-Okra
Agricultural University, Vellanikkara (b) Paddy-Tomato-Chilli
for Kerala (c) Brinjal-Watermelon-Chilli
(d) Cowpea-Chilli-Okra
(e) Colocasia-Tomato-Bitter gourd
(vii) Recommended by C.C.S. Haryana (a) Potato-Green gram–Maize
Agricultural University, Hisar for (b) Potato-Cowpea-Okra
Haryana (c) Potato-Tomato-Okra
(d) Onion-Bitter gourd-Okra-Potato
(viii) Recommended by T.N.A.U., (a) Cereals-Tapioca
Coimbatore for Tamil Nadu (b) Tapioca- Groundnut
(c) Tapioca-Black gram/ Green gram
(d) Cereal-Sweet potato-Tapioca

Cropping systems for Carbon sequestration

Carbon sequestration in cropland has very important role in reducing the atmospheric
concentration of CO2 for mitigating climate change. C-sequestration means storing of C in some
other form than CO2 and effective cropping systems help in this way by storing it in the form
of biomass. Cropping systems, such as crop rotation, intercropping, cover cropping, companion
cropping, etc., helps in the optimization of the efficiency of C-sequestration in agriculture by
influencing optimal yield and total increased C-sequestered with biomass. An ideal cropping
system for C-sequestration should produce and remain the abundant quantity of biomass or
organic C in the soil. The organic C-concentration in the surface soil (0-15 cm) largely depends
on the total input of crop residues remaining on the surface or incorporated into the soil. Therefore,
to improve C-sequestration, it is critical to increase the input of plant biomass residues. Biomass
accumulation can be enhanced by an increase in cultivation intensity, growing cover crops between
main crop reducing fallow period of land, crop rotations and intercropping systems. Biomass
return to the soil can be improved by elimination of summer or winter fallow, and maintaining
a dense vegetation cover on the soil surface, which can also prevent soil from erosion for soil
organic carbon (SOC) loss.
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 359

TABLE 6
Vegetable based profitable crop rotation in India
Region Crop rotation Yield Expected Expected Expected
(q/acre) cost income Profit
`/acre) (`
(` `/ acre) `/ acre)
(`
For northern Early cauliflower 50 20000 100000 80000
plain regions (July-October)
Vegetable pea (October-January) 35 8000 35000 27000
Tomato (January-June) 100 25000 100000 75000
Okra (June-September) 50 15000 40000 25000
Carrot (October-December) 100 12000 50000 38000
Cauliflower (December-March) 100 15000 30000 15000
Radish (April-May) 70 6000 21000 15000
Cucumber (July-September) 50 12000 50000 38000
Potato (October-December) 100 15000 60000 45000
Onion (January-June) 110 25000 110000 85000
For eastern Cauliflower (June-August) 50 16000 75000 59000
region Vegetable pea (September-November) 40 10000 40000 30000
Radish (December-January) 70 8000 21000 13000
Capsicum (January-May) 70 25000 105000 80000
Chilli (June-September) 50 20000 50000 30000
Broccoli (October-December) 50 12000 75000 63000
Radish (January-February) 60 6000 18000 12000
Potato (February-May) 100 20000 100000 80000
For north-west French bean (July-August) 45 15000 45000 30000
hilly regions Knol-khol (September-October) 70 10000 35000 25000
Vegetable pea (November-April) 40 10000 60000 50000
Capsicum (April-June) 60 25000 120000 95000
Tomato (June-September) 100 25000 100000 75000
Knol-khol (September-November) 90 15000 45000 30000
Coriander (December-February) 25 7000 50000 43000
Potato (March-May) 100 20000 100000 80000
For east plains Pointed gourd (February-June) 50 15000 40000 25000
regions Brinjal (July-October) 120 18000 60000 42000
Cauliflower (November-January) 100 15000 40000 25000
Cowpea (July-October) 50 10000 40000 30000
Tomato (November-February) 110 25000 88000 63000
Bitter gourd (February-April) 80 12000 64000 52000
Amaranthus (May-June) 30 7000 15000 8000
For southern Tomato (June-October) 125 20000 125000 95000
regions French bean (November-January) 50 10000 50000 40000
Okra (February-May) 60 12000 60000 48000
Cowpea (June-August) 65 10000 52000 42000
Tomato (September-December) 120 20000 120000 100000
Watermelon (December-May) 100 15000 100000 85000
Source : ICAR, New Delhi, ISBN 978-81-88708-56-7
360 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

TABLE 7
Cereal based vegetable crop rotations
Sl. Crop rotation Yield (Q/ ha) Sowing time Harvesting Expected
No. time `/ha)
income (`
1. Basmati paddy 35-40 June November 45000-55000
Cauliflower 250-300 November January 37000-52000
Cowpea 70-80 February April 20000-25000
2. Basmati paddy 35-40 June November 45000-55000
Vegetable pea 70-80 November March 40000-50000
Bottle gourd 300-325 March May 50000-58000
3. Basmati paddy 35-40 June November 45000-55000
Cauliflower 250-300 November January 37000-52000
Onion 225-250 January May 52000-62000
4. Paddy 55-60 June September 57000-65000
Carrot 250-300 September December 45000-60000
Wheat 35-40 December April 25000-30000
5. Paddy 55-60 June September 57000-65000
Cauliflower 150-200 September December 50000-65000
Wheat 35-40 December April 25000-30000
6. Okra 130-140 June September 35000-40000
Radish 150-200 September November 25000-40000
Wheat 45-50 November April 35000-40000
7. Brinjal 350-400 June September 70000-90000
Spinach beet 150-175 September November 30000-37000
Wheat 45-50 November April 35000-40000
Source : ICAR, New Delhi, ISBN 978-81-88708-56-7
TABLE 8
Potential of soil C sequestration in cropland of major countries
Country (region) Potential rate of C sequestration in crop land (Tg C yr–1)
U.S.A. 75-208
China 105-198
European Union 90-120
India 39-49
Canada 24
Source : Hutchinson et al., (2007).

Factors responsible for Carbon sequestration under cropping system

(1) Crop rotation. Crop rotation can improve biomass production and soil C sequestration,
especially rotations with legumes. Growing legumes can substantially reduce the nitrogen input
as chemical fertilizer, which in turn can reduce the fossil fuel consumption in manufacturing
fertilizers. Conversely, without appropriate crop rotation, soil productivity and biomass production
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 361

will decrease due to more infestation of weeds, diseases and insect-pests. Increase in cropping
intensity or cropping more frequently by reducing the frequency of bare land fallow in the crop
rotation is another effective approach to improve biomass production and soil C-sequestration. In
addition, increased cropping intensity can decrease organic matter decomposition rate and
mineralization/oxidation of sequestration of carbon. A long term (15 years) study with corn and
soybean cropping systems indicated that the corn-soybean rotation system had the greatest
productivity and returned the maximum crop residues to the soil compared to monoculture of
corn or soybean. The above study implies that application of low carbon-to-nitrogen residues to
maintain soil fertility in major corn-soybean growing region in the U.S. would increase soil C
sequestration by 13-30 Tg yr–1. This is equal to 1-2% of the estimated annual C released into the
atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion in the U.S. (1.4 Pg C yr–1).
(2) Intercropping. As discussed previously intercropping system has mutual benefit or
synergetic effect of various crops. In an Indian bean and sweet corn based intercropping, the
Indian bean fix nitrogen, moreover the cereal crop provides an effective wind break along with
training for Indian bean. With these mutual benefits, the productivity with corresponding quantity
of biomass of both underground and aboveground can be reached, which shows a potential for
biomass return and soil C sequestration. On sustainable basis, the land can be well covered, and
natural resources, especially the sunlight and soil, are efficiently utilized to produce economic
yield, improve biomass accumulation and sustain soil organic matter.
(3) Cover cropping. Cover cropping is among one of the effective practices to improve C
sequestration and SOC storage. Cover crops grown in the interspaces of plantations, can influence
organic matter turnover and nutrient cycling of the soil. A study conducted by Wang et al., (2010)
on six of each winter and summer cover crops in Krome gravelly loam soil (KGL), and Quincy
fine sandy soil (QFS) in phytotrons at 3 temperatures (10/20, 15/25, 25/30ºC for winter/summer
cover crops) to investigate their contributions for carbon sequestration. Among winter cover
crops, the highest and the lowest amounts of C accumulated were by faba bean (Vicia faba L.),
597 g/m2 and white clover (Trifolium repens), 149 g/m2, respectively in the QFS soil. Among
summer cover crops, sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) accumulated the largest quantity of C (481
g/m2), while that by castor bean (Ricinus communis) was 102 g/m2 at 30oC in the KGL soil. The
mean net C remained in the residues following the 127 days decomposition were 187 g/m2 of C
(73% of the total) and 91 g/m2 (52% of the total) for the winter and summer cover crops,
respectively. Following a whole cycle of winter and summer cover crops grown, the mean SOC
increased by 13.8 and 39.1% in the KGL and QFS soil, respectively, compared to the respective
soils before. The results suggest that triticale, ryegrass and faba bean are the promising winter
cover crops in the QFS soil, while sunhemp, velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens), and sorghum Sudan
grass (Sorghum bicolor) are recommended summer cover crops for both soils under favorable
temperatures.
(4) Ratoon cropping/Ratooning. Ratoon cropping is a technique allowing a crop to produce
two or more harvests for yield from one planting. The basic requirements in ratoon cropping are
that the crop has a well developed root system, earlier maturity and a perennial nature. Ratoon
cropping has obvious advantages for crop production and soil C-sequestration. For instance,
ratoon cropping reduces the cost of production via savings in land preparation and planting; it
has a better use of the growing season; efficiently utilize the sunlight energy; higher yield and
biomass per unit area can be achieved in a given period of time; less use of irrigation water and
fertilizer than the main or original crop because of a shorter growth period; prevent soil and water
362 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

erosion and nutrient leaching; and more productive economically compared to conventional
cropping system. Ratooning of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) or chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)
is successful. Okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] is another ideal ratooning vegetable
crop in tropics or subtropics, for which such rationing can be conducted two or three times.
(5) Cropping practices. Appropriate cropping practices, such as balance fertilization and
water supply are the important factors to optimize biomass production, improve crop growth and
development. However, conventional tillage, especially the moldboard plowing, can result in
rapid mineralization of SOC, which leads to SOC depletion rather than sequestration. Therefore,
to enhance C-sequestration in the soil, more amount of plant residues must be returned to the soil
and the soil must be kept at minimum disturbance. In addition, it is important to transfer the
sequestered C into a physically or chemically stable form, such as recalcitrant C or soil organic
C via slow humification or carbonization process. The stability of organic C in plant residues or
in soil pool depends largely on environmental changes, such as soil types, temperature and
moisture. However, the plant components play a major role for its organic C stability against its
decomposition rate. For example, usually there are two major compartments of organic C in
plants, active and inert, which might refer to labile and recalcitrant pools, respectively in two-pool
models proposed by McLauchlan and Hobbie. The active organic C consists of 4 sub-components,
decomposable organic C, resistant organic C, microbial biomass organic C and humified organic
C. The physiological and chemical characteristics in plant residues, such as C : N ratio and
lignin content, may affect the distribution of those different organic C-compartments, which
consequently influence the decomposition rates. There are a number of reports on C-sequestration
or SOC accumulation in croplands through integrated cropping systems and cropping practices,
such as conservation tillage, cover cropping, crop rotation, land use restoration or shifting
cultivation, fertilization, etc. Obviously, soil organic C pool has a great potential to store sequestered
C and integrated cropping systems associated with cropping practices has displayed the promising
prospects in C-sequestration from the atmosphere and shifting the mitigation of climate change.
Allelopathy
Hans Molisch (1937) known as father of allelopathy, coined this term which consist of both
harmful and beneficial biochemical interactions between all types of plants and interactions
involving microorganisms. In an intercropping system the allelopathic effects of plants are most
common wherein one crop suppresses the growth of another crop but favours in weed control.
Allelopathy refers to direct or indirect harmful effect by one plant on another through production
of chemical compounds or by antagonistic interaction of phytochemicals on the growth of other
plants.
Generally, there are four processes by which allelopathic substances are released into the
environment; volatilization, leaching, decomposition of plant residues and root exudation. Plant
produces and stores large amounts of primary and secondary metabolites that escape into the
environment and influence the growth of associated plant species (interspecific interaction, or
heterotoxicity) or their growth (intraspecific interaction autotoxicity). Ali and Hassan (2008) have
conducted study wherein 10% and 2% aqueous solution of tomato, pepper and okra, respectively
of shoots and roots were used to observe the allelopathic effects. Results indicated that the shoot
and root aqueous extract highly inhibited seed germination of all interacted plants, and the
inhibitory effect of root extract was more than shoot aqueous extracts. Highest inhibition percent
on germination was noticed from pepper extracts of both shoot and root on sunflower (53.6,
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 363

28.6%); while the interaction between pepper and tomato plants showed the least inhibition. In
most cases autotoxicity appeared to be more severe than teletotoxicity on seed germination and
seedling growth of all intercropped plant species.
In multi-storey cropping systems, where numerous crops and trees are grown together,
vegetables are essential components of allelopathic interactions. Several vegetables possess anti-
microbial principles and hence, allelopathically inhibit phytopathogenic fungi and bacteria. Yu
(1999) studied the allelopathic suppression of Pseudomonas solanacearum infection of tomato in
a tomato-Chinese chive (Allium tuberosum) intercropping system. Chinese chive plants had no
detrimental effects on the growth of tomato plants but significantly delayed and suppressed the
occurrence of bacterial wilt in tomato. Certain vegetables possess nematicidal principles and
therefore, offer immense potential for nematode control in their cultivation. The future allelopathic
research in vegetables should focus on (i) separating the allelopathic interference from competition
in vegetable fields and vegetables based cropping systems, (ii) screening the germplasm/varieties
of vegetable crops for allelopathic potential and later on do genetic manipulations to breed new
varieties, (iii) exploiting the allelopathic potential of vegetable crops for weed control and plant
protection, (iv) determining the critical concentrations of allelochemicals in each vegetable crop
to express their inhibitory/stimulatory influences, (v) identifying the compatible and beneficial
associations of vegetable crops with other crops and trees, and (vi) determine the harmful and
beneficial effects of allelopathy in vegetable crops in pot culture and field studies.
Resource use efficiency (RUE)
Although the efficiency with which a crop use any resource depends on the level of supply
of the others, the utilization efficiency of any single factor can be calculated as the product of
other efficiency measures; the efficiency of capture by crop plants and the efficiency of conversion
into yield. In many cases, each of these two measures can be further resolved. Capture efficiency
is the product of interception and absorption, conversion efficiency is the product of resource
conversion into plant biomass and harvest index (Trenbath, 1986).
RUE = Capture efficiency × Conversion efficiency
Ri Ra
Capture efficiency = ×
Ro Ri

B
Conversion efficiency = ×H
Ra
where, R0, Ri and Ra are pre-land area measures of the quantities of resource potentially available,
intercepted and absorbed in the crop season, respectively. B is the whole plant biomass and H
is the whole plant harvest index.
Light use efficiency (LUE) can be defined in terms of the RUE concepts as discussed
above.
Ii × I a × B
LUE = ×H
Io × Ii × I a
where, I0, Ii and Ia are, respectively, the quantities of photosynthetically active radiation incident,
intercepted and absorbed by a crop stand. An instantaneous measure of LUE that can be used
before harvestable parts from a significant portion of the biomass is:
364 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

LUE =

where, Pn is the net photosynthesis rate of the crop.

In studies of water or nutrients utilization, it is easier to determine the quantities absorbed
than the quantities intercepted. In studies of light the reverse is true. The quantity of light
intercepted by crop is usually estimated as the difference in flux density of photosynthetically
active radiation (PAR) to horizontal, using suitably filtered radiation meters set above and below
the crop canopy.
Criteria for assessing yield gain
Three different situations can be distinguished to assess yield advantages
(i) Where intercropping must give full yield of a main crop and some yield of a second
crop. It is applicable to situations requiring full yield of staple food crop. Yield advantage occurs
if there is any yield of second crop. This is important in developing countries like India, where
the primary objective of intercropping is to produce full yield of a cereal.
(ii) Where the combined intercrop yield must exceed the higher sole crop yield. It is
based on the assumption that unit yield of each component crop is equally acceptable and,
therefore, the requirement is simply for maximum yield regardless of the crop from which it
comes. Here, it is assumed that the farmer can grow the high yielding sole crop if the intercrop
gives lower yield than the sole crop.
(iii) Where the combined intercrop yield Imust i I a Pnexceed a combined sole crop yield. The
farmer is in a situation to grow two crops on theI o landI i I a available to him as sole crops to satisfy
dietary and fodder needs, to spread labour requirements or to reduce the market risks. In such
a situation, farmer can go for intercropping of the two crops provided the combined intercrop
yield is more than the combined sole crop yield.
Indices for evaluating productivity and efficiency
Different indices have been used for evaluating productivity and efficiency per unit area of
land. These include comparison of absolute yield, protein yield, calorie equivalent and in economic
terms, gross returns from intercrops and sole crops. Indices are used in many forms of data
summary to combine information. If we wish to compare systems of cropping involving two or
more measurements then we must either accept that the systems are not comparable because they
differ in several aspects or convert yield into a single scale.
(1) Simple value indices
Simple value indices involve allocation of a value to each crop and subsequent calculation
of a total value from the sum of the values for the separate crops. If the values of two crops are
assessed as K1 and K2, then the total value (V) of an intercrop treatment producing mean yield
of Y1 and Y2.
V = K1 × Y1 + K2 × Y2
(a) Financial return. The most frequently used value index is that of financial return. Other
value indices include protein and dry matter. The main criticism made of financial indices is that
prices fluctuate and hence the ratio of K1 and K2 may vary considerably. A partial answer to this
criticism is to employ several price ratios.
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 365

(b) Crop equivalent. One other form of single measurement comparison which is exactly
equivalent to the financial value index is the crop equivalent. In calculating a crop equivalent,
yield of one crop is converted into yield equivalent of the other crop by using the ratio of prices
of the two crops.
(2) Biological indices of gain and supremacy
(i) Relative yield total and land equivalent ratio: The most important index of biological
advantage is the relative yield total (RYT) introduced by de Wit and van den Bergh (1965) or land
equivalent ratio (LER). The mixture yield of a component crop expressed as a portion of its yield
as a sole crop from the same replacement series is the relative yield of the crop and the sum of
the relative yields of component crops is called relative yield total (RYT). The total land area
required under sole cropping to give the same yields obtained in the intercropping mixture is
called land equivalent ratio (LER). Both the expressions (RYT and LER) are similar.
If the two crop yields in the intercrop mixture are MA and MB and the yield of crops grown
as sole crop are SA and SB, then the combined index is:
MA MB
L= + = LA + LB
SA SB
The interpretation embodied in LER is that L represents the land required for sole crops to
produce the yields achieved in the intercropping mixture. A value of L greater than one (> 1)
indicates an overall biological advantage of intercropping. The two components of the total index,
LA and LB represent the efficiency of yield production of each crop when grown in a mixture,
relative to sole crop performance.
(ii) Relative crowding coefficient. The other index used is relative crowding coefficient,
which can be defined in terms of LER components as:
LA LB
×
1 – LA 1 – LB
The two main indices of dominance are the aggressivity and competition index. Agrressivity
gives a simple measure of how much the relative yield increase in species A is greater than that
of species B. It is an index of dominance. For replacement series it can be written as:

Mixture yield of A Mixture yield of B

Aggressivity = –
Expected yield of A Expected yield of B

MA MB
= –
SA × ZA SB × ZB
Sown proportion of species A and B are represented as ZA and ZB, respectively. An
aggressivity value zero indicates that the component species are equally competitive. The basic
process in the competition index is the calculation of two equivalence factors, one for each
component species. It is the product of the two equivalence factors. For species A, the equivalence
factor is the number of plants of species A which is equally competitive to one plant species of
B. If a given species has an equivalence factor of less than one, it means it has more competitive
ability than the other species. In other words, if the competition index is less than one, there is
an advantage of mixing. It is also an index of dominance.
366 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

(iii) Area time equivalent ratio (ATER). It takes into account the duration of crop, and
permits an evaluation of crops on yield per day basis. It is a modification of LER (Hiebsch and
McCollum, 1987).
LA × DA + LB × DB
ATER =
T
where, LA and LB are relative yields or partial LERs of component crops A and B, DA and DB
are duration of crops A and B and T the total duration of the intercropping system.
(iv) Staple land equivalent ratio (SLER). In situations, where the primary objective is to
produce fixed yield of one component (staple) and some yield of other crop, the concept of SLER
is proposed by Reddy and Chetty (1984).

SLER =

where, MDA is derived yield of A in mixture yield and P the proportion of land devoted for
intercropping.
(v) Land equivalent coefficient (LEC). It was proposed by Adetiloye and Ezedinma (1983).
It is the product of LERs of intercrop components.
MA MB
×
SA SB
It can, therefore, be regarded as a measureMDAof association
 MB  or interaction when concerned
with the strength of relationship. For a two crop mixture,+ Pthe
 SB 
minimum expected product before
SA  
a yield advantage is obtained is an LEC greater than 0.25 (25%). This was obtained from
theoretical 50 : 50 yield where interspecific competition equaled intraspecific competition.
LEC = LA × LB = 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25
The theoretical maximum value for LEC is unity when mixtures become ideally
complementary.
LEC = LA × LB = 1 × 1 = 1
The LCE is developed to assess the interaction and productive potential of crop mixtures.
It is derived from the understanding that the reduction in intercrop yield, as compared with
optimum sole crop yield is due to interspecific competition, assuming that the interplant competition
is absent or unaffected by mixing.
(vi) Area harvest equivalency ratio (AHER). This was proposed by Balasubramanian and
Sekayange (1990). It indicates resource use efficiency. The concept of AHER combines the area
and time factors in a practical sense for quantifying intercrop yield benefit, particularly in multi-
season associations.
n
 YiI 
AHER = ∑  M 
i =1  (Yi ni ) 

where, ni is total number of possible harvests of crop i that could be obtained during the full
intercrop period, if crop i was monocropped. In the form of ni, AHER gives a practical definition
to the time factor. Values of ni will always be in whole numbers because fractional harvests of
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 367

crops are not appropriate. By using ni, AHER assumes that sole crop yields of component species
in successive seasons are the same, which may not always be the case.
(vii) Crop performance ratio (CPR). It is defined as the productivity of an intercrop per
unit area of ground compared with that expected from sole crops sown in the same proportions
(Azam-Ali et al., 1990). For each species, the productivity in the intercrop can be expressed as
a partial CPR. For species a :
Q ia
CPRa =
Pia . Q as
where, Qai and Qas are its productivity per unit area in the intercrop and sole crop, respectively
and Par is proportion of the intercrop area sown with species a. Thus, for an intercrop of two
species a and b, the CPR is :

(Q ia + Q ib )
CPRab =
(Pia – Q as ) + (Pib – Q as )
As the sole crop yields are multiplied by their own proportions in the intercrop, this
provides their expected productivity if unit area of ground had been sown with sole crops in the
same proportion as in the intercrop. A value of CPR greater than unity implies an intercrop
advantage and a value less than unity an intercrop disadvantage. The partial LER and partial CPR
are related.
LER = CPRa × Pia
The concept of CPR can be extended to analyse the use of a resource by an intercrop
compared with its constituent species. Thus, we can calculate a CPR for the use of individual
resources, such as intercepted radiation, transpiration or nutrient uptake, in which expected resource
use by an equivalent sole crop is always unity.
(viii) Yield advantage index. Illustration on the concept of production possibility curves,
an analytical method was developed for evaluating trade-offs (alternatives) in biological production
systems (ICRISAT, 1990). Yield trade-offs between species were evaluated by plotting the yields

Fig. 4. Theoretical basis for interactions between two species in

intercropping (Ranganathan et al., 1991)
368 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

of the two competing crops on a graph. The shape of the curve passing through the scatter of
mean yield observations in Fig. 4 indicates the nature of correlation between the crops:
complementarity if the curve is convex, competitive if concave or independent relationship if it
is a straight line.
Merits of land equivalent ratio (LER)
(i) As an index of combined yield, LER provides a quantitative evaluation of the yield
advantage due to intercropping
(ii) LER could be used either as an index of biological efficiency to evaluate the effects of
various agronomic practices on an intercrop system in a locality or as an index of
productivity across geographical locations to compare a variety of intercrop systems,
(iii) LER is identical to RYT and can be used for any set of intercropping treatments, and
(iv) Partial LER values give an indication of the relative competitive abilities of the
components of intercrop system.
Demerits of LER
(i) LER is based on land area only and does not take the duration of component crops into
consideration,
(ii) Several methods have been suggested for calculating LER using different sole crop
values as standardization factors. The choice of sole crop yield for standardizing mixture
yield in the estimation of LER is not clear and a generalization is not possible, and
(iii) As an index of biological efficiency, LER is based on harvested products and not on
desired yield proportions of the component crops predetermined at sowing.
Assessment and productivity of cropping systems
Assessment and productivity of multiple cropping systems or of component crops should
be done in quantitative terms. It is relatively easy to compare the productivity of crops and
agricultural systems that produces similar products and use similar resources. If the products
(crude protein, carbohydrates) and the resources used (fertilizer, land) can be defined, the evaluation
can be based on total production and the amount of resources used. Evaluation of multiple
cropping demands techniques by which many types of crops and crop sequences can be tested
under varying environments. A number of efficiencies in resource use become operative when
two or more crops are present in the same field during the same year and these can be most
complex when crops are grown simultaneously. Such interactions have been called the integration
of efficiencies of cropping systems. Different types of weeds, insects and plant pathogen
relationships with crops may occur, when the cropped field is planted with heterogeneous species.
There is both biological and economic buffering in systems in which there is production of more
than one crop in the field. Information about these biological efficiencies can lead to management
options that differ from those in monoculture agriculture. Several indices have been proposed to
compare the efficiencies of different multiple cropping systems in terms of land use.
(i) Multiple cropping index. Proposed by Dairyinpie (1971), it is calculated by dividing
the total crop area by total cultivated land area and multiplying by 100.
n

MCI =
∑a
i =1
i
× 100
A
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 369

where, n = total number of crops, ai area occupied by the ith crop planted and harvested within
one year, and A = total cultivated land area available.
(ii) Diversity index (DI). Suggested by Strout (1975) and Wang and Yu (1975), it measures
the multiplicity of crops or farm products which are planted in a single year by computing the
reciprocal of sum of squares of the Yi gross revenue received from each individual farm enterprise
in a single year.
1
DI = 2
n  * n 
∑  Yi

i =1 
∑ Yi* 

i =1 
where, n = total number of enterprises (crops or farm products), and Yi gross revenue of ith
enterprise produced within one year.
(iii) Harvest diversity index (HDI). It is computed using the same equation as the DI
except that the value of each farm enterprise is replaced by the value of each harvest.
1
HDI = 2
n  * n 
∑  Yi

i =1 
∑ Yi* 

i =1 
th
where, Y is gross value of the i crop planted and harvested within one year.
(iv) Simultaneous cropping index (SCI). nIt is computed by multiplying the HDI with
10,000 and dividing the product by MCI (Strout, 1975).∑
ai di
i =1
HDI × 10,000
SCI = A × 365
MCI
(v) Cultivated land utilization index. This is calculated by summing the products of land
area planted to each crop, multiplied by the actual duration of that crop and divided by the total
cultivated land area times 365 days.

CLUI =

where, n = total number of crops,

ai = area occupied by the ith crop,
di = days that ith crop occupied ai, and
A = total cultivated land area available during the 365 days period.
These indices have limited scope in cases where crops are planted or harvested outside the
designated time period under study, crops remain unharvested due to unforeseen reasons, more
than one crop is grown simultaneously or sequentially in a complex system such as relay cropping
and short duration crops are interplanted between the rows of long duration crops.
(vi) Cropping intensity index. It assesses a farmer’s actual land use in area and time
relationships for each crop or group of crops compared to the total available land area and time,
including the land available for production (Menegay et al., 1978).
370 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

Nc

∑ at
i =1
i i
CII = M
AoT ∑AT
j =1
j j

where, Nc = total number of crops grown by a farmer during the time period T,
a = area occupied by the ith crop,
ti = duration of the ith crop (months that crop occupied area ai),
T = time period under study (usually one year),
A0 = farmer’s total cultivated land area available for use during the entire time period,
M = total number of fields temporarily available to the farmer for cropping during
time period T,
Aj = land area of the jth field, and
T = time period A is available.
(vii) Specific crop intensity index. SCII is a derivative of CII and determines the amount
of area-time devoted to each crop or group of crops compared to the total time available to the
farmer (Manegay et al., 1978).
Nk

∑at
k =1
k k
SCII = M
AoT ∑AT
j =1
j j

where, Nk= total number of crops within a specific designation such as vegetable crops or
field crops grown by the farmer during the time period T,
ak = area occupied by the kth crop, and
tk = duration of the kth crop.
Using this formula vegetable intensity index, field crops intensity index, etc can be calculated.
(viii) Relative cropping intensity index (RCII). It is another modification of CII and
determines the amount of area—time allotted to one crop or group of crops relative to the area-
time actually used in the production of all the crops.
Nk

∑
k =1
ak tk
RCII = Nc
A oT ∑
j =1
a jt j

RCII numerator equals SCII denominator and RCII denominator equals CII numerator.
These indices can be used for classifying farmers. For example, a farmer with relative vegetable
intensity index (RVII) 50 per cent could be considered a vegetable grower. These indices help to
measure shifts of various crops among farms of different sizes and determining whether consistent
types of cropping patterns occur within various farm size strata. These indices also help to know
CROPPING SYSTEMS IN VEGETABLES 371

how intensively the cultivated land area has been utilized. However, none of these indices takes
productivity into account and cannot be used for comparing different cropping systems and
evaluating their efficiency in utilization of the resources other than land.
(ix) Input and output. In general terms, efficiency (E) can be described as an output (O)
per unit of input (I) (Spedding, 1973).
O
E=
I
The output may be measured in weight, money, energy or protein while, the input (I) may
be expressed in terms of land area used, energy, labour, fuel, fertilizer or any other resource
utilized including time. Time, land area and energy are normally important inputs in multiple
cropping since they are scarce resources. Labour on the other hand is of less importance in
measuring efficiency where family labour is used and where there are no alternative employment
opportunities.
Plant interactions in mixed communities
In much of conventional agriculture where optimal density of single crop is the rule, the
strict management of physical factors of the crop ecosystem usually suffices in order to obtain
maximum yields. This includes optimum fertilizer level, water availability, light capture and other
factors that can be manipulated to the benefit of crop output. With additional weed, insect and
disease control, monoculture cropping system can lead to substantial harvests. However, as the
advantages of multiple cropping become more recognised and the move is made towards
intercropping two or more crops on the same land at the same time, the need for a more in-depth
understanding of the biotic components of plant interactions become important. Such information
is key to designing and managing complex multiple cropping systems capable of advantageous
and consistent results (Gliessman, 1986).
When describing the nature of interactions, Harper (1977) stated that a plant may influence
its neighbors by changing the environment. The changes may be by means of an addition or
removal reaction. However, many direct effects on the environment can also affect neighboring
not by addition or removal of some factor, but by affecting conditions such as temperature, soil
insulation or wind movement and by altering the balance between beneficial and harmful insects.
It can be extremely difficult to separate these factors, but important to do so with increasing
interest in intercropping.
(a) Interference interactions. Interference can be divided into removal reactions of one
plant on its environment and additive reactions where something is added. When some factor is
removed from the environment, the resulting response of neighboring species can be negative,
positive or neutral. Examples are competition or herbivory. When some factor is added to the
environment with the same range of response, additive reactions such as allelopathy or symbiosis
is achieved.
(b) Removal interactions. It is reasonable to think that when the resources required for
crop growth and yields are in limited supply, the yield will decrease. In an intercropping system,
one species may be able to remove the needed resource sooner than the other leading to competition.
Unequal capture of light by one crop over another account for dominance in the mixture. One
component of the mixture suffers yield depression when water is limiting. Yield advantages are
most often attributed to complementary interactions between component crops.
372 OLERICULTURE–I : FUNDAMENTALS OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

Application of inputs usually overcome any deficiency and eliminate the result of removal
interactions. By being able to determine the specific resource that is limiting, as well as the
ecological basis of the interactions, it might be possible to alter the timing, spacing or even
composition of the mixture so that the resource is no longer the limiting factor, avoiding competition
and thus yield reduction.
(c) Additive reactions. Production and release of secondary chemicals by plants into the
environment and their subsequent effects on associated plant species, referred as allelopathy, is
considered as an important form of interference. Allelopathic compounds can have important
effects when planted in mixtures, either on the other crop or on weeds. Several legumes when
inter-planted with maize reduced the maize yield. Maize and field bean intercropping resulted in
higher yield of both the crops. Inter-planting of squash (Cucurbita pepo) in sweet corn and bean
(P. vulgaris) intercropping aids in weed control (Chacon and Glicssman, 1982) leading to higher
sweet corn yield due to favourable influence of root excretions of one crop on the other, rather
than increasing nitrogen nutrition by the legume.
(d) Mutualism. In contrast to additive and removal interactions, mutualism can often combine
several components of interference. The benefits gained by each partner link them into mutual
physiological interdependence. When the component species is absent, the other suffers and in
some cases cannot even exist as free living organism. It is difficult to separate mutualism from
benefits achieved in beneficial intercropping systems. Yield advantages often come about from
the avoidance of direct interference through competition for limited resources or production of
phytotoxins which eliminate other competitors. Symbiosis is another term that refers to mutualisitic
interactions. Legumes with their accompanying rhizobium bacteria plays important role in
agriculture.

CONCLUSION
The objective of any cropping system based research work is to develop an efficient cropping
system that maximises the resource use (soil, water, sunlight, vegetation, humans and animals).
This can be achieved through identification of crop adaptation zones for maximum productivity,
based on soil, climate and management strategy. As food crops, vegetables constitute a very
important role because of higher productivity in a short time along with year round availability.
We can improve the productivity of vegetables at maximum with sustainability by adopting
suitable cropping systems.

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