CH 02 - Bio

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chapter
Energy Flow in
the Biosphere
In this chapter
Exploration: Competition
between Plants
Chemistry Connection:
Chemical Bonds
Investigation 2.1:
Constructing Food Webs
Web Activity: Designing
Food Webs
The source of almost all of the energy on Earth is the Sun. Much of the energy that
reaches Earths atmosphere is filtered out before it reaches the surface (Figure 1). Only
a tiny portion is actually used by green plants for photosynthesis (Figure 2). However,
as this chapter will discuss, almost all organisms on Earth depend on this energy.
Sun
incoming solar radiation

30 % reflected by clouds
or Earths surface
Investigation 2.2: Light

Intensity and Plant
Biomass
44 % heats atmosphere
and Earths surface
1 % generates wind
0.023 %
photosynthesis
25 % heats and evaporates water
Figure 1
A model of the flow of energy from the Sun, to Earth, and back into space
STARTING Points
Answer these questions as best you can with your current knowledge. Then, using
the concepts and skills you have learned, you will revise your answers at the end of
the chapter.
1. Predict how increased cloud cover or pollution haze would affect a forest ecosystem.
2. The text above states that the Sun is the source of almost all of the energy on Earth.
What other source(s) can you think of? How important is each energy source?
3. Is it possible for food chains to exist in a cave or the ocean depths where no sunlight
can penetrate? Explain why or why not.
Career Connection:
Geographer
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Figure 2
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use solar energy to produce carbohydrates
(sugars), which can then be used as food by other organisms. Plants compete for solar energy.
In this mixed forest, the various plant species have adaptations that allow them to avoid or
tolerate the shade of the plants around them.
Exploration
Competition between Plants
Changes in the biotic or abiotic factors within an ecosystem

often cause one plant community to replace another. In turn,
changes in the plant community are accompanied by changes
in the animal community. In this activity, you will determine
which plant species has an advantage under certain conditions.
Each research group can study a different set of variables.
Materials: apron, milk cartons, 9 kinds of vegetable or flower
seeds, potting soil, water
Always wash your hands after handling soil.
Measure the growth of each plant daily. Record any other

observations.
(a) Does one type of plant begin to dominate the community?
Is it the same type of plant in all cartons?
(b) Choose the most successful plant you grew. Do research to
answer these questions: In what environment is this plant
naturally found? What does this environment have in
common with the conditions you set in the exploration?
(c) Speculate about why one plant might be better adapted for
a specific environment than another.
As a class, decide on the types of seeds you will plant in

each milk carton.
Fill milk carton with moist potting soil. Divide the soil
surface into nine squares.
In each square, plant two seeds of one of the species
according to the instructions on the packets. Water each
carton with the same amount of water every second day.
Record the amount of water used.
Once seeds start to germinate, store each carton in a
different environment. You could use amount of sunlight,
temperature, or amount of water as variables.
NEL
Energy Flow in the Biosphere
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2.1
trophic level a category of living
things defined by how it gains its
energy; the first trophic level
contains autotrophs, and each
higher level contains heterotrophs
autotroph an organism that uses
the Suns energy and raw materials
to make its own food; a producer
primary consumer in a food chain
or food web, an organism that relies
directly on autotrophs for its source
of energy; organisms at the second
trophic level
secondary consumer in a food
chain or food web, an organism that
relies on primary consumers for its
principal source of energy;
organisms at the third trophic level
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Energy Transfer and Food Webs

You can begin to understand how energy flows through ecosystems by categorizing
living things by their trophic level, according to how they gain their energy. The term
trophic comes from a Greek word meaning feeder.
Organisms that can make their own food from basic nutrients and sunlight or some
other non-living energy source are placed in the first trophic level (Figure 1). Not surprisingly, these organisms are also referred to as producers or autotrophs (from Greek
words meaning self-feeders). Plants, algae, and some types of bacteria are in the first
trophic level.
The second trophic level contains organisms that feed on the producers. These organisms are referred to as primary consumers. Primary consumers rely on autotrophs
directly for their source of energy.
Secondary consumers are animals in the third trophic level. They rely on primary
consumers for their source of energy, but they are still dependent on the autotrophs in
the first trophic level. Although a wolf eats other animals, it still relies indirectly on the
photosynthesis of plants for energy. The deer that the wolf eats has eaten grass or the buds
of a spruce tree.
Consumers, at whatever trophic level, are sometimes called heterotrophs. Heterotrophs
cannot make their own food, and so must obtain their food and energy from autotrophs
or other heterotrophs. Human beings are heterotrophs.
heterotroph an organism that is

incapable of making its own food,
and so must feed on other
organisms to gain energy
DID YOU KNOW
third trophic level

secondary
consumers
An Alternative View
One Aboriginal approach to trophic
levels is to rank them according to
dependence. Primary consumers
depend on autotrophs, and
secondary consumers depend on
the primary ones. Humans are the
most dependent consumers.
second trophic level

primary consumers
first trophic level

producers
Figure 1
Trophic levels, showing producers and consumers. An ecosystem may contain more than three
trophic levels.
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Section 2.1
Energy and Food Chains

Every organism within an ecosystem provides energy for other organisms. Food chains
are a way of showing a step-by-step sequence of who eats whom in an ecosystem. The
sequence in Figure 2 shows a one-way flow of energy in a simple food chain from producer to secondary consumer. The deer does not make its own energy; instead, it relies
on the spruce tree. The deer is a heterotroph. Since the deer receives its energy two steps
away from the original source (sunlight), it is in the second trophic level. Using the same
reasoning, the wolf, also a heterotroph, is a member of the third trophic level.
first trophic level
producer

primary consumer
third trophic level
secondary consumer
Figure 2
In this food chain, energy flows from
a producer (the spruce tree), to a
primary consumer (the deer), to a
secondary consumer (the wolf).
Consumers are placed in categories based on their trophic level in a food chain. A
carnivore directly feeding on a primary consumer is a secondary consumer. However, if
the carnivore eats a secondary consumer (another carnivore), it is now a tertiary consumerit is at the fourth trophic level. The final carnivore in any food chain is called a
top carnivore. Top carnivores are not eaten by other animals (at least, while they are
alive). In the example above, the wolf is both a secondary consumer and a top carnivore, since it obtains its energy from the deer and no other animal eats the wolf.
Food Webs
The food chain shown in Figure 2 would be highly unlikely to include all the organisms in a natural ecosystem. In reality, deer also eat buds, stems, bark, and grasses. The
wolf includes in its diet many different animals, such as rabbits, ground-nesting birds and
their eggs, beavers, and muskrats. Each individual organism in an ecosystem is involved
in many food chains. The chains all interlock with each other to form a feeding relationship called a food web (Figure 3).
+ EXTENSION
Decomposers
Decomposers do not always fit
neatly into one position in food
webs or trophic levels. Listen to
this Audio Clip to learn more
about the role of decomposers in
ecosystems.
www.science.nelson.com
GO
food web a representation of the

feeding relationships among
organisms in an ecosystem
wolf
moose
vole
aquatic plants
NEL
deer
mouse
elk
gopher
grasses, herbs, and shrubs
Figure 3
A simplified food web shows the
wolf as the top carnivore and plants
as producers. Notice that both the
vole and the deer belong in the
second trophic level of this web.
Of course, in a real ecosystem, the
food web would be much more
complicated. It would include most
of the organisms in the ecosystem.
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CHEMISTRY CONNECTION
Chemical Bonds
Your Chemistry textbook has
more information on the nature
of chemical bonds, and energy
changes during bond-making
and bond-breaking.
GO
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The most stable ecosystems, those with the greatest biodiversity, have such complex
and well-developed food webs that the reduction in numbers or even the complete
removal of one type of organism may have only a small effect on the overall web. Predict
what would happen to the organisms in Figure 2, on the previous page, if deer depended
exclusively on the buds of spruce trees for food, and spruce budworm were introduced.
Spruce budworms also eat the buds of spruce trees. What would happen to the deer and
the wolves if spruce budworms ate most of the spruce buds? If this food chain showed
all the organisms in the ecosystem, you would predict that the deer and wolves would be
deprived of food and would die. In fact, if spruce budworms eat most of the spruce
buds, deer may switch to another tree or grass, and wolves may not be much affected.
However, where abiotic factors limit the number of organisms, the webs begin to look
more like food chains. This is particularly true in the Arctic, where the number of producers is small. Because there is less energy available from the Sun and temperatures
are often low, producers in the Arctic cannot photosynthesize as rapidly as they do in the
south. Less energy is available, so fewer organisms can live in that ecosystem. The limited number of organisms means that their relationships with each other are more direct.
In these situations, the loss of any one member will have a profound effect on all the
remaining organisms. The lower the biodiversity of an ecosystem, the simpler the food
web, and the more vulnerable each organism is to changes in the ecosystem.
Photosynthesis and Respiration
photosynthesis the process by

which green plants and some other
organisms use solar energy, carbon
dioxide, and water to produce
carbohydrates
Food webs always begin with autotrophs, such as plants. All living things use some form
of chemical energy for food. Green plants make their own food by using carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O), plus energy from sunlight, to make molecules of a sugar, glucose
(C6H12O6). This process, called photosynthesis, captures solar energy and stores it in
the chemical bonds of glucose. You can read more about photosynthesis in Chapter 6.
The reaction below summarizes photosynthesis.
carbon dioxide water energy
CO2(g)
cellular respiration the process by

which cells break down glucose into
carbon dioxide and water, releasing
energy
chemosynthesis the process by
which non-photosynthetic
organisms convert inorganic
chemicals to organic compounds
without solar energy
chemoautotroph an organism that
can synthesize organic compounds
from inorganic chemicals without
using solar energy
24
Chapter 2
glucose oxygen
H2O(l) energy C6H12O6(s) O2(g)
Since photosynthetic organisms are at the first trophic level, photosynthesis ultimately
provides the energy required by the entire ecosystem. Photosynthesis absorbs energy
from an abiotic component of an ecosystem (sunlight) and moves it into biotic components (green plants). As one moves up through the trophic levels of an ecosystem,
this energy is then transferred to different organisms through the food they eat.
All organisms, including plants, undergo cellular respiration in order to use the
energy in their food. Cellular respiration breaks down glucose, releasing the energy
stored in its bonds. Some of this energy is used to fuel cell processes, and some is released
in the form of thermal energy. You can read more about cellular respiration in Chapter 7.
The reaction below summarizes cellular respiration.
glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water energy
C6H12O6(s) O2(g)
CO2(g)
H2O(l) energy
If you look at the two reaction equations, you will see that they are the reverse of one
another. The processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are therefore said to be
complementary. Since these two processes are complementary, a balance of oxygen and
carbon dioxide is maintained within any ecosystem. The plants produce oxygen and
glucose during photosynthesis, while all organisms produce carbon dioxide and water
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Section 2.1
during cellular respiration (Figure 4). Since plants carry out both photosynthesis and respiration, you might think that plants could maintain the balance between oxygen and
carbon dioxide themselves. However, plants produce about nine times the amount of
oxygen by photosynthesis that they use up in cellular respiration.
Chemosynthesis
Not all food webs begin with photosynthetic organisms. In a few ecosystems, such as in
caves or the deep oceans, producers convert simple molecules into more complex compounds without solar energy, by a process called chemosynthesis. These bacteria are
chemoautotrophs, which are organisms that require only carbon dioxide, water, and an
energy source (other than solar energy) to make nutrients. Chemical energy is extracted
from inorganic chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), ferrous ions
(Fe2), or sulfur (S8).
In sulfur hot springs, such as those in Banff National Park, thermal energy generated
within Earths crust heats underground water, which is then released through vents in the
rock. Some bacteria use the thermal energy to convert dissolved hydrogen sulfide and
carbon dioxide into organic compounds. These bacteria, as producers, become a food
source for tiny consumers in this ecosystem. Figure 5 shows a food chain that depends
on chemosynthesis.
Limits on Energy Transfer

Every time energy is transferred between the components of an ecosystem, the amount
of energy available to the next trophic level is reduced. Why? One reason is that whenever energy is transferred, some of the energy is transformed to a different form. Some
energy is released as thermal energy during cellular respiration. Some of it is converted
to other chemical energy in molecules other than glucose. The organisms at the next
trophic level may not be able to use all these molecules as a source of energy. Lets return
to the simple spruce deer wolf food chain.
Through photosynthesis, producers such as the spruce tree use solar energy to
make molecules of glucose. The plant then uses most of that energy to carry out
the processes it needs to live and to manufacture the chemicals it needs to grow.
Therefore, not all of the chemical energy captured during photosynthesis is
available to an animal that eats the spruce tree.
Primary consumers, such as the deer, rely on the chemical energy produced by
plants to sustain their lives. A deer does not digest all of a meal of spruce buds.
Some is eliminated in the deers feces (wastes). Some of the remaining energy is
lost as thermal energy during the chemical transformations of digestion. Some of
the remainder is used to fuel the deers cells through cellular respiration, which
also releases thermal energy. Some of that thermal energy is used to maintain the
deers body temperature, but eventually all of the thermal energy released is lost to
the surrounding air. Only about 10 % of the energy in the spruce buds is
transferred to the deer. It uses this energy to move its limbs, pump its blood, and
manufacture the molecules it needs to carry out its life processes and grow.
Like the deer, the wolf loses some of the energy in its meal during digestion and
body maintenance. Therefore, only about 10 % of the energy in the wolf s meal is
transferred to the wolf.
carbon dioxide
+ water
food + oxygen
Figure 4
The byproducts that plants release
in photosynthesis support animals.
The waste products that both
animals and plants produce in
cellular respiration support plants.
chemosynthetic
bacteria at
hydrothermal vent
mussels
octopus
Figure 5
In this food chain, bacteria use the
thermal energy from hydrothermal
vents on the ocean floor to make
nutrients.
+ EXTENSION
Chemosynthetic Food
Chains
Listen to a discussion of energy
sources that may be used by
chemoautotrophs.
NEL
GO
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In all food chains, whether the producers are photosynthetic organisms or chemoautotrophs, the farther up the chain you travel, the less energy is available (Figure 6). In every
ecosystem, less energy is available to secondary consumers than to primary consumers.
In general, the overall loss of energy at each step limits the number of trophic levels in
a food chain to about five. This is supported by the laws of thermodynamics.
Laws of Thermodynamics
thermodynamics a scientific study
of energy transformations, described
by laws
Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations. The energy flowing from the
Sun through ecosystems illustrates the laws of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics states that although energy can be transformed
(changed) from one form to another, it cannot be created or destroyed.
The second law of thermodynamics states that during any energy transformation,
some of the energy is converted into an unusable form, mostly thermal energy,
which cannot be passed on. Each time energy is transformed, some energy is lost
from the system. As a result, the amount of energy available in each step of a chain
of transformations is always less than the amount of energy available at the
previous step. This applies to all systems, including food chains (Figure 7).
solar energy
Input energy
thermal energy
Output energy
20.4 % to
100 %
decomposers
of producers
63.4 %
energy
of energy
lost by
metabolism
abiotic environment
(matter)
fungi
16.2 %
to primary
consumer
bacteria
producers
decomposers
Figure 6
Most of the energy transformed from solar energy
to chemical energy by a plant is used to maintain
the plant and to grow. Every time the plant uses
some of its energy store, it also loses energy as
thermal energy. As a result, when the plant is
eaten, only a small amount of energy is available
for the primary consumer and decomposers.
thermal energy
thermal energy
consumers
Figure 7
According to the second law of thermodynamics, energy is lost each time energy
is transferred from one organism to another, and inside each organism as it uses
the energy to survive.
INVESTIGATION 2.1 Introduction

In Part 1 of this Investigation, you will research an Antarctic
ecosystem and connect the organisms in a food web. In Part 2,
you will construct a food web of organisms found in your
community.
Report Checklist
Purpose
Problem
Hypothesis
Prediction
Design
Materials
Procedure
Evidence
Analysis
Evaluation
Synthesis
To perform this investigation, turn to page 35.
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Section 2.1
WEB Activity
Web QuestDesigning Food Webs

There are many different food webs in our world, some containing familiar organisms, others
filled with exotic species. Drawing food webs by hand and analysing them can be difficult. In
this Web Quest, you will use the computer to build a food web. You can then easily study the
interactions by adding and removing organisms and seeing the result.
SUMMARY
GO
Energy Transfer and Food Webs
Food chains describe relationships between lower and higher trophic levels and
describe the flow of energy within an ecosystem.
Energy is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level in a food chain or

food web. At each transfer, some energy is transformed into thermal energy and
is no longer available.
During photosynthesis, plants use solar energy to combine carbon dioxide and
water. Photosynthesis can be summarized by the equation:
carbon dioxide water energy glucose oxygen
The energy required for almost all living organisms originates with solar
radiation, which is converted to chemical energy during photosynthesis and
stored in the chemical bonds of sugars such as glucose. In the cells, cellular
respiration breaks down the chemical bonds, releasing the energy to be used for
growth and metabolism. Cellular respiration can be summarized by the equation:
glucose oxygen water carbon dioxide energy
Chemoautotrophic organisms produce chemical energy without solar energy,

and provide the base of food pyramids in those rare ecosystems with little or no
sunlight.
Section 2.1 Questions

1. In your own words, explain what is meant by the term
trophic level.
2. What type of food would be consumed by a secondary
consumer? Explain your answer.

3. Distinguish between a food chain and a food web. Give
examples of each.
4. Identify the reactants and products for the chemical
reaction of photosynthesis.
NEL
5. Identify the reactants and products for the chemical
reaction of cellular respiration.

6. What source of energy is used by chemosynthetic bacteria
to make organic compounds?

7. In your own words, explain the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
8. Explain why only about 10 % of the energy available in a
plant is transferred to the primary consumer.
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2.2
DID YOU KNOW
Speed and the Dinosaur

From fossil evidence, some
scientists suggested that
Tyrannosaurus rex was capable of
speeds in excess of 70 km/h.
However, by using mathematical
models, other scientists have
calculated that T. rex would be
killed if it ever tripped. The tiny
forelimbs were much too small to
offer protection to such a heavy
animal at such speeds. They
calculated that T. rex would skid for
more than 40 metres after tripping if
it ran at such speeds. Falling would
create a force on the chest
equivalent to a 36 tonne mass
(352 800 N), easily crushing the
dinosaurs ribs. Even greater
damage would occur to the head. A
fall would apply a force equivalent
to a 13.6 tonne mass (133 820 N),
enough to snap its neck. These new
calculations have caused scientists
to estimate that T. rex likely didn't
run any faster than 15 km/h.
GO
ecological pyramid a
representation of energy flow in
food chains and webs
Page 28
Scientific Models
Scientists often construct models to help them understand how living things function.
Models are theoretical descriptions or analogies that help us visualize something that has
not been directly observed. For example, a scientist might reconstruct the climatic conditions of 65 million years ago to uncover what might have happened to the dinosaurs.
Indirect fossil evidence is used to gather information on weather patterns and vegetation
cover in an ecosystem. Plants such as ferns are unable to live in hot, arid conditions or
in extreme cold. When fossils of ferns are found, scientists are able to make inferences
about climate range.
The advantage of scientific models is that they provide a pathway for making predictions. Scientists often use mathematical models, which exist only as equations,
to help them understand biological observations. There are three essential steps in
formulating a mathematical model:
1. making an estimate and developing an equation based upon indirect data and
background information;
2. computing the prediction implied by the equation; and
3. comparing the prediction with future or past events. Supporting evidence is
gathered to make sure that the mathematical model does not support just one
situation. If this is ever shown to be the case, then the model is rejected.
A good mathematical model can be used to test and predict the implications of many
different courses of action. By being tested on past events, the model gains acceptance
in predicting future events.
Ecological Pyramids
Graphs called ecological pyramids can be used to represent energy flow in food chains
and food webs or the populations of organisms in a food chain. These graphs help the
ecologist visualize more clearly the relationships in an ecosystem and compare
ecosystems.
Pyramids of Numbers
A pyramid of numbers can be drawn by counting the number of organisms at each trophic
level in an ecosystem. When these numbers are then represented on a vertical graph, with the
volume of each level representing the number of organisms at that level, the graph sometimes
takes on the general shape of a pyramid (Figure 1, next page). However, ecologists have
found that, in some cases, the shape is not like a pyramid because of the physical size of the
members of a food chain. For example, many tiny aphids (an insect that feeds by sucking sap
from plants) may be found feeding off a single plant (Figure 2, next page).
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Section 2.2
fourth trophic level; 9 owls
fifth trophic level; 1 falcon (top predator)
third trophic level; 105 shrews, moles
fourth trophic level;

3 robins (tertiary consumers)
second trophic level;

50 000 grasshoppers, snails, slugs
third trophic level; 105 praying mantises,

ladybugs (secondary consumers)
rst trophic level;

100 000 grasses
second trophic level; 100 000 aphids,

other insects (primary consumers)
Figure 1
A pyramid of numbers for a grassland ecosystem. In
this ecosystem, the number of producers is greater than
the number of primary consumers.
first trophic level; 50 oak, maple,

beech trees (producers)
Figure 2
A pyramid of numbers for a deciduous forest ecosystem. Because an aphid
is much smaller than a tree, a single plant may provide food for thousands of
aphids.
Pyramids of Biomass
Biomass is the total dry mass of all the living material in an ecosystem. Since organ-
isms store energy as organic molecules, biomass is a measure of stored energy content.
To understand this idea, compare a rainforest ecosystem with a tundra ecosystem.
Rainforest ecosystems are located in tropical areas with intense sunlight. A rainforest
ecosystem would be able to store large amounts of energy from the Sun. As a result, it
would contain a large amount of organic material and have a large total biomass. In
contrast, tundra ecosystems are located in northern areas with less intense sunlight and
long, dark winters. A tundra ecosystem would be able to store less energy, and thus
would contain a smaller amount of organic material and have a lower total biomass.
A pyramid of biomass is a useful way to represent an ecosystem. To make such a
pyramid, the dry mass (after water has been removed) of the tissue in the plants or animals is measured and graphed (Figure 3). Occasionally, a graph of biomass is not a regular pyramid. Such ecosystems, however, are rare.
biomass the total dry mass of all

the living material in an ecosystem
third trophic level;

9 g falcon (secondary consumer)
second trophic level;
45 g duck
(primary consumer)
first trophic level;
976 g moss,
algae (producers)
Figure 3
A pyramid of biomass for a
Newfoundland peat bog. The numbers
represent the dry mass (g) for all
organisms at that trophic level found
in 1 m2. As you can see, there is less
biomass at each trophic level.
Pyramids of Energy
It is possible to measure the amount of energy available at each trophic level. Creating a
pyramid graph allows us to better understand the relationships and energy flow (Figure 4,
next page). The comparatively larger mass of the individual tertiary consumers and the
vast amount of energy that they expend while hunting limits the number of individuals that can be supported at the top position of the pyramid.
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fourth trophic level; 88 kJ

owls
third trophic level; 1600 kJ
shrews, moles
Figure 4
A pyramid of energy for a grassland ecosystem. At each level, the energy found in
the bodies of the organisms is graphed. The larger the volume of the level, the
greater the energy at that level. As you can see, only about one-thousandth of the
chemical energy from photosynthesis stored in the producers in this food web
actually reaches the top predator (the owl) at the fourth trophic level. Energy is
measured using joules (1000 joules (J) = 1 kilojoule (kJ)).
second trophic level; 14 078 kJ

grasshoppers, snails, slugs
first trophic level; 86 986 kJ
grasses
As you learned in the previous section, most of the energy at each level of a food chain
is used and/or lost as heat. Only a fraction of the energy passes from one level of a food
chain to the next. This fraction is often said to be about 110 , or 10 %. Although this
number is just an approximation, it can be useful for making estimations. For example,
if the grasses in an ecosystem produce 1 1010 kJ of energy per year, you can estimate
that the primary consumers in that ecosystem can only obtain 1 109 kJ per year by eating
the grasses. Secondary consumers will only obtain about 1 108 kJ per year. (Note that
these estimations are extremely simplified. Calculations are more often done for energy
per gram, or per square metre, rather than for an entire ecosystem.)
Look at the sample exercise below to learn how to create two- and three-dimensional
pyramids. The second sample exercise shows how to calculate energy loss through a
food chain.
SAMPLE exercise 1
Pyramids of energy are graphical representations that show energy flow in food chains
and webs. As energy is lost, fewer organisms can be supported at each successive level.
The base of the pyramid always indicates the total amount of energy held by producers.
Use the data in Table 1 to construct a two-dimensional energy pyramid.
Table 1 Energy Pyramid Data
Trophic level
producers (first trophic level)
consumer (second trophic level)
consumer (third trophic level)
Energy (kJ)
Area of the box (mm2)
100 000
1 000
15 000
1 000
Solution
1. Establish a ratio between the area of the box and the amount of energy held by the
producers. For two-dimensional pyramids, the amount of energy held by producers is
displayed as a ratio of the area of the box at the base of the pyramid.
energy = area of the box at the base of the pyramid
100 000 kJ = 1000 mm2
2. Determine length and width of the producer box.
1000 mm2 = width length
1000 mm2 = 20 mm 50 mm
Draw the box with these dimensions (Figure 5 (a), next page).
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Section 2.2
3. Use the ratio for producers to establish the size of the box for second-level
consumers.
area of box for producer
area of box for second-level consumer
=
energy of producer
energy of second-level consumer
(a)
20 mm
50 mm
(b)
30 mm
5 mm
1000 mm2
x
=
100 000 kJ
15 000 kJ
20 mm
1000 mm 15 000 kJ
x =
100 000 kJ
2
50 mm
(c)
x = 150 mm2
5 mm
2 mm
5 mm
30 mm
20 mm
4. Determine the length and width of the second-level consumer box.

150 mm2 = 30 mm 5 mm
50 mm
Draw the box with these dimensions on top of the producer box (Figure 5 (b)).
5. Repeat for the third-level consumer box.
Figure 5
Constructing an energy pyramid
area of box for producer

area of box for third-level consumer
=
energy of producer
energy of third-level consumer
1000 mm2
x
= kJ
100 000 kJ
1000
1000 mm2 1000 kJ
x =
100 000 kJ
x = 10 mm2
6. Determine the length and width of the third-level consumer box.
10 mm2 = 5 mm 2 mm
Draw the box (Figure 5 (c)).
Practice
1. Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional pyramids using the data in
Table 2, of an Alberta mixed woodland ecosystem.
Table 2 Pyramid of Numbers
Trophic level
producers (trees and shrubs)
first trophic level
consumers (insects, slugs, snails)
consumers (ladybugs, praying mantises)
third trophic level
NEL
Number of organisms
100
9800
500
consumers (shrews, moles, robins)

fourth trophic level
10
consumers (hawks, falcons, snakes)

fifth trophic level
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SAMPLE exercise 2
As shown below, phytoplankton are at the base of an ocean food chain.
phytoplankton zooplankton herring salmon
(a) If the phytoplankton in an ecosystem produce 20 000 000 kJ of energy per day, how
much energy is available for the salmon?
(b) Suppose each herring requires 1000 kJ of energy per day to survive. How many
herring can this ecosystem support?
Solution
(a) Assume that 10 % of the energy passes from each level of the food chain to the next.
Calculate the amount of energy that reaches the top level of the food chain.
20 000 000 kJ 0.10 = 2 000 000 kJ (energy that will reach the zooplankton)
2 000 000 kJ 0.10 = 200 000 kJ (energy that will reach the herring)
200 000 kJ 0.10 = 20 000 kJ (energy that will reach the salmon)
Thus, 20 000 kJ of energy is available for the salmon each day.
(b) You know that 200 000 kJ of energy is available for the herring each day. Divide this
number by the amount of energy required by each herring.
200 000 kJ 1000 kJ/herring = 200 herring
The ecosystem can support 200 herring.
Practice
2. Draw a two-dimensional energy pyramid for the following food chain. Use the
data from the sample exercise and solution.
phytoplankton zooplankton herring salmon
3. An ecosystem contains 1000 bushes and grasses. Each produces about
10 000 kJ of energy per day.
(a) How many rabbits can be supported by this ecosystem, if each rabbit
requires 5 000 kJ of energy per day?
(b) How many foxes can be supported by this ecosystem, if each fox requires
10 000 kJ of energy per day?
(c) Draw a pyramid of numbers for this ecosystem.
INVESTIGATION 2.2 Introduction
Light Intensity and Plant Biomass

Through photosynthesis, plants capture solar energy and use it to
combine water and oxygen into glucose. Glucose is then used to
fuel its cellular activities and to build other molecules required by
the plant. These molecules are used in plant growth, which
increases the mass and size of the plant. How does light intensity
affect plant biomass? In this investigation, you will design and
carry out your own experiment to address this problem.
Report Checklist
Purpose
Problem
Hypothesis
Prediction
Design
Materials
Procedure
Evidence
Analysis
Evaluation
Synthesis
To perform this investigation, turn to page 36.
32
Chapter 2
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Section 2.2
Human Use of Energy in Ecosystems

Like all other living things, humans are dependent on the energy flow through ecosystems. We are part of many food chains at different levels. For example, a person eating
vegetables is a primary consumer; a person eating steak is a secondary consumer; and a
person eating salmon may be a tertiary consumer, depending on the salmons diet. Unlike
most other living things, humans also use the energy in ecosystems in other ways. For
example, we burn wood for fuel, obtaining the energy trapped in it by photosynthesis.
Human use of the energy in an ecosystem often changes the ecosystem itself. Most
ecosystems can adapt to small changes, such as the removal of a few salmon. Large-scale
changes in ecosystems, however, often permanently change the types and sizes of populations of organisms found in that ecosystem. For example, humans have permanently
changed many ecosystems in order to grow and hunt food. Hunting, fishing, and extensive crop growth have impacted many large ecosystems (Figure 6).
Hunting and Fishing

The science of wildlife management involves the manipulation of populations of wild
species and their habitats for the benefit of humans. In the past, over-hunting of wild
species such as wolves and buffalo have led to extirpation and large changes in ecosystems. Today, however, conservation groups like the Sierra Club and the Defenders of
Wildlife recognize hunting and fishing as acceptable management tools.
A confrontation between technology and nature is unfolding in Canadian coastal
waters. Improved factory ships, larger nets, improved technology for fish detection,
and more boats have dramatically increased the harvest of marine fish. As a result,
prized fish such as cod, halibut, and salmon have been drastically reduced. The pursuit of short-term economic gain at the expense of long-term economic collapse from
overfishing is an important issue that governments must address.
Figure 6
Cultivation of the land has disrupted
many food chains. In Alberta,
European settlers who selected
monocultures of wheat and barley in
favour of natural grasses
contributed to a decline in the
populations of mule deer, bison, elk,
and moose, while increasing the
range and number of whitetail deer.
CAREER CONNECTION
Monocultures
600
500
400
300
200
Millions of Years Ago
NEL
100
Tertiary
Cretaceous
200
Geographer
Geographers study physical
aspects of particular biological or
physical regions. They often use
satellite and imagery technologies
to provide information on
environmental issues, study the
large-scale effects of human
activity, or coordinate development
plans with land-use planners.
Learn more about geographer
specializations and decide if this
career direction is right for you.
Triassic
Jurassic
Permian
Carboniferous
400
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
600
Cambrian
Number of Families
Fossil records tell us that biological diversity has increased over time. About 150 different families of animals existed at the end of the Cambrian period 500 million years
ago. Since then the number has increased to nearly 800 (Figure 7). This represents over
two million species. However, most biologists will argue that this number is very conservative. There may be as many as 15 million different species of organisms now living
on Earth.
Historically, humans have used about 700 different species of plants. According to
the noted biologist Edward Wilson, today we rely heavily on about 20 specieswheat,
rice, cotton, barley, and corn being the most important. Most human agriculture has
GO
Figure 7
The graph shows a trend toward
greater biodiversity.
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monoculture cultivation of a single

species
Figure 8
Many different species of plants can
be found in a rain forest.
been directed at producing food crops. However, many wild plants are also important
to humans. For example, the rosy periwinkle, a plant native to Madagascar, produces
two important chemicals that are useful in treating Hodgkins disease, a form of
leukemia, or cancer of the white blood cells. Unfortunately, many wild plants have
already been destroyed to grow food crops, especially in tropical rain forests.
The nutrient-poor soil of the tropical rain forests is not well suited for monocultures
of cereal grains such as wheat and barley. These soils require the renewal of decomposed
matter to maintain adequate levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles should not be disrupted in the delicate rain forests (Figure 8). A few seasons
after planting, the soil will no longer support the growth of crops. What makes the situation even more critical is that the greatest biodiversity exists in the tropical rain forests.
Many species have yet to be classified, let alone investigated for possible medicines.
SUMMARY
Scientific Models
Mathematical models are theoretical models that exist as equations. These

models are used to make non-intuitive and testable predictions that follow from
simple assumptions.
Environmental models allow scientists to study what could happen to organisms

in an ecosystem if changes occurred. The models help check predictions without
disrupting a large area.
Pyramids of energy measure the amount of energy available at each trophic level.
Pyramids of biomass can be drawn by determining the dry mass of organisms.
Pyramids of numbers can be drawn by counting the number of organisms at

each trophic level in an ecosystem.
Section 2.2 Questions

1. What data would you need to collect to create an
ecological pyramid of numbers?
5. Why do energy pyramids have their specific shape?

6. What would be the best source of energy for an omnivore:
2. What problem might you encounter if you tried to show
energy flow through an ecosystem using a pyramid of

numbers?
3. How might a pyramid of energy for a grassland community
differ between summer and winter? Think about the effects

the different abiotic conditions of each season might have
on the ecosystem. Use your conclusions to draw a pyramid
of energy for each season. Explain any differences between
the two pyramids.
4. Figure 9 shows pyramids of biomass and numbers for a
deciduous forest. Explain why the two pyramids are

different shapes.
the plant or animal tissue it feeds on? Explain.

7. A field mouse eats 10 000 g of leaves each year, among
other things. If each gram of leaves has absorbed 150 kJ of

energy from the Sun, about how much energy is available
for the mouse?
8. The producers in a closed ecosystem capture 1.5 109 kJ
of energy from the Sun each year. The main food chain in
the ecosystem has four levels.
(a) How much energy is available for the consumers at the
top level?
(b) Draw a pyramid of energy for the food chain.
9. Despite warnings about future shortages and the pollutants
released, we continue to burn oil and coal for energy. What

evidence, if any, suggests that attitudes toward
conservation are changing? Are they changing quickly
enough?
pyramid
of numbers
34
Chapter 2
pyramid
of biomass
Figure 9
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Page 35
INVESTIGATIONS
INVESTIGATION 2.1
Report Checklist

Part 1: Antarctic Ecosystem
Research each of the organisms shown in the diagram
(Figure 1) and connect them with a food web. Your teacher
will provide you with an outline diagram of the organisms.
Cut them out and stick them on another piece of paper. Use
arrows to connect consumers with their food. Be prepared
to explain how the organisms are interrelated.
Chapter 2
GO
Purpose
Problem
Hypothesis
Prediction
Design
Materials
Procedure
Evidence
Analysis
Evaluation
Synthesis
Part 2: Food Webs in Your Community

Using field guides, identify the organisms found in one of
the following ecosystems within your community, and construct a food web:
forested area
park
natural grassland
lake or pond
carnivorous plankton
Adlie penguin
human
herbivorous plankton
emperor penguin
blue whale
fish
elephant seal
phytoplankton
petrel
krill
leopard seal
sperm whale
killer whale
crabeater seal
squid
Figure 1
NEL
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INVESTIGATION 2.1 continued
Design
Analysis
(a) What area did you choose to study?

(b) How did you define the area of study?
Procedure
(e) Find out more about each organism. How does it fit
into the food ecosystem? What does it eat? Which
organisms prey on it?
(f) Construct a food web.
(c) Provide your procedure.
Evidence
(d) What organisms did you identify?
INVESTIGATION 2.2
Light Intensity and Plant Biomass
Through photosynthesis, plants capture solar energy and use
it to combine water and carbon dioxide to make glucose.
Glucose is then used to fuel its cellular activities and to build
other molecules required by the plant. These molecules are
used in plant growth, which increases the mass and size of
the plant.
Does plant biomass increase with light intensity? Make a
prediction. Then, using the materials listed and the design
given, write a procedure to address this problem. Make sure
you include safety procedures in your design. When your
teacher has approved your procedure, carry out the experiment. Ensure you collect the evidence in a clear manner that
will allow you to evaluate it later. Your analysis should indicate whether your prediction was correct.
Purpose
To determine how light intensity affects plant biomass
+ EXTENSION
Report Checklist
Purpose
Problem
Hypothesis
Prediction
Design
Materials
Procedure
Evidence
Analysis
Evaluation
Synthesis
Materials
algae culture
filter paper
light source or access to sunlight
balance (mechanical or electronic)
funnel
two 250 mL beakers
light meter
plastic wrap
retort stand
clamp
graduated cylinder
Design
Plant biomass can be determined by filtering a given quantity
from an algae culture and allowing the filter paper and algae
to dry.
Constructing Scientifically
Valid Procedures
Do you remember how to conduct
investigations so that your data are
reliable and valid? Listen to this
audio clip for a quick review.
36
Chapter 2
GO
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Chapter 2
Page 37
SUMMARY
Outcomes
Chapter 2
MAKE a summary
Knowledge
explain, in general terms, the one-way flow of energy

through the biosphere and how stored biological energy in
the biosphere is eventually lost as thermal energy (2.1, 2.2)
explain how biological energy in the biosphere can be

perceived as a balance between both photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic, and cellular respiratory activities, i.e.,
energy flow in photosynthetic environments and; energy
flow in deep sea vents (chemosynthetic) ecosystems and
other extreme environments (2.2)
explain the structure of ecosystem trophic levels, using

models such as food chains and webs (2.1, 2.2)
explain, quantitatively, energy exchange in ecosystems,

using models such as pyramids of energy, biomass, and
numbers (2.2)
explain the interrelationship of energy, matter and

ecosystem productivity (biomass production) (2.2)
explain how the equilibrium between gas exchanges in

photosynthesis and cellular respiration influences
atmospheric composition (2.2)
STS
1. Using scientific models, such as a pyramid of energy,
draw a diagram that shows the one-way flow of energy

through the biosphere. Briefly describe how stored
energy in the biosphere is eventually lost as heat.
2. Revisit your answers to the Starting Points questions at
the start of the chapter. Would you answer the

questions differently now? Why?
Go To
GO
The following components are available on the Nelson

Web site. Follow the links for Nelson Biology Alberta 2030.
an interactive Self Quiz for Chapter 2
additional Diploma Exam-style Review Questions
Illustrated Glossary
additional IB-related material
explain that scientific investigation includes analyzing

evidence and providing explanations based upon scientific
theories and concepts (2.1, 2.2)
There is more information on the Web site wherever you see

the Go icon in the chapter.
Skills
ask questions about observed relationships and plan

investigations (2.1, 2.2)
conduct investigations and use a broad range of tools and

techniques by: performing an experiment to demonstrate
solar energy storage by plants (2.2)
analyze data and apply mathematical and conceptual

models by: describing alternative ways of presenting energy
flow data for ecosystems: pyramids of energy, biomass, or
numbers (2.2)
work as members of a team and apply the skills and

conventions of science (all)
+ EXTENSION
Lovin a Lichen
Dr. Irwin Brodo describes lichenstiny creatures, part algae
and part fungus, that are found in all parts of the globe. They
are an integral part of the global food web.
GO
Key Terms
2.1
trophic level
photosynthesis
autotroph
cellular respiration
primary consumer
chemosynthesis
secondary consumer
chemoautotroph
heterotroph
thermodynamics
food web
2.2
ecological pyramid
NEL
monoculture
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REVIEW
Many of these questions are in the style of the Diploma

Exam. You will find guidance for writing Diploma Exams in
Appendix A5. Science Directing Words used in Diploma
Exams are in bold type. Exam study tips and test-taking
suggestions are on the Nelson Web site.
producer
Sun
GO
DO NOT WRITE IN THIS TEXTBOOK.

decomposers
thermal energy
Part 1
1. Bracket fungi, mushrooms, and bread mould can be
classified by ecologists as
A. producers
B. herbivores
C. carnivores
D. decomposers
2. An example of an ecosystem in equilibrium would be
A.
B.
C.
D.
a grassland community in which the number of

producers and consumers remains relatively constant
over a number of years
a naturally occurring grassland community in which
fire is prevented
a pond ecosystem in which the water temperature
changes little throughout the year
a pond ecosystem in which the population of algae
remains constant throughout the year
3. Photosynthesis can best be explained by the following
2nd
consumer
thermal energy
1st
consumer
thermal energy
Figure 1
9. Sketch the predicted shape of an ecological pyramid of
DE
energy.
10. Predict whether each of the four ecosystems listed in
Table 1 can be sustained. A check mark indicates that the

type of organism is present. Write a paragraph to justify
each answer.
Table 1 Four Ecosystems
System
Autotrophs
simplified equation.
A. CO2 H2O O2 energy C6H12O6
B. CO2 H2O energy C6H12O6 O2
C. energy C6H12O6 CO2 H2O O2
D. C6H12O6 O2 CO2 H2O energy
2
3
Heterotrophs
Decomposers
11. In your own words, explain why photosynthesis and cellular
Part 2
4. In your own words, explain what is meant by the term top
carnivore. Illustrate your explanation by giving three

examples of a top carnivore. Identify the ecosystem in
which you would find each one.
5. Sketch a food web for a freshwater ecosystem in a dark
cave.
6. Using the example of a cat and a mouse, explain the
factors that account for the loss of energy in the transfer

from mouse to cat.
Use the following information to answer questions 7 to 9.
Figure 1 shows the flow of energy in an ecosystem.
7. lllustrate the first and second laws of thermodynamics
DE
using the components of Figure 1.
8. Sketch the predicted shape of an ecological pyramid of

DE
38
numbers using the organisms in Figure 1.

Chapter 2
respiration are considered to be complementary processes.

12. Around the world, habitats available for wild animals have
DE
become smaller and smaller as the human population

grows. Write a unified response addressing the following
aspects of habitat loss.
Using an energy flow argument, explain why this
shrinkage would affect animals in the highest trophic
levels more severely than those in lower levels.
Describe a way to protect wild habitat. How would your
solution affect humans?
Identify the type of habitat that might be at the greatest
risk of collapse.
13. Wolves often prey upon cattle or sheep as well as on
natural species, such as deer. Earlier in the century it was

considered beneficial to eliminate predators. Describe two
harmful outcomes of this approach to managing predator
populations.
14. In underground caves, where there is permanent darkness,
a variety of organisms exist. In terms of energy flow,

explain how this is possible.
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Chapter 2
15. Based on what you have learned about energy pyramids,
criticize the practice of cutting down rainforests to grow

grain for cattle.
16. Sketch complex food webs for a tundra ecosystem and a
middle-latitude woodland ecosystem. Conduct additional

research to determine the members of the food web, if
necessary.
GO
(a) Which ecosystem has the greatest biomass? Explain.

(b) Which ecosystem has the greatest number of
organisms? Explain.
(c) Which ecosystem has the greatest energy
requirement? Explain.
17. By law in Canada, the cutting of forests must be followed
by replanting. Why do some environmentalists object to

monoculture replanting programs?
18. Illustrate the two laws of thermodynamics with examples
of some common, everyday events.

19. Of the three basic energy pyramids, which best illustrates
energy transfer in a food chain? Explain.
in turn eat algae, such as kelp. When the sea urchin

population is kept in control, kelp populations increase.
This improves the health of the ecosystem. Higher kelp
populations also result in a decrease of barnacles and
mussels.
(a) Sketch a food chain that includes the sea otter.
(b) Sea otters are threatened by oil spills. If the population
of sea otters decreases, predict what will happen to
the population of kelp.
(c) If the population of sea otters increases, what will
happen to the populations of barnacles and mussels?
(d) Kelp provides shelter for fish. Predict how higher
populations of kelp might impact fish-eating birds,
such as eagles and osprey.
(e) Sketch a concept map showing the impact a
decrease in sea otters would have on each species in
this ecosystem.
25. The Banff longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae smithi,
now extinct, was found only in Banff National Park, in a

marsh into which the Cave and Basin Hot Springs drain.
Summarize the factors that contributed to the extinction
of this species.
GO
20. Assuming a 90 % loss of energy across each trophic level,
determine how much energy would remain at the fourth

trophic level if photosynthesis makes available 100 000 kJ
of potential energy. Justify your answer. Sketch a properly
labelled pyramid to represent this situation. Could a fifthlevel organism be added to the chain? Explain.
21. Assume that a ski resort is proposed in a valley near your
favourite vacation spot. Describe the type of

environmental assessment that should be done before the
ski resort is built. In providing an answer, pick an actual
location you are familiar with and give specific examples of
studies that you would like to see carried out.
26. Figure 2 shows a food web.
(a) Make a chart classifying the species shown into

producers, consumers, and trophic levels.
(b) Use the information in Figure 2 to sketch a pyramid
of energy that shows the level of each species. (Since
you do not have energy data, just estimate the size of
each level.)
(c) How might an increase in the population of snowshoe
hares affect the owl over a short period of time? over a
long period of time? Explain your reasons.
(d) Predict what would happen to the population of owls
if hawks were introduced to the ecosystem.
22. Insect-eating plants such as the sundew are commonly
found in bogs across the country. Although referred to as

carnivorous plants, they are still considered to be
members of the first trophic level. Is this the proper trophic
level to assign to these plants? Research carnivorous
plants, then state the trophic level you think is most
appropriate. Explain your choice.
great horned owl
GO
23. Some ecologists have stated that, to maximize the food
bat
available for Earths exploding human population, we must

change our trophic level position. Describe the probable
reasoning behind this statement. Predict any potential
biological problems that might occur if this switch were
actually made.
grouse
shrew
mouse
24. The sea otter was once an extirpated species in Canada.
This species was reintroduced to the west coast from 1969

to 1972. There are now well over a thousand sea otters on
the west coast of Canada, but they are still listed as a
threatened species. The sea otter eats sea urchins, which
weasel
snowshoe hare
insects
green plants
Figure 2
NEL
39

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Ch 02_Bio_Alberta20

incoming solar radiation

Investigation 2.2: Light

25 % heats and evaporates water

can penetrate? Explain why or why not.

Competition between Plants

Changes in the biotic or abiotic factors within an ecosystem

Measure the growth of each plant daily. Record any other

As a class, decide on the types of seeds you will plant in

Energy Flow in the Biosphere

Energy Transfer and Food Webs

heterotroph an organism that is

DID YOU KNOW

third trophic level

second trophic level

first trophic level

Energy and Food Chains

second trophic level

food web a representation of the

grasses, herbs, and shrubs

Photosynthesis and Respiration

photosynthesis the process by

cellular respiration the process by

H2O(l) energy C6H12O6(s) O2(g)

Limits on Energy Transfer

Energy Flow in the Biosphere

INVESTIGATION 2.1 Introduction

Constructing Food Webs

To perform this investigation, turn to page 35.

Web QuestDesigning Food Webs

Energy Transfer and Food Webs

Energy is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level in a food chain or

Chemoautotrophic organisms produce chemical energy without solar energy,

Section 2.1 Questions

consumer? Explain your answer.

5. Identify the reactants and products for the chemical

reaction of cellular respiration.

to make organic compounds?

plant is transferred to the primary consumer.

Energy Flow in the Biosphere

Speed and the Dinosaur

fourth trophic level; 9 owls

fifth trophic level; 1 falcon (top predator)

third trophic level; 105 shrews, moles

fourth trophic level;

second trophic level;

third trophic level; 105 praying mantises,

rst trophic level;

second trophic level; 100 000 aphids,

first trophic level; 50 oak, maple,

biomass the total dry mass of all

third trophic level;

Energy Flow in the Biosphere

fourth trophic level; 88 kJ

second trophic level; 14 078 kJ

Area of the box (mm2)

4. Determine the length and width of the second-level consumer box.

area of box for producer