Compression, Extension and Torsion Springs

ENGINEERS GUIDE

Designing & Specifying

* These standards have been superceded by:

BS 1726-1:2002
Cylindrical helical springs made from round wire and bar Guide to Methods of specifying, tolerances and testing Part 1: Compression springs
BS 1726-2:2002
Cylindrical helical springs made from round wire and bar Guide to methods of specifying, tolerances and testing Part 2: Extension springs
BS 1726-3:2002
Cylindrical helical springs made from round wire and bar Guide to methods of specifying, tolerances and testing Part 3: Torsion springs
The following standards now also apply:
BS 8726-1:2002
Cylindrical helical springs made from rectangular and square section wire and bar Guide to calculation and design Part 1: Compression springs
BS 8726-2:2002
Cylindrical helical springs made from rectangular and square section wire and bar Guide to calculation and design Part 2: Torsion springs
BS EN 13906-1:2002
Cylindrical helical springs made from round wire and bar Guide to calculation and deisgn Part 1: Compression springs
BS EN 13906-2:2001
Cylindrical helical springs made from round wire and bar Guide to calculation and design Part 2: Extension springs
BS EN 13906-3:2001
Cylindrical helical springs made from round wire and bar Guide to calculation and design Part 3: Torsion springs

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We offer over 10,600 different types of compression, extension and compression springs. This
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manufacturing tolerances in materials meeting military, aerospace and/or British and DIN
standards.
Standard music wire and chrome silicon oil tempered springs are fully stress relieved or shot
peened to optimise performance characteristics and supplied passivated, zinc plated or painted
to enhance corrosion resistance and assist identification. Stainless steel springs are supplied
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ENGINEERS GUIDE
To Designing & Specifying Compression, Extension and Torsion Springs
Contents

Page

Introduction

Compression springs

Description
Key design factors
Definitions
Calculations
Tolerances
Specifying springs
Design alternatives

Extension springs
Description
Key design factors
Load deflection characteristics
Calculations
Tolerances
Specifying springs
Design alternatives

Torsion springs
Description
Key design factors
Calculations
- Spring legs
- Torque calculations
- Stress calculations
Specifying springs
Design alternatives

Appendices
Definitions
Spring materials data
Finishes
Reference information
- Conversion data
- Wire sizes
- Using microns
- Geometric solutions

2
2
2
3
3-4
5
6

7
7
7
7-8
8
9
9
10

Introduction
This guide provides detailed information on the design and
specification of compression, extension and torsion springs
manufactured from round wire.
For ease of reference the structure of this guide is aligned with
BS 1726 which gives standards as follows:
*BS 1726 : Part 1 :

Guide for the design of helical

compression springs

*BS 1726 : Part 2 :

Guide for the design of helical

extension springs

*BS 1726 : Part 3 :

Guide for the design of helical

torsion springs

All the essential elements of spring design and construction

are covered including formulae, tolerances, material selection
as well as the testing of dimensions, properties and
performance.
The guide covers springs made from materials to:
BS EN 10270-1:2001

Patented cold drawn steel wire for

mechanical springs

BS EN 10270-2:2001

Pre-hardened and tempered carbon

and low alloy round steel wire for
springs for general engineering
purposes

BS EN 10270-3:2001

Stainless steel wire for

mechanical springs

11
11
11
11
12
13
13
14
15

16
16
17-20
20
21
21-22
23
24
24

Materials commonly used to manufacture springs include:

Carbon steels
Low alloy steels
Stainless steels
Copper based alloys
Nickel based alloys
Key factors affecting material choice for a particular
application include:
Material meets the required stress conditions either
static or dynamic
Material must be capable of functioning satisfactorily
at the required operating temperature
Material is compatible with its surroundings
i.e. corrosive environment
Special requirements such as conductivity,
constant modulus, weight restrictions,
magnetic limitations, etc.
Useful reference data on material properties and conversion
tables are also included.
Information included in this guide is based on Lee Spring's
90 years of experience working with engineers to develop
solutions using spring technology in industries throughout
the world.

* These standards have been superceded. See adjacent page.

Compression springs
Description
A compression spring is an open-coil helical spring that offers resistance to a compressive force applied axially. Such springs
are usually coiled as a constant diameter cylinder; other common forms are conical, tapered, concave, convex, and
combinations of these. Most compression springs are manufactured in round wire - since this offers the best performance
and is readily available and suited to standard coiler tooling - but square, rectangular, or special-section wire can be specified.

Key design factors

Compression springs should always be supplied in a stressrelieved condition in order to remove residual bending
stresses induced by the coiling operation. Depending on
design and space limitations, springs can be categorised
according to the level of stress.
Specification will depend on pitch, solid height, number of
active and total coils, free length, and the seating
characteristics of the spring.
In designing compression springs, the space allotted
governs the dimensional limits with regard to allowable
solid height and outside and inside diameters. These
dimensional limits, together with the load and deflection
requirements, determine the stress level. It is extremely
important that the space allotted is carefully considered so
that the spring will function properly; otherwise, costly
design changes may be needed.
Compression springs feature four basic types of ends. A
compression spring can not be ground so that its ends are
consistently square. Also the helix angles adjacent to the
end coils will not be uniform either. It follows that springs
can not be coiled so accurately as to permit all coils to close
out simultaneously under load. As a result the spring rate
tends to lag over the initial 20% of the deflection range. As
the ends seat during the first stage of deflection the spring
rate rises to the calculated value. In contrast, the spring
rate for the final 20% of the deflection range tends to
increase as coils progressively close out.
Since the spring rate over the central 60% of the deflection
range is linear, critical loads and rates should be specified
within this range. This can be increased to about 80% of
total deflection by special production techniques but such
modifications will add to the cost of the spring.
It is useful to note that two compression springs used in series
will double the deflection for the same load and three

springs in series will triple the deflection for the same load.
Conversely two springs in parallel will double the load for
the same deflection and three springs will triple the load
for the same deflection.
Adding springs will continue to increase the deflection and
load as described.
The total load is equal to the sum of the load of the
individual springs.
Two compression springs 'nesting' - one inside another should be of opposite handing to prevent coils tangling.
Also it is important to allow working clearances between
the I.D and the O.D of the springs.
Spring Index - the ratio of mean coil diameter to spring
wire diameter - is another key definition used to assist in
the evaluation and presentation of tolerances.
The squareness of compression spring ends influences the
manner in which the axial force produced by the spring can
be transferred to adjacent parts in a mechanism. In some
applications open ends may be entirely suitable; however,
when space permits, closed ends afford a greater degree of
squareness and reduce the possibility of interference with
little increase in cost. Compression springs with closed ends
often can perform well without grinding, particularly in
wire sizes smaller than 0.4mm diameter.
Many applications require the ends to be ground in order to
provide greater control over squareness. Among these are
those in which heavy duty springs are specified; usually close
tolerances on load or rate are needed; solid height has to be
minimised; accurate seating and uniform bearing pressures
are required; and a tendency to buckle has to be minimised.
A spring can be specified for grinding square in the
unloaded condition, or square under load - but not in both
conditions with any degree of accuracy.

Definitions
Active coils - Coils that at any instant are contributing to
the rate of the spring
Buckling - Unstable lateral distortion of the major axis of
a spring when compressed
Closed end - End of a helical spring in which the helix angle of
the end coil has been reduced until it touches the adjacent coil
Compression spring - A spring whose dimension reduces
in the direction of the applied force
Creep - Change in length of a spring over time under a
constant force
Deflection - Relative displacement of spring ends
under load
Elastic limit - Maximum stress to which a material may be
subjected without permanent deformation
Free length - Length of a spring when not under load
Hand - Direction of spring coil helix i.e. left or right
Open end - End of an open coiled helical spring where
the helix angle of the end coil has not been
progressively reduced

Permanent set - Permanent deformation of a spring after

the load has been removed
Pitch - Distance from one coil to the corresponding point
in the next coil measured parallel to the spring axis
Prestressing (scragging) - Process where stresses are
induced into a spring to improve performance
Shot peening - Process of applying shot to the surface of
a spring to induce residual stresses in the outer surface of
the material to improve fatigue resistance
Solid force - Theoretical force of a spring when
compressed to its solid length
Solid length - Length of a compression spring when all
the coils are in contact with each other
Spring index - Ratio of mean coil diameter to material
diameter or radial width of cross section for
square/trapezoidal springs
Spring rate - Change in load per unit of deflection
Stress relieving - Low temperature heat treatment used
to relieve residual stresses, caused by the manufacturing
process, that causes no change in the metallurgical
structure of the spring material

Calculations
Proper design of compression springs requires knowledge of
both the potential and the limitations of available materials
together with simple formulae. Since spring theory is normally
developed on the basis of spring rate the formula for spring
rate is the most widely used in spring design. The primary
characteristics useful in designing compression springs are:
Term

Unit

Buckling of compression springs results from the ends of

unsupported ( i.e. not used over a shaft) springs not being
ground exactly square, which is commonly the case as
mentioned earlier. BS 1726 : Part 1 says that a spring will buckle
if the deflection as a proportion of the free length of the spring
exceeds a critical value of H (end fixation factor) - in the
equation H /(free length of spring/mean coil diameter). Values
of H are given for laterally and non-laterally constrained
applications but it says the minimum figure should be 0.4 to 0.5.
Solid height or length
The solid height of a compression spring is defined as the length
of the spring when under sufficient load to bring all coils into
contact with the adjacent coils and additional load causes no
further deflection. Solid height should be specified by the user
as a maximum, with the actual number of coils in the spring to
be determined by the spring manufacturer.
Coatings on springs
Finishing springs by zinc plating and passivation may
increase spring rate figures by effectively increasing the
diameter of the wire.

spring rate in

N/mm

spring force

change in spring force

deflection

mm

mean coil diameter

mm

wire diameter

mm

modulus of rigidity

N/mm

number of active coils

spring index

stress correction factor

total number of coils

Tolerances

spring length

mm

Lo

free length of spring

mm

Ls

theoretical solid length of spring

mm

Ls(max)

maximum allowable free length

mm

end fixation factor

shear stress

N/mm2

Spring manufacturing, as in many other production

processes, is not exact. It can be expected to produce
variations in such spring characteristics as load, mean coil
diameter, free length, and relationship of ends or hooks.
The very nature of spring forms, materials, and standard
manufacturing processes cause inherent variations. The
overall quality level for a given spring design, however, can
be expected to be superior with spring manufacturers who
specialise in precision, high-quality components.
Normal or average tolerances on performance and
dimensional characteristics may be expected to be different
for each spring design. Manufacturing variations in a
particular spring depend in large part on variations in spring
characteristics, such as index, wire diameter, number of coils,
free length, deflection and ratio of deflection to free length.
Tables 1 - 4 give tolerances on major spring dimensions
based on normal manufacturing variations in compression
and extension springs.

For compression springs with closed ends, ground or not

ground, the number of active coils (n) is two less than the total
number of coils (N).
To determine spring rate:

S = F = Gd4
L 8nD3
To determine spring index:

c=D
d

COMPRESSION AND EXTENSION SPRINGS

Coil Diameter Tolerances, mm

To determine stress correction factor:

K = c + 0.2
c-1
where c

= D
d

To determine shear stress:

T = 8FDK
d3

Wire Dia.
mm
0.38
0.58
0.89
1.30
1.93
2.90
4.34
6.35
9.53
12.70

Spring Index, D/d

4

10

12

14

16

0.05
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.28
0.41
0.53

0.05
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.18
0.23
0.30
0.38
0.51
0.76

0.08
0.10
0.15
0.18
0.25
0.33
0.43
0.53
0.66
1.02

0.10
0.15
0.18
0.25
0.33
0.46
0.58
0.71
0.94
1.57

0.13
0.18
0.23
0.30
0.41
0.53
0.71
0.89
1.17
2.03

0.15
0.20
0.28
0.38
0.48
0.64
0.84
1.07
1.37
2.54

0.18
0.25
0.33
0.43
0.56
0.74
0.97
1.24
1.63
3.18

Table 1

COMPRESSION SPRINGS Normal Load Tolerances, percent of load

Length
tolerance
+/- mm

0.13
0.23
0.51
0.76
1.02
1.27
1.52
1.78
2.03
2.29
2.54
5.08
7.62
10.16
12.70

Deflection from free length to load, mm

1.3

2.5

3.8

5.1

12

7
12
22

6
8.5
15.5
22

5
7
12
17
22

6.4

7.6

10.2

6.5
10
14
18
22
25

5.5
8.5
12
15.5
19
22
25

5
7
9.5
12
14.5
17
19.5
22
25

12.7

19.1

6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22

5
6
7.5
9
10
11
12.5
14
15.5

25.4

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
22

38.1

5
5.5
6
6.5
7.5
8
8.5
15.5
22

50.8

76.2

101.6 152.4

5
5.5
6
6
7
12
17
21
25

5
5
5.5
8.5
12
15
18.5

7
9.5
12
14.5

5.5
7
8.5
10.5

Table 2

COMPRESSION SPRINGS
Squareness in Free-Position Tolerances (closed and ground ends), degrees
Slenderness
Ratio (L/D)

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0

Spring Index, D/d

4

10

12

14

16

3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.0

3.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0

3.5
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0

4.0
3.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5

NOTE:
Squareness closer than shown requires special
process techniques, which increase cost.
Springs with fine wire sizes, high spring indexes,
irregular shapes, or long free lengths require special
consideration in determining squareness tolerance
and feasibility of grinding.

Table 3

It is recommended that tables 1, 2 & 3 be used as guides in establishing tolerances, particularly in estimating whether or
not application requirements may increase spring cost. In any case, as noted on the suggested specification forms that
follow for the various spring types, mandatory specifications should be given only as required. Advisory data, which the
spring manufacturer is permitted to change, in order to achieve the mandatory specifications, should be given separately.

Specifying springs
APPLICATION FOR DESIGN OF HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRINGS

5 Assembly, or further processing details

1 End Coil Formation

Closed
Open
Closed and Ground





2 Operation (if dynamic)

6 Atmosphere, special protection details

Minimum required life

Speed of operation
Maximum force-length
Minimum force-length

cycles
Hz
N-mm
N-mm

3 Temperatures

7 Surface coating
o

Minimum operating temperature

Maximum operating temperature

C
C

4 Material
Specification number
Circular

Diameter=
Rectangular 
Section
Heat treatment

8 Other requirements

mm x

mm
mm

To decrease actual stress

Load correct at max travel

but too high at less travel

Load correct at max travel

but too low at less travel

Decrease
number of
coils N

Increase
deflection
mm/N

To increase I.D.

To decrease O.D.

To increase free length

To decrease free length

To decrease load

To increase load

Condition to satisfy 

Solution 

Decrease
mean dia
D

Increase
wire dia
d

Decrease
deflection
rate mm/N

Decrease
amount of
travel

This chart can be used to provide guidance on how to solve certain basic compression spring design problems.

Design alternatives

Increase
amount of
travel

Increase
number of
coils N

Increase
mean dia
D

Decrease
wire dia
d

Decrease
max load
F

Extension springs
Description
Springs that absorb and store energy by offering resistance to a pulling force are known as extension springs. Various
types of ends are used to attach this type of spring to the source of the force.

Key design factors

The variety of extension spring ends is limited only by the
imagination of the designer. These can include threaded
inserts (for precise control of tension), reduced and
expanded eyes on the side or in the centre of the spring,
extended loops, hooks or eyes at different positions or
distances from the body of the spring, and even

rectangular or teardrop-shaped ends. By far the most

common, however, are the machine loop and cross-over
loop types shown in Fig 1. These ends are made using
standard tools in one operation and should be specified
whenever possible in order to minimise costs.

Fig. 1

It should be remembered that as the space occupied by

the machine loop is shortened, the transition radius is
reduced and an appreciable stress concentration occurs.
This will contribute to a shortening of spring life and to
premature failure. Most failures of extension springs occur
in the area of the end, so in order to maximise the life of
a spring, the path of the wire should be smooth and
gradual as it flows in to the end. A minimum bend radius
of 1.5 times the wire diameter is recommended.

Until recently, the majority of ends were manufactured in

a separate operation; nowadays, however, many ends can
be made by mechanical and computer-controlled machines
as part of the coiling operation. As there are many
machines available for coiling and looping in one
operation, it is recommended that the spring manufacturer
be consulted before the completion of a design.

Load deflection characteristics

Most extension springs are wound with initial tension - this
is an internal force that holds the coils together tightly. The
measure of the initial tension is the load necessary to
overcome the internal force and start coil separation. Unlike
a compression spring, which has zero load at zero deflection,
an extension spring can have a pre-load at zero deflection.
In practice, this means that, before the spring will
extend, a force greater than the initial tension must be
applied. Once the initial tension is overcome as the
spring is pulled apart, the spring will exhibit consistent
load deflection characteristics.
It is useful to note that two extension springs used in series
will double the deflection for the same load and three
springs in series will triple the deflection for the same load.
Conversely two springs in parallel will double the load for
the same deflection and three springs will triple the load
for the same deflection.
Adding springs will continue to increase the deflection
and load as described.

Figure 2 shows load deflection characteristics. The broken

line A shows the load required to overcome initial tension
and the deflection or spring rate of the end loops. Line B
illustrates deflection when all coils are active.
A spring with high initial tension will exert a high load
when subject to a small deflection. If this is combined
with a low rate, the spring will exhibit an approximate
constant force characteristic.
A typical use for this is the accelerator pedal of a car, where
a minimum force must be produced by the spring to
overcome friction and to return the pedal. However, on
depressing the pedal, the required force does not increase.
Counterbalances, electrical switchgear and tensioning
devices all make use of high initial tension - low rate
springs, whereas the one major product which calls for
zero initial tension is the spring balance. To ensure zero
initial tension the springs for balances are invariably
coiled slightly open and use screwed-in inserts for
precise rate adjustment.

Load deflection characteristics

Calculations
Term
F2
F2 - F0

B
Line

F2 - F1

F2 - F1
L2 - L1

F1
F0
Line A

F0

L0

L1

Unit

spring index

Do

outside diameter

mm

mean coil diameter

mm

wire diameter

mm

Fo

initial tension

change in spring force

number of active coils

LB

body Length

mm

Lo

overall free length inside hooks

mm

spring length

mm

change in spring length

mm

deflection

spring rate

N/mm

Rm

minimum tensile strength

N/mm2

Stress correction factor = K = c + 0.2

Modulus of rigidity

N/mm2

Shear stress

N/mm2

mm

c-1

L2

Formlae:
Shear stress due to load F :
Summary of design factors
1. Stresses must always be kept lower than in
compression springs because:(a) most loops are weak
(b) extension springs cannot be easily prestressed
(c) extension springs cannot be easily shot peened
2. The loops are active and their deflection may need to
be compensated for by a small reduction in active
coils in the order of 0.1 to 0.25 turns
3. The initial tension should be within the preferred range
for optimum tolerances
4. Do not use large loops or screwed-in inserts unless the
application demands it
5. Use modified compression spring Goodman diagrams to
design for dynamic applications
6. Heat treatment raises the elastic limit but reduces initial tension
7. The higher the wire strength, the higher the initial tension

T = 8FDK
d3
Spring rate:

S = F = Gd 4
L 8nD3
Free length inside hooks:

Lo = (n +1) d + 2 (D - d)
Initial tension

Fo = F2 - F2 - F1 (L2 - Lo)
L2 - L1
Fo = F2 - S (L2 - Lo)

Tolerances
For guidance on tolerances refer to the compression spring tables 1 to 3 on pages 3-4

Specifying springs
APPLICATION FOR DESIGN OF HELICAL EXTENSION SPRINGS

5 Assembly, or further processing details

1 End Loop Form

Type (see clause 6)
Relative position
Where important, loop details, dimensions and the
method of fixing are to be given on a separate
sheet of paper and attached to this data sheet.

2 Operation (if dynamic)

6 Atmosphere, special protection details

Minimum required life

Speed of operation
Maximum force-length
Minimum force-length

cycles
Hz
N-mm
N-mm

3 Temperatures

7 Surface coating
o

Minimum operating temperature

Maximum operating temperature

C
C

4 Material
Specification number
Circular

Diameter=
Rectangular 
Section
Heat treatment

8 Other requirements

mm x

mm
mm

Load correct at max travel

but too low at less travel

To decrease actual stress

Load correct at max travel

but too high at less travel

To decrease O.D.

To increase free length

To decrease free length

To decrease load

To increase load

Solution  Increase
Decrease Decrease Increase
deflection number
mean dia wire dia
mm/N
of coils N D
d
Condition to satisfy 

Use intial Decrease Decrease

tension
deflection amount
rate mm/N of travel

Increase
amount
of travel

This chart can be used to provide guidance on how to solve certain basic extension spring design problems.

Design alternatives

Increase
Increase
Decrease
number
mean dia wire dia
of coils N D
d

X
X

Cut down Increase

Decrease
length of length of max load
end loops end loops F

Torsion springs
Description
Torsion springs, have ends which are rotated in angular deflection to offer resistance to externally applied torque. The
wire itself is subjected to bending stresses rather than torsional stresses. Springs of this type usually are close-wound; they
reduce in coil diameter and increase in body length as they are deflected. The designer must also consider the effects of
friction and of arm deflection on torque.

Key design factors

Special types of torsion springs include double-torsion
springs and springs having a space between the coils in order
to minimise friction. Double-torsion springs consist of one
right-hand and one left-hand coil section, connected, and
working in parallel. The sections are designed separately
with the total torque exerted being the sum of the two.
The types of ends for a torsion spring must be considered
carefully. Although there is a good deal of flexibility in
specifying special ends and end-forming, costs might be

increased and a tooling charge incurred. Designers should

check nominal free-angle tolerances relating to application
requirements in the details given in tabular information
prepared by manufacturers. It should be noted that in
addition to the supply of specification information, the
designer should provide a drawing which indicates end
configurations which are acceptable to the application.
It is 'good practice' to use both left and right hand
windings when ever possible.

Calculations
Term

Unit

spring index

mean coil diameter

mm

material diameter

mm

modulus of elasticity

M/mm2

Spring force

Ko

stress correction factor for circular

Stress correction factors

Stress correction factor Ko for round section materials is
given by the equation:

Ko =

where c = D/d

section wire

Lo

Free body length

mm

Lt

Loaded body length

mm

L1

Length of leg one

mm

L2

Length of leg two

mm

number of active coils in spring

bending stress in spring

N/mm

nominal torsional rate

N.mm/degree

torque at any angle

N.mm

change in torque

N.mm

angular rotation of spring

degrees

Stress
The bending stress for round section materials is given by
the equation:

= 32T Ko
d3

0.38
0.58
0.89
1.30
1.93
2.90
4.34
6.35
Table 4

Torsional rate
The torsional rate for round section material is given by the
equation:

S = T = Ed4
3667nD

Torsion Springs
Coil Diameter Tolerances, mm
Wire Dia.
mm.

c
c - 0.75

Torsion Springs
Calculated free relative leg orientation tolerance degrees

Spring Index, D/d

4

10

12

14

16

0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20

0.05
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.13
0.18
0.25
0.36

0.05
0.05
0.08
0.13
0.18
0.25
0.33
0.56

0.05
0.08
0.10
0.18
0.23
0.33
0.51
0.76

0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.46
0.69
1.02

0.08
0.13
0.18
0.25
0.38
0.56
0.86
1.27

0.10
0.15
0.23
0.30
0.46
0.71
1.07
1.52

Number of
coils

2
3
4
5
6
8
10
15
20
25
30
50

Spring Index (c)

4

10

12

14

16

8
8
8
9
11
13
15
20
24
29
32
46

8
8
10
11
13
16
18
24
30
35
40
57

8
9
11
13
15
18
21
28
35
40
46
66

8
10
13
15
17
20
24
32
39
45
51
73

8
11
14
16
18
22
26
35
42
49
56
80

9
12
15
17
20
24
28
37
46
53
61
87

10
13
16
19
21
26
30
40
49
57
65
93

Table 5

11

0o

90o

180o

315o

Axial

Tangential

Radial

One radial overcentre leg and

one tangential leg
Conventions for describing relative leg orientation

Dimensional changes
In use the dimensions of torsion springs change. This is
caused by the action of winding the spring up under
torque and unwinding. During winding the following
changes occur:
The number of coils in the spring increases - one complete
turn of 360 of one leg will increase the number of coils in
the spring by one.
Subsequently spring length increases one coil.
The mean coil diameter of the spring decreases - as the
wire length remains the same during coiling, the additional
material for the extra coils is drawn from a reduction in
spring diameter. This reduction in mean coil diameter is
proportional to the increase in the number of coils.
Depending upon the spring design (few coils) the
reduction in diameter can be significant.
This reduction can be calculated using the following formula:
Mean coil diameter at working position =
Number of coils in free position x mean coil in free position
Number of coils in working position
Bearing mind these factors it is necessary to take account
of the reduction in spring diameter if a spring is to
operate on a mandrel or in a tube. Failure to leave
adequate clearances between the inside diameter of the
spring and the mandrel will cause the body of the spring
to lock up on the mandrel, leaving the legs to take
additional deflection and stress. In this situation the legs
will take an immediate permanent set, altering the

12

spring characteristics and failing to provide the designed

function. Secondly, the increase in body length must also
be considered to ensure there is adequate clearance for
the spring body to grow. Otherwise a similar situation
will occur resulting in a permanent loss of spring
performance and spring failure.
It is advised that a clearance equal to 10% of the spring
dimensions is left between the inside diameter and the
mandrel and between body length and housing length.

Spring legs
Prior to the designing of a spring it is necessary to know
the deflection and leg position requirements. The leg
relationship for the spring can be specified in one of two
ways.
1. Required torque developed after a deflection of 0 degrees.
This method does not specify the relative angle of the
two legs either in the free position or the working
position of the spring.
Consequently the spring can be designed with any number
of whole or partial coils to achieve the required torque
deflection relationship. The leg relationship in the free
position is then a result of the number of coils determined.
2. Required torque developed at a specified angle of the
two legs relative to each other. When the spring rate is
specified or calculated from additional torque deflection
characteristics, the relative angle of the two legs in the
free position may be calculated.

Torque calculations

Stress calculations

Sometimes the requirements for a spring will be specified as a

torque and other times as a load. Consequently it is necessary
in the latter instance to convert the load to a torque.
Torque = Applied load x distance to spring axis
It is important to note that the distance from the line of
action of the force to the centre axis of the spring is at
right angles to the line of force. For the example above the
distance is the same as the leg length for a tangential leg
spring when the force is acting at right angles to the leg.
For a spring with radial legs the torque would be
calculated as follows:

Unlike compression and extension springs where the

induced stress is torsional, torsion springs operate in
bending inducing a bending stress, which is directly
proportional to the torque carried by the spring and is
calculated as follows:

= 32T
d3
Once again this formula can be transposed when the allowable
stress is known to determine wire diameter or torque.

T=FxL

Body length calculation

Deflection calculation
Based upon the spring dimensions the predicted deflection
may be calculated for a specified torque using the
following formula:

The body length of a close coiled spring in the free position:

L0 = (n + 1)d
In the working position the body length is:

Deflection = 64T L1 + L2 + ND x 180

Ed4
3

The units for the above are degrees. However, sometimes

drawings are specified in radians or turns, to convert use
the following factors:
Degrees to radians multiple by n and divide by 180
Degrees to turns divide by 360
Sometimes the above formula is simplified as follows:

= 64T ND x 180
Ed4

This is only true for the case where the spring does not have
any legs and so no account is made for leg deflection.
It is recommended that only the full formula above is always
used to automatically account for leg deflection. As this
portion of the total deflection can be very significant
dependent upon the spring design (total coils and leg length).

Rate calculation
The rate (S) of a torsion spring is a constant for any spring design
and is the amount of increase in torque for a given deflection.
For a spring with a deflection of 0 from free, under an
applied Torque (T), the rate is the change in torque divided
by the deflection.

Lt = n + 1 + d
360

Stresses
Springs are stressed in bending and not torsion, as in the
case for compression and extension springs. As a
consequence torsion springs can be stressed higher than
for compression springs.
For example, with a patented carbon steel to BS 5216, an
un-prestressed compression spring can be stressed up to
49% of tensile whilst an un-prestressed torsion spring can
be stressed up to 70% of tensile strength.
Unlike compression springs, which fail safe by going solid when
overloaded, a torsion spring can easily be overstressed. It is
therefore important that sufficient residual range is always
designed into the spring. This is performed by always designing
the spring to a torque I5% greater than the required torque.
A suitable low temperature heat treatment of the springs
after coiling can raise the maximum permissible working
stress considerably. For example, with BS 5216 material the
maximum stress level can be increased to about 85%.
An important fact relating to the heat treatment of torsion
springs is that they will either wind up or unwind according
to material. (For example carbon steel will wind up whilst
stainless steel will unwind).

S=T

Alternatively, if the torque at two angular leg positions is

known then the rate is the change in torque divided by the
change in leg angle.

13

Specifying springs
APPLICATION FOR DESIGN OF HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS
Where important, full details of the spring leg forms and/or space enveloped should be included here.

5 Service temperatures

1 Leg form
One

Both

Axial

Tangential

Radial (external)

Radial (over-centre)

Other

Max. operating temp

(oC)

Min. operating temp

(oC)

Working life

(h)

6 Service environment

2 Limiting dimensions
Maximum allowable outside diameter
Mandrel diameter
Maximum allowable body length

mm
mm
mm

3 Torque and rate requirements

Pre-load position

Max. working position

degree

degree

N-mm

N-mm

7 Finish

8 Other requirements
Ttol

Loading
direction

Increasing torque/
decreasing torque

Torsional rate S =
Assembly adjustment Yes/No

N-mm

N-mm

Increasing torque/
decreasing torque
N-mm/degree
degree

4 Mode of operation
Serial/design/Part No.

Required life (cycles)

Operating speed

14

(cycles/min)

To decrease actual stress

Load correct at max travel

but too high at less travel

Load correct at max travel

but too low at less travel

Decrease
number of coils
N

To increase I.D.

To decrease O.D.

To increase body length

To decrease body length

To decrease load

To increase load

Solution  Increase
deflection rate
M/360deg
Condition to satisfy 

Decrease mean
dia D

Increase
wire dia d

Decrease
deflection rate
M/360deg

Decrease amount
of angular
deflection

This chart can be used to provide guidance on how to solve certain basic torsion spring design problems.

Design alternatives

Increase amount
of angular
deflection

Increase
number of coils
N

Increase
mean dia D

Decrease
wire dia d

Decrease max
moment M

Appendices
Definitions

(as given in BS 1726)

Active coils (effective coils, working coils). The coils of a spring

that at any instant are contributing to the rate of the spring.
Buckling. The unstable lateral distortion of the major axis of a
spring when compressed.
Closed end. The end of a helical spring in which the helix
angle of the end coil has been progressively reduced until the
end coil touches the adjacent coil.
Compression spring. A spring whose dimension, in the direction
of the applied force, reduces under the action of that force.
Compression test. A test carried out by pressing a spring to a
specified length a specified number of times.
Creep. The change in length of a spring over time when
subjected to a constant force.
Deflection. The relative displacement of the ends of a spring
under the application of a force.
Elastic deformation. The deformation that takes place when a
material is subjected to any stress up to its elastic limit. On
removal of the force causing this deformation the material
returns to its original size and shape.
Elastic limit (limit of proportionality). The highest stress
that can be applied to a material without producing
permanent deformation.
End fixation factor. A factor used in the calculation of buckling
to take account of the method of locating the end of the spring.
Extension spring. A spring whose length, in the direction of
the applied force, increases under the application of that force.
Fatigue. The phenomenon that gives rise to a type of failure
which takes place under conditions involving repeated or
fluctuating stresses below the elastic limit of the material.
Fatigue limit. The value, which may be statistically
determined, of the stress condition below which material may
endure an infinite number of stress cycles.
Fatigue strength (endurance limit). A stress condition under
which a material will have a life of a given number of cycles.
Fatigue test. A test to determine the number of cycles of stress
that will produce failure of a component or test piece.
Finish. A coating applied to protect or decorate springs.
Free length. The length of a spring when it is not loaded.
NOTE. In the case of extension springs this may include the anchor ends.
Grinding. The removal of metal from the end faces of a spring
by the use of abrasive wheels to obtain a flat surface which is
square with the spring axis.
Helical spring. A spring made by forming material into a helix.
Helix angle. The angle of the helix of a helical coil spring.
Hysteresis. The lagging of the effect behind the cause of the
effect. A measure of hysteresis in a spring is represented by
the area between the loading and unloading curves produced
when the spring is stressed within the elastic range.
Index. The ratio of the mean coil diameter of a spring to the
material diameter for circular sections or radial width of cross
section for rectangular or trapezoidal sections.
Initial tension. The part of the force exerted, when a close
coiled spring is axially extended, that is not attributable to the
product of the theoretical rate and the measured deflection.
Inside coil diameter of a spring. The diameter of the cylindrical
envelope formed by the inside surface of the coils of a spring.
Loop (eye, hook). The formed anchoring point of a helical
spring or wire form. When applied to an extension spring, it
is usually called a loop. If closed, it may be termed an eye and
if partially open may be termed a hook.

16

Modulus of elasticity. The ratio of stress to strain within

the elastic range.
NOTE. The modulus of elasticity in tension or compression is also known as
Young's modulus and that in shear as the modulus of rigidity.
Open end. The end of an open coiled helical spring in which the
helix angle of the end coil has not been progressively reduced.
Outside coil diameter. The diameter of the cylindrical envelope
formed by the outside surface of the coils of a spring.
Permanent set (set). The permanent deformation of a spring
after the application and removal of a force.
Pitch. The distance from any point in the section of any one
coil to the corresponding point in the next coil when
measured parallel to the axis of the spring.
Prestressing (scragging). A process during which internal
stresses are induced into a spring.
NOTE. It is achieved by subjecting the spring to a stress greater than that to
which it is subjected under working conditions and higher than the elastic limit
of the material.The plastically deformed areas resulting from this stress cause an
advantageous redistribution of the stresses within the spring. Prestressing can
only be performed in the direction of applied force.
Rate (stiffness). The force that has to be applied in order to
produce unit deflection.
Relaxation. Loss of force of a spring with time when deflected
to a fixed position.
NOTE. The degree of relaxation is dependent upon, and increases with, the
magnitude of stress, temperature and time.
Safe deflection. The maximum deflection that can be applied
to a spring without exceeding the elastic limit of the material.
Screw insert. A plug screwed into the ends of a helical
extension spring as a means of attaching a spring to another
component. The plug has an external thread, the diameter,
pitch and form of which match those of the spring.
Shot peening. A cold working process in which shot is
impacted on to the surfaces of springs thereby inducing
residual stresses in the outside fibres of the material.
NOTE. The effect of this is that the algebraic sum of the residual and applied
stresses in the outside fibres of the material is lower than the applied stress,
resulting in improved fatigue life of the component.
Solid length. The overall length of a helical spring when each
and every coil is in contact with the next.
Solid force. The theoretical force of a spring when compressed
to its solid length.
Space (gap). The distance between one coil and the next coil
in an open coiled helical spring measured parallel to the axis
of the spring.
Spring seat. The part of a mechanism that receives the ends
of a spring and which may include a bore or spigot to
centralize the spring.
Stress (bonding stress, shear stress). The force divided by the
area over which it acts. This is applied to the material of the
spring, and for compression and extension springs is in torsion
or shear, and for torsion springs is in tension or bending.
Stress correction factor. A factor that is introduced to make
allowance for the fact that the distribution of shear stress
across the wire diameter is not symmetrical.
NOTE. This stress is higher on the inside of the coil than it is on the outside.
Stress relieving. A low temperature heat treatment carried
out at temperatures where there is no apparent range in the
metallurgical structure of the material. The purpose of the
treatment is to relieve stresses induced during manufacturing
processes.
Variable pitch spring. A helical spring in which the pitch of the
active coils is not constant.

Spring Materials Data

Spring materials - Summary table

Material

Min UTS
Size
2
Specification Grade/Type Range (mm) Range (N/mm )
BS 5216

BS 2803

1
2+3
M4
M5

0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1

095A65
094A65
093A65

0.25 - 12.5

1910 - 1240

1.0 - 12.5

1970 - 1360
1910 - 1350

735A654
735A65

9.0
13.2
4.0
3.0

370 - 940
2640 - 1040
3020 - 1770
3400 - 2000

Continued overleaf

Heat Treatment Max Corrosion

Fatigue
Serv.
After Coiling Temp Resistance Resistance
Poor
NS,HS:N/A (2)
NS
HD:Excellent
HS, ND, HD SR (1) 300/375oC 150
M: V Good
M, Ground M
1.5 hr
Gr.M: Excellent
M
Surface
Qualities

NS
HS, ND
HD
SR 350/450oC
1.5 hr

200

HS, ND, HD
685A55:R1
685A55:R2

1.0 - 12.5

1950 - 1460
2100 - 1610

1.0 - 16.0

1740 - 1290

NS, ND, HD

H/T (3) to
hardness
required

Poor

NS; N/A
ND; Good
HD; V Good

200
250

685A55
080A67
060A78

12.0 - 16.0

251A58
250A60

12.0 - 16.0
12.0 - 25.0

525A58
525A60
525A61

12.0 - 25.0
12.0 - 40.0
12.0 - 54.0

685A57

12.0 - 40.0

1740 - 1290

Black Bar
Ground Bar

H/T to hardness
required

170

Poor

Black Bar; Poor

Ground Bar; Good

170
170
1740 - 1290

BS 970:Pt 2

BS 2056
(austenitic)

HS; N/A
ND; Good
HD; Excellent

170

735A50

BS 970:Pt 1

Poor
250

090A65
070A72
060A69
BS 1429

NS, HS: N/A

ND; Good
HD; V Good

170

Black Bar,
Peeled or,
Turned Bar,
Ground Bar

250
H/T to hardness
required

12.0 - 80.0

735A51
735A54

12.0 - 40.0
12.0 - 54.0

200

925A60

12.0 - 80.0

170

805H60

12.0 - 80.0

200

302S26;GrI
302S26;GrII
301S26;GrI
301S26;GrII

0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08

4.0
10.0
6.0
10.0

1880
2160
1920
2200

1230
1230
1200
1250

316S33
316S42
305S11
904S14

0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08

10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0

1680
1680
1680
1600

860
860
860
1150

SR 450oC 1/2 hr

Black Bar; Poor

Peeled or
Turned Bar; Good
Ground Bar; Good

170

704A60
705A60

As drawn
or
As drawn
& polished

Poor

300

Good

Poor

17

 Spring materials - Summary table

Material

Continued

Heat Treatment Max Corrosion

Serv.
After Coiling Temp Resistance

Min UTS
Size
2
Specification Grade/Type Range (mm) Range (N/mm )

Surface
Qualities

BS 2056
(pcpn.harden)

301S81

0.25 - 10.0

2230 - 1470

As drawn

A(4) 480oC 1hr

320

Good

Poor

BS 2056
(martensitic)

420S45

5.00 - 10.0

2000 - 1740

As drawn &
softened

H/T to hardness
required

300

Good

Poor

402S29

10.0 - 70.0

1650 - 1470

Bright Bar

H/T to hardness
required

320

Good

Poor

Cold Drawn
Sol Treated

0.45 - 10.0
0.45 - 10.0

1540 - 1310
1080

As drawn

A.650oC: 4hrs
A.750oC: 4hrs

350
350

Excellent Poor

0.30 - 14.3

1275 - 965

As drawn

SR 450oC: 1hr

340

Excellent Poor

BS 970: Pt 1
BS 3075 GrNA19

ASTM B166-84 Spring Temper

AMS 5699D

Spring Temper

0.30 - 15.5

1515 - 1240

A.650 C: 4hrs

370

A.735oC: 16hrs

550

As drawn

A.590oC: 8hrs

260

Excellent Poor

Excellent Poor

Excellent Poor

As drawn
AMS 5698D

No. 1 Temper

BS 3075 GrNA18 Cold Drawn

ASTM B164-84 Spring Temper
1

0.30 - 12.5

1140 - 1070

0.45 - 8.0

1240 - 1170
1140 - 830

As drawn

SR 310 C: /2hr

200

As drawn

SR 180/230oC:
1
/2hr

80

Good

V.Poor

80

Good

Poor

As drawn

SR 180/230oC:
1
/2hr

As drawn

A.335oC: 2hrs

125

Good

Poor

CZ 107: /2H
CZ 107: H
CZ 107: EH

0.50 - 10.0
0.50 - 10.0
0.50 - 6.0

460 min
700 min
740 - 695

**BS

PB 102: 1/2H
PB 102: H
PB 102: EH
PB 103: 1/2H
PB 103: H
PB 103: EH
CB 101WP
CB 101W(H)P

0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50

540 min
700 min
850 - 800
590 min
740 min
900 - 850
1050 min
1240 min

10.0
10.0
6.0
10.0
10.0
6.0
10.0
3.0

KEY
1. SR

= Stress Relieve

2. N/A

= Not Applicable

3. H/T

= Harden and Temper

4. A

= Ageing (Precipitation Hardening)

5. Corrosion Ratings = Poor, Good, Excellent

6. Fatigue Ratings

= V Poor, Poor, Good, V Good, Excellent

**Now BS EN 12166: 1998

18

0.30 - 14.3

BS 2786

2873

Fatigue
Resistance

Maximum permissible stresses for springs - Static applications

Material

Specification

Unprestressed
Compression
and Extension
Springs
% Rm

Maximum Static Stresses

Prestressed
Unprestressed
Compression
Torsion
Springs
Springs

Prestressed
Torsion
Springs

% Rm

% Rm

% Rm

Patented cold drawn spring

steel wire

BS 5215, BS 1408

49*

70

70

100

Prehardened and tempered

carbon steel and low alloy wire

BS 2803

53

70

70

100

Steels hardened and

tempered after coiling
carbon & low alloy

BS 1429,
BS 970 Parts 1&2

53

70

70

100

Austenitic stainless steel wire

Martensitic stainless steel wire
Precipitation hardening
stainless wire

BS 2056 Gr 302S25
BS 2056 Gr 420S45
BS 2056 Gr 301S81

40*
53
53

59
70
70

70
70
70

100
100
100

Spring brass wire

Extra hard phosphor-bronze
wire
Beryllium-copper wire

**BS
**BS

2873 Gr CZ107
2873 Gr PB102/103

40
40

59
59

70
70

100
100

**BS

2873 Gr CB 101

40

59

70

100

Monel alloy 400

Monel alloy K 500
Inconel alloy 600
Inconel alloy X 750
Nimonic alloy 90

ASTM B164-90
BS 3075 Gr NA18
ASTM B166-91
AMS 5699C
BS 3075 Gr NA19

40
40
42
42
42

53
53
55
55
55

70
70
70
70
70

100
100
100
100
100

40

53

70

100

Ni-span alloy C902

*N.B. For unprestressed compression and extension springs in static applications the LTHT (low temperature heat
treatment) after coiling may be omitted only for BS 5216 and BS 2056 austenitic stainless materials. In this case, the
maximum solid stress is reduced to 40% Rm for BS 5216 springs and 30% Rm for austenitic stainless springs.
**Now BS EN 12166: 1998

Elastic modulus values for spring materials

MATERIAL

Cold drawn carbon steel

Hardened and tempered carbon steel
Hardened and tempered low alloy steels
Austenitic stainless
Martensitic stainless
Precipitation hardening stainless
Phosphor-bronze
Spring brass
Copper-beryllium
Monel alloy 400 + K500
Inconel 600 + X750
Nimonic alloy 90
Titanium alloys
Ni-span alloy C902, Durinval C

E
kN/mm2

G
kN/mm2

207
207
207
187.5
207
200
104
104
128
179
214
224
110
190

79.3
79.3
79.3
70.3
79.3
76.0
44.0
38.0
48.3
65.5
76.0
84.0
37.9
65.0

NOTE: The above are average room temperature values. With some materials these values can vary significantly with
metallurgical conditions.
As a guide to change in modulus with temperature value of 3% change per 100oC will give sufficient accuracy for all the
above materials except Ni-span C902 which has a constant modulus with temperature. For all the other spring materials
modulus decreases with increasing temperature.

19

600

600

500

500

400

400

300

300

Inconel Alloy X750

Nimonic Alloy 90

A 286

200

Elgiloy

18% Ni Maraging Steel

Inconel Alloy 600

17/7PH Stainless Steel

Austenitic Stainless Steel

Si Cr Steel

Cr V Steel

Hardened and
Tempered Carbon Steels

Alloys

Copper
Beryllium

Phosphor
Bronze

100

Patented Carbon
Steels

200

Tungsten Tool Steels (High Speed)

Temperature oC

Maximum operating temperatures for spring materials

100

Material

Finishes
Springs made from carbon and alloy steels are particularly
subject to corrosion. As well as spoiling the appearance of
the spring, rusting can lead to pitting attack and can often
result in complete failure of the component.
To prevent rusting, the steel surface should be isolated
from water vapour and oxygen in the atmosphere at all
stages of spring processing, storage and service, by
application of a suitable protective coating.
Several temporary protective coatings are available to
prevent corrosion in springs during processing and storage.
The term 'temporary' does not refer to the duration of
corrosion protection, but indicates only that the protective
coating can be easily applied and removed as required.
Nevertheless, temporary coatings are not suitable for long
term protection of springs against corrosion in damp,
humid or marine environments.
More durable coatings are therefore needed to protect
springs throughout their service life.
Electroplated zinc and cadmium coatings have been used
for many years to protect springs against corrosion during
service. These metallic coatings act sacrificially to protect
the spring, even when the coating is breached to expose
the steel surface. However, electroplated springs can break
due to hydrogen embrittlement introduced during the
plating process.

20

New methods have now been developed for depositing

zinc rich coatings onto the steel surface without
introducing hydrogen embrittlement. The zinc can be
mechanically applied during a barrelling process, or can be
contained within the resin base with which the spring is
coated during a dip/spin process, to give uniform coverage,
even over recessed surfaces.
Paint and plastic coatings can also be used to protect
springs against corrosion in service, neither of which
protect the springs sacrificially. As a result, the success or
failure of these coatings is critically dependent upon their
ability to prevent the corrosive environment from reaching
the steel surface. Good adhesion to the steel surface,
flexibility and resistance to the environment are therefore
required for paints and plastic coatings used to protect
springs against corrosion.
Developments in coating technology have produced several
new coatings which can be used to protect springs against
corrosion at various stages of manufacture and service.
The IST (Institute of Spring Technology) has evaluated
temporary coatings, metallic coatings, paint and plastics
coatings in detail and results are available from them or
ask you supplier.

Conversion data
Quantity

To convert from

To

Multiply by

Length

Feet (ft)

Metres

0.3048

Millimetres

304.8

Metres (m)

Feet

3.2808

Inches

39.3701

Metres

0.0254

Millimetres

25.4

Square Inches (in2)

Square Millimetres

645.16

Square Millimetres (mm2)

Square Inches

0.00155

Cubic Inches (in3)

Cubic Millimetres

16387.064

Cubic Millimetres (mm3)

Cubic Inches

0.000061024

Inches (in)

Area

Volume

Force

Pounds Force (lbf)

Newtons (N)

Kilograms Force (kgf)

Rate

Pounds Force per Inch (Ibf/in)

Newtons

4.4498

Kilograms Force

0.4536

Pounds Force

0.2247

Kilograms Force

0.102

Newtons

9.81

Pounds Force

2.2046

Kilograms Force per Millimetre

0.017858

Newtons per Millimetre

0.17519

Newtons per Millimetre (N/mm) Pounds Force per Inch

Torque

5.7082

Kilograms Force per Millimetre

0.102

Kilograms Force per Millimetre

Newtons per Millimetre

9.81

(kgf/mm)

Pounds Force per Inch

55.997

Pound Force-inch (Ibf/in)

Kilogram Force-Millimetre

11.52136

Newton-Metre

0.11302

Pound Force-inch

8.84763

Newton-Metre (Nm)

Ounce Force-inch

141.562

Kilogram Force-Millimetre

101.937

Kilogram Force-Millimetre

Pound Force-inch

0.086796

(kgf/mm)

Newton-Metre

0.00981

Ounce Force-inch

1.3887

Ounce Force-inch (ozf/in)

Pound Force-inch

0.0625

Newton-Metre

0.007064

Kilogram Force-Millimetre

0.72

21

Standard wire gauge

SWG

IMPERIAL

METRIC

0000000
000000
00000
0000
000
00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

0.5000
0.4640
0.4320
0.4000
0.3729
0.3480
0.3240
0.3000
0.2760
0.2520
0.2320
0.2120
0.1920
0.1760
0.1600
0.1440
0.1280
0.1160
0.1040
0.0920
0.0800
0.0720
0.0640
0.0560
0.0480
0.0400
0.0360
0.0320
0.0280
0.0240
0.0220
0.0200
0.0180
0.0164
0.0148
0.0136
0.0124
0.0116
0.0108
0.0100
0.0092
0.0084
0.0076
0.0068
0.0060
0.0052
0.0048
0.0044
0.0040
0.0036
0.0032
0.0028
0.0024
0.0020
0.0016
0.0012
0.0010

12.7000
11.7856
10.9728
10.1600
9.4488
8.8392
8.2296
7.6200
7.0104
6.4008
5.8928
5.3848
4.8768
4.4704
4.0640
3.6576
3.2512
2.9464
2.6416
2.3368
2.0320
1.8288
1.6256
1.4224
1.2192
1.0160
0.9144
0.8128
0.7112
0.6096
0.5588
0.5080
0.4572
0.4166
0.3759
0.3454
0.3150
0.2946
0.2743
0.2540
0.2337
0.2134
0.1930
0.1727
0.1524
0.1321
0.1219
0.1118
0.1016
0.0914
0.0813
0.0711
0.0610
0.0508
0.0406
0.0305
0.0254

23

Using microns
Human Hair Size
0.0762mm (0.003")
0.00254mm
(0.0001")

Particle of Dust
0.004mm (0.000157")

NOT SHOWN TO SCALE

0.0254mm
(0.001")

Particle of Cigarette Smoke

0.0025mm (0.000098")
0.001mm (0.00003937")
THE MICRON

Geometric solutions
The Diameter of a Circle equal in area to a given Square - multiply one side of the Square by 1.12838
The Side of a Hexagon inscribed in a Circle - multiply the Circle Diameter by 0.5
The Diameter of a Circle inscribed in a Hexagon - multiply one side of the Hexagon by 1.7321
The Side of an Equilateral Triangle inscribed in a Circle - multiply the Circle Diameter by 0.866
The Diameter of a Circle inscribed in an Equilateral Triangle - multiply one Side of the Triangle by 0.57735
The Area of a Square or Rectangle - multiply the base by the height
The Area of a Triangle - multiply the Base by half the Perpendicular
The Area of a Trapezoid - multiply half the sum of Parallel sides by the Perpendicular
The Area of a Regular Hexagon - multiply the square of one side by 2.598
The Area of a Regular Octagon - multiply the square of one side by 4.828
The Area of a Regular Polygon - multiply half the sum of Sides by the Inside Radius
The Circumference of a Circle - multiply the Diameter by 3.1416
The Diameter of a Circle, multiply the Circumference by 0.31831
The Square Root of the Area of a Circle x 1.12838 = the Diameter
The Circumference of a Circle x 0.159155 = the Radius
The Square Root of the area of a Circle x 0.56419 = the Radius
The Area of a Circle - multiply the Square of the Diameter by 0.7854
The Square of the Circumference of a circle x 0.07958 = the Area
Half the circumference of a Circle x half its diameter = the Area
The Area of the Surface of a Sphere - multiply the Diameter Squared by 3.1416
The Volume of a Sphere - multiply the Diameter Cubed by 0.5236
The Area of an Ellipse - multiply the Long Diameter by the Short Diameter by 0.78540
To find the Side of a Square inscribed in a Circle - multiply the Circle Diameter by 0.7071
To find the Side of a Square Equal in Area to a given Circle - multiply the Diameter by 0.8862

References:
BS 1726 : Parts 1, 2 & 3. These standards have been superceded. See inside front cover.
Institute of Spring Technology.
The information given in this catalogue is as complete and accurate as possible at the time of publication. However, Lee
Spring reserve the right to modify this data at any time without prior notice should this become necessary.

24

Conversion data
Stress

Pound Force per Square Inch

2

(Ibf/in )

kgf/mm2

0.000703

hbar

0.000689
2

0.006895

N/mm

tonf/in
Kilogram Force per Square
2

Millimetre (kgf/mm )

Hectobars

0.000446

lbf/in2

1422.823

hbar

0.981

N/mm2

9.81

tonf/in2

0.635

lbf/in2

1450.38
2

10

N/mm

Newton per Square Millimetre

2

kgf/mm

1.019368

tonf/in2

0.6475

lbf/in2

145.038
2

(N/mm )

Ton Force per Square Inch

2

kgf/mm

0.101937

hbar

0.1

tonf/in2

0.06475

lbf/in2

2240.0
2

(tonf/in )

kgf/mm

1.5743

hbar

1.54442
2

15.4442

N/mm

Length

Weight

Area

22

1 cm

= 0.3937 in

1 in

= 25.4 mm

1m

= 3.2808 ft

1 ft

= 0.3048 m

1 km

= 0.6214 mile

1 mile

= 1.6093 km

1g

= 0.0353 oz

1 oz

= 28.35 g

1 kg

= 2.2046 lb

1 lb

= 0.4536 kg

1 tonne

= 0.9842 ton

1 ton

= I.0I6 tonne

1 m2

= 1.196 yard2

1 in2

= 645.2 mm2

1 hectare

= 2.471 acre

1 yard2

= 0.8361 m2

1 acre

= 0.4047 hectare

1 sq mile

= 259 hectare

Lee Spring Limited, Latimer Road, Wokingham, Berkshire RG41 2WA.

Tel: 0118 978 1800. Fax: 0118 977 4832.
sales@leespring.co.uk
www.leespring.co.uk