Lecture 6: Optical Components

6. Optical
components
Optical Communication
Systems
and
Networks
Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Lecture 6: Optical Components

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53

BIBLIOGRA
PHY

Optical Networks. A practical perspective

Rajiv Ramaswami, Kumar N. Sivarajan, Chapter 3, pp. 107-223, Ed.
Morgan-kaufmann.
2nd Edition, 2002.

External electro-optic modulators

B.A.A. Saleh y M.C. Teich. Fundamentals of Photonics, Chapter
18, Ed.
Wiley.Iterscience.
J. Capamany, F. J. Fraile-Pelez, J. Mart, Dispositivos de
Comunicaciones pticas,
Chapter 6, Ed. Sntesis

Optical passive components: couplers,

combiners,
isolators, flters, multiplexers,
Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

J. Capamany, F. J. Fraile-Pelez, J. Mart, Dispositivos de

Comunicaciones pticas,
Chapter 2, Ed. Sntesis

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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53

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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53

Introduction to optical networks

Tema 6: Redes WDM

Unidirectional transmission
Bidirectional transmission

The same fiber used to carry out traffic in both propagation directions

Advantages:
It is achieved an optimization of optical fiber bandwidth and cost
savings outside plant

Disadvantages:
a) Special components (circulator) are needed for separating
the transmission directions
b) Most EDFAs have internal insulators that prevent
bidirectional transmission c) Crosstalk from nonlinear effects
d) Complex implementation of restoration and protection schemes
Setting up ligthpaths along fiber optic links and nodes supporting
traffic from a variety
of client layer: ATM, IP, ... In the optical layer, comprises:
Optical transmission medium
OLT, optical line terminal equipment
OADM, optical add / drop multiplexer for inserting or removing
optical channels
Optical Communication Systems and Networks

 OXC, optical Crossconnect

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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53

Tema 6: Redes WDM

Optical transmission medium

o Core and cladding diameters (m)
o Attenuation coefficient (dB/km)
o Dispersion coefficient D (ps/kmnm)
o Differential Dispersion coefficient
(ps/km.nm2)
o PMD parameter (ps/km1/2)
o Minimum dispersion wavelength (m)
o Cutoff wavelength(m)
o Nonlinear refractive index
o Modal field diameter / effective area (m)

Parameters to
consider when
choosing an
optical fiber

Band descriptors defined by ITU to operate in minimum loss

spectral region
Ban
d
O
E
S
C
L

Descriptor
Origina
l
Extended
Short
Conventional
Lon
g

Spectral range
(nm)
1260 1360
1360 1460
1460 1530
1530 1565
1565 1625

Ultra-long

1625 - 1675

Optical transmission medium

Standard Single Mode Fiber, SSMF
Represents 95% of installed outside plant (> 100 million km)
Standardized by ITU-G.652 recommendation
Used for transmission within the spectral range 1260 - 1675 nm,
except E
and S bands
Presents high dispersion between 1530 - 1675 nm spectral
region
It requires dispersion compensation for long distances
Typical Dispersion profile
Main applications:
Operation at 1310
nm in
CATV and MAN
networks
Operation at 1550nm
over long distances

18

Tema 6: Redes WDM

Dispersion (

1310 nm
1550 nm

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

Dispersion Shifted Fiber, DSF

By a geometric modification of the refractive
index profile the minimum dispersion wavelength
is shifted from 2nd to 3rd communications
window
Loss slightly higher than SSMF (0.25 dB / km @ 1550 nm)
Not suitable for WDM since D = 0 ps/kmnm and small Aeff
increases nonlinear effects considerably
For example, the effective area is typically lower than 40 m2
Suitable for single-channel
Typical Dispersion profile
systems.
Dispersion (ps/kmnm)

Tema 6: Redes WDM

Optical transmission medium

18

0
1310 nm

1550 nm

6/

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

Optical transmission medium

Non-Zero Dispersion Fiber, NZDSF
Low dispersion D in 3rd window but not negligible
Dispersion can be positive or negative, and sign
to get a zero total dispersion using the concept
of dispersion management
Standardized by ITU-G.652 recommendation

Dispersion (ps/kmnm)

Applications:
high-speed communications and long distances networks
Typical Dispersion profile
Not suitable for transmission at
1310 nm
Available for DWDM technology
18

0
1310 nm

1550 nm

7/

NZDSF+

Tema 6: Redes WDM

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

NZDSF-

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

OLTs take care of multiplexing and demultiplexing multiple
wavelengths (or optical channels) on the same fiber
They are used in point-to-point or in the terminal stage of the link
They are built from relatively simple elements, mainly composed
by multiplexer
devices, wavelength converters (transponder/repeaters) and
optical amplifiers
Optical Node: OLT function
1

SDH

router
IP

1 2
3

3
stand
ard

Client
protoco
ls

mux
demu
x

router
IP

O/E/O
(transponde
r)

OC
S

OC
S

Tema 6: Redes WDM

Signals
managed in
electrical
domain

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Signals
managed in
optical
domain

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

OTL presents adaptation functions: the wavelength
conversion according to standards set by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU)
Transponders may add additional overhead for purposes of
network
management
The adaptation function is typically done through an opticalto-electrical-to- optical (O/E/O) conversion
the adaptation can be enabled only in the incoming direction

The signal coming out of a transponder is multiplexed with

other signals at different wavelengths using a wavelength
multiplexer
It exists technological options to implement mux/demux: FabryPerot filters,
arrayed waveguide gratings, dielectric thin-film filters, or
fiber Bragg gratings

OLT can be terminated with an optical supervisory channel

(OSC) on a separate
wavelength to monitor the performance of amplifiers

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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Tema 6: Redes WDM

Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Optical Multiplexers
The function of the multiplexer is to couple two or more
wavelengths in the same optical fiber
(the demultiplexer is responsible for performing the inverse
operation, to separate the
various wavelengths comprising the WDM signal from an
optical fiber)

Multiplexer
requirements:
Low insertion losses
Independent losses of the polarization state
Steep skirts (reduce crosstalk)
Flat passbands (prevent a reduction in bandwidth in cascaded stages)
and insensitive
to temperature
variations
Inexpensive devices

 Technological options considered for the implementation of

multiplexers are considering in the following devices.
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Tema 6: Redes WDM

Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Fabry Perot filters
FP filter is a dielectric resonant cavity (etalon), formed by two
highly reflective
mirrors placed parallel to each other.
It has been used for WDM applications although there are better
filters nowadays

Ein

Mirror
1
(t1,
r1 )

Mirror
2
(t2,
r2 )

ti :transmission
coefficient (field)

Eout

l: cavity length
1 2

n
l

ri :transmission
coefficient (field)

1 2 1

n: refractive
index of the
cavity

The electric field at the output is the sum of successive

transmitted fields:
= 1 2
2

+ 1 2 2 2

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

1 + 1 2

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

1
2
1 22 +
4
(
)

1
Normalized Transfer functiion T(f)

Considering the associated periodic

Transfer
Function T(f):

R=0.
2

R=0.
5
R=0.9

Where R=|ri|2, A takes into account

intracavity losses (defined in power)
and it is defined as: A= 1-(R+T)
The periode is defined through the
parameter FSR
or free spectral range:

0
0

Normalized frequency f/FSR

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Lecture 6: Optical Components

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

There are several parameters to evaluate the performance or quality of a FPfilter
(assuming mirrors reflectivity is near R1):
1) FWHM: Full-width at half
maximum

=
2

arcsi

2)
Finesse, F

FWHM

C
nn

B
=

Channel
selection

1/2

FSR

Channels
band

FSR

B bandwidth

frequen
cy

B
bandwidth

frequency

It must be satisfied B< FSR, otherwise crosstalk!

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Filters based on Bragg gratings
These devices are based on the effect Bragg effect acting as
selective wavelength
reflective mirrors
They are built by inserting a diffraction grating in the fiber (Bragg
grating)
A pattern is written in the core of the according to a prestablished
periodic variation of the refractive index
When light propagates through this pattern, the wavelength satisfying
Bragg condition
reflects while the remaining wavelengths continue their
propagation along the fber

n(z)
n+
n n0

R
e
f
r
a

c
t
i
v
e

profil
e

Transmitted
and
Reflected
wavelength

i
n
d
e
x
nn
0

z
Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Bragg
condition
B =
2n0B

wavelength

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Filters based on Bragg gratings
They are usually combined with optical circulators to operate as
optical add-drop
multiplexers
Although insertion loss is negligible, it increases up to 3
dB when they are configured as OADM due to the inclusion
of circulators
Channel spacing of 100 GHz and 50 are achieved, keeping a low
adjacent
channel crosstalk
Other advantages:

Easy coupling to other fibers

Insensitivity to polarization loss
Reduced cost
Active control of temperature not required

In the design of an OADM, it is important to consider the passband narrowing after propagating along a OADM cascaded
stages (crosstalk and losses)

 OADM device manipulates only the extracted signals without

affecting those
which traversing the node, thereby reducing undesirable effects.
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Dropping a channel in a WDM system

Bragg
grating
tuned at

waveleng
th

wavelength

The refection spectrum is obtained as the

Fourier transform
of the index
distribution
The bandwidth is inversely proportional to
the length of the
grating (a few millimeters long provides a
bandwidth 1 nm)
wavelength

waveleng
th

Bragg
grating
tuned at

waveleng
th

wavelength

waveleng
th

Add/Drop function based on

Bragg fiber gratings
(Also available a coupler-based
solution replacing 2nd cirtulator)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

wavelength

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Thin Film milticavity Filters
A multilayer dielectric thin film filters (TFF) is based on a Fabry-Perot
interferometer consisting
of multiple cavities surrounded by multiple reflective dielectric thin film layers
This device acts as a bandpass filter where a particular wavelength passes
through and the
rest are reflected is determined by the length of each cavity
The flter response is determined by the number of cavities: as the
number increases the top of the passband becomes flatter and the skirts
become steeper

Cavity
1
input

Dielectric layers acting as

selctive wavelength mirrors

Cavity 2

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Glass
substra
te

Cavity 3

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Implementation as a multiplexer / demultiplexer:
Presence of lenses with graded refractive index for confining
and directing at a certain angle the signal to the next filter
Each filter allows a specifc range of wavelength of light to pass
through to reflect
the rest to the next filter in the cascade arrangement

Main features:
Efficient configuration: access only to channels to be removed and
inserted without affecting the rest of the wavelengths passing
through
Flat Passbands and very steep skirts
Stability to temperature variations
Low losses
Insensitive to the signal polarization
Each extracted wavelength from the WDM signal is injected into a
separate fiber

 Passive nature makes them especially useful in distribution network (cost

saving)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Arrayed waveguide gratings, AWGs
Arraye
d
waveguid
es
coupler

coupler

AWG
operating as
a
demultiplexer

AWG is a generalization of the

Mach-Zehnder interferometer

It consist of two couplers interconnected by an array of waveguides

Two copies of the same signal but shifted in phase by different amounts
are added together

 AWGs can be used as an n 1 wavelength multiplexers: an n-input, 1output device where

the n inputs are signals at different wavelengths that are combined onto
the single output
Demultiplexing is performed by the inverse of this function (1 n
wavelengths)
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Optical Crossconnects, OXC

1,
2

,
3

,
4

B
1

B
3

Fiber B

A
A
B
,2 ,3 4,

Demultiplex
ers

, ,

B
2

3
4

Fiber A

Fiber A
Multiplexe
rs
A

B
4

3
4

1 , ,
,
3 4
2
Fiber B

Fixed Optical crossconnect. Static wavelentgh switch routes

signals
from an input port ro an output port on basis a predesigned
assignmet

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Introduction to optical components

Passive optical devices act on signals propagating through them.

Among the various functions they perform are not included the
generation, transmission, amplification and optical detection
Matrix formalism is used for describing polarization phenomena and
applications. There are
several methodes:
For devices which are not affected by the polarization state of the
signal (not alter the state of polarization with respect to the signal
input):

Scattering matrix: relates outgoing fields with incoming

electrical fields
Transfer matrix: relates incoming and outgoing fields of an even
number of ports on the left side of the optical component with the
incoming and outgoing fields of an even number of ports on its
right
Jones Matrix describes the change or modification of the optical
signal polarization state when an optical signal goes through an
optical device
It is used in polarizers, polarization rotators, wave
retarders, isolators, or
polarization splitters and combiners

It is very common the use of parameters expressed in dB from

manufacturers datasheets which provide information about the power
distribution among different ports

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

Optical pasive
Components:
fiber
2

fiber
1

22/

System of
coupled linear
differential
equations

Evanescent
field
coupli
ng

dE1 j E c E
dz
dE2

E1

E2

E1 (
z)

cos(cz )

E2 (
z)

jsen(cz )

dz

1 1

j
E
2

12 2

c E

21 1

cij = coupling coefficient

jsen(cz ) E1
(0)
.

cos(cz ) E2
(0)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Power definition

P
( z) E ( z)2 P (0)(1 k )
1
P ( z) 1
2
E ( z)

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

Optical pasive
Components:
1

E1 ( z) 1 k

Ez
)
2 (
j k

j k E1 (0)

E
1
(0)

k 2

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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1P (0)k

where k(cL)
sen 2

is the coupling ratio

1
1 ()
Incoming energy from M=2 input
waveguides is distributed into N=2
output waveguides

P1 (0)
P2 (0)

1 (0)

P1 (L) P3

P2 (L) P4

OPTICAL COUPLER
M=2 N=2

2
(
)

2 (0)

Optical coupler response

Normalized distance

There are different technological options to implement combiners.

The most usual are:

-Based on optical fibers

- Fusion
- Polishing

-Based on integrated optics

- Deposition
- Ionic-exchange

Operation
principle:
evanescent field o modal
interference
couplin
g

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Optical pasive
Components:

COUPLERS/COMBI
NERS
Pin (1)

Pout (4)

Port 1

Port 4

Port 2

Port 3
Pout (3)

Pin (2)

(negligible ideally)
Insertion Loss: loss experimented by
the signal when it propagates according
to a particular configurarion input-output
ports

PP 10

LLL1
L
(dB)
P

L
(dB)

10
L(dB)
122
L

L (dB)
10 10
log
log
log
log

I
i

P
3
Coupling parameter: provides
information about

Schematic
coupler 2x2

Excess Loss: ratio of total power at

all output
ports with respect to the input power.

P1
LE (dB) 10 log( ) 10

P
log
P
4
3

how power is distributed among output

ports

Directivity
represents
the
power
fraction at the input port which is
back-propagated to other input ports

P4
P3 P 4

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

P
D(dB) 10 log
P1

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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Optical pasive
Components:

COUPLERS/COMBI
NERS
Directional Coupler M x N

Inputs (i, i)

Coupler N x N

Outputs (k, k)

N outputs

M Inputs

MxN

NxN coupler built from

log2N
stages of elemental 2x2
couplers

Input power is distributed equally through all output ports (excess loss negligible)
Output power= Input power/N excess loss

LI ik(dB) 1 0 log

Pk
Pi

LI=Ldis+LE

Dii ' (dB ) 10 log

Pi '
P

Uniformity

U
LI

max

LI

min

LE i (dB) 10
log

Pij

0
log
1
i
Pi

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

loss

Ldiv (dB) 10 log

Distribution

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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27/

Optical pasive Components:

MULTIPLEXERS/DEMULTIPLEXERS
MULTIPLEXOR

1+ 2

1
2

DEMULTIPLEXOR

1+
2

1
2

Multiplex/demultiplex functions can be also performed by filter technology

(FP-FabryPerot Filters, AWG-Arrayed Waveguide Gratings, TFMF-Thin Film
multilayer Filters)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

Polarize
rs:

28/ 53

Passive components acting on polarization

state

Allows the propagation of the linear polarization component of the

electric field aligned in the direction of its transmitting axis, blocking
the propagation of the orthogonal component.
Technological options:
1. Absorption or selective loss
2. Selective reflection in isotropic materials
3. Selective refraction in birefringent materials

In practice, the orthogonal polarization is not completely suppressed

and the passing
polarization component (parallel to the optical axis) suffers losses,
unlike an ideal
y
polarizer.
||

Operating
parameters:

Insertion
Loss:

E
x

tinct
rati

||

= 1010

||

= 1010

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

||

||

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

Passive components acting on polarization

state
Wave
retarder:
Introduces a relative phase shift (phase retardation) between
the horizontal and vertical states of the electric field
They are implemented by using bulk optics (anisotropic media):
birefringent films with a thikness d with a particular refractive index
nh for horizontal polarization (slow axis), and a different refractive
index nv for vertical polarization (fast axis). Then :
2
2
=

= 2
2

Quarter wave retarder

When =/2, the initial linearly polarized signal (at 45 with
respect to x axes) is transformed to a left-hand circular
polarization
Half-wave retarder

29/

When = , the initial linearly polarized wave forming 45 with x

axis is converted to another linearly polarized wave forming -45
with x axis (polarization rotation 90)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

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Passive components acting on polarization

state
Wave
retarder:
Introduces a relative phase shift (phase retardation) between
the horizontal and vertical states of the electric field
They are implemented by using bulk optics (anisotropic media):
birefringent films with a thikness d with a particular refractive index
nh for horizontal polarization (slow axis), and a different refractive
index nv for vertical polarization (fast axis). Then :

= 2
2
Transmittance

2
2
=

y polarizer
retarder

x
polarizer

2 3

Retardation,

30/

Aplication:
Intensity
control
wave retarder + 2 polarizers
(crossed config.)
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Passive components acting on polarization state

Polarization Rotators:
A polarization rotator produces a rotation of the polarization
plane of a linearly polarized wave by a fixed angle , maintaining
the linearly polarized property.
It is required materials in which a magnetic field B produces the
rotation of the polarization direction of linearly polarized wave. This
property is called Faraday effect.
=

where V is the Verdet constant and its value depends on the material used
(n, refractive
index and magneto-optical rotation coeffcient) and wavelength:

Materials with
Faraday effect:
Terbium gallium garnet (TGG), terbium
aluminum garnet (TbAlG), and yttrium iron
garnet (YIG).
Bismuth garnets (GdBiG
and TbBiIG) are used in
1550 nm

Polarization rotation in a madium exhibiting the Faraday effect

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Passive components acting on polarization

state
Optical Isolator:
Transmits ligth in only one direction, preventing reflected light
from returning back to the source
Pin

Pout

Port 1

Port 2

Pout
(ideally 0)

Pin

Diagram of an Optical isolator

Insertion Loss, considers the power

loss when
light propagation is in the direction
(1 2) :

Li (dB)

Pin (1)

Isolation ratio, provides the ratio between the

power transmitted through port 1 when optical
power is introduced in port 2:

10 log10

inP( 2)

I (dB) 10 log10

out( 2)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

out(1)

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

Passive components acting on polarization

state
Optical Isolator:
Transmitted
wave

y Polarizer B

45

x 45

Reflected
wave
45

Faraday Rotator
y

Polarizer A
x

y Polarizer B

B
Faraday Rotator

x 45
90

y Polarizer A
x

Blocking
transmitted
signal

Incident
wave

33/

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Lecture 6: Optical Components

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34/

Optical pasive
Components:
OPTICAL
ATTENUATORS

Reduce the power level at

their
entrance

Allow to adjust properly

power levels at the optical
devices input ports for a
correct performance

Can provide a fixed or

variable attenuation

Fixed
attenuator

Variable
attenuator

Fixed/variable
attenuators by
transversal or
longitudinal
desplacement

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Lecture 6: Optical Components

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35/

Optical pasive
Components:
OPTICAL
CIRCULATORS

Circulators allow adding and dropping optical channels in a WDM signal,

processing optical headers and selective optical processing functions
when they are combined with other optical devices.

The signal injected into the port 1 goes

directly to the port 2. When a signal is
introduced in 2, it exits through the port
3. And a signal comes through 1 when it
has been previously introduced in port 3.

Bra

Adding or dropping channels in WDM systems

1
Wavelengths at
the input 1
2 3 4

Dropped

Wavelengths at the output 1 2 3 4

wavelength: 3

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS
Optical sources directly modulated at high frequencies in systems
based on intensity modulation (IM) can introduce chirp when
semiconductor laser diodes are used as transmitter, increasing the
dispersion effects, and then, limiting the maximum bit rate.

CW emission

Diode
Laser

Information (electrical signal)

Modulat Modulated optical signal

or

Solution: EXTERNAL MODULATION

After biasing semiconductor lasers by a constant current, the
continuous wave emission (CW) is injected into an external device
(external modulator) which superimposes a copy of the electrical
information signal, providing the optical signal modulated at the
output .

This will eliminate or reduce the chirp to

negligible values .

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Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

EXTERNAL MODULATORS

There are two main techniques to implement external

modulators with features such as fast response,
simplicity and compacticity required in optical systems:

1) Electro-optic Modulators
Intensity and phase modulation are achieved
Based on ferro-electric crystals like lithium
niobate (LiNbO3) Currently, the use of polimers
is being investigated for this purpose

2) Electro-absorption Modulators
Operation based on intensity modulation and
usually built in semiconductor technology

37/

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38/

EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic

effect

EO effect is responsible for the refractive index change in electrooptic materials by applying an external field (Pockels effect).

External modulators take advantage of this effect to modulate the

optical carrier in
phase or intensity

Crystals used in modulators are anisotropic, in which refractive

index depends on the polarization direction of the electric field
(optical signal)

To produce an intense effect, the access to r33 coefficient, the

greatest element in the electro-optic tensor, is required. This is
achieved when the electric field polarization is parallel to the cristals
optical axis:

1
n(E) n0 n03 r33 E
2
n0= refractive index in absence of electric field

n(E)= refractive index when electric field

is applied r33 electro-optic effect
E Applied electric field component according to the optical axis

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39/

EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic

effect

Optical axis (+c)

y
Ei()=Eoiexp[-jn/c]

E
()=E
i

E applied
z
x

n(E)

n0

LiNbO3 crystal
(anisotropic
crystal)

exp(-jn(E)/c)
oi

n r E

With typical values of LiNbO3

n0
2.2

r33 pm/V
30

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic

effect
Eout()
Modulated
wave

Response

Ein()

d
0

Incident wave
in CW

L
The incident wave
must be polarized

V d
r n3 L
33 0

V
V
V

Values in
the range
2-5 V

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

41/

EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic

effect

TRANSVER
SAL
CONFIGURA
TION

V
LONGITUDI
NAL

CONFI
GURATI
ON
Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

Applications: Electro-optic modulator for

intensity modulation
(Polarization configuration)

Output polarizer
Optical intensity modulator
based on Pockels cell
between crossed polarizers

Optical
Transmittance

Transmittance (V)

Input polarizer

Oriented at 45 degrees
with
respect to the
optical axis

1,0
0,5

0,0

42/

Vbias

Voltage, V

V
t

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

43/ 53

Lecture 6: Optical Components

Applications: Electro-optic modulator for

intensity modulation
(Interferometer configuration)
I0

Optical
Transmittance

Transmittance (V)

Intensity modulator based on

Mach-Zehnder Interferometer

path 1

I1

path 2

I2

Phase modulation

V
1,0

Guide configurations allow reduced values of

-3

0,5

t
V.
0,0

Vbias
Voltage, V

),providing
d/L (d10 m, L10 cm
d/L10
reduced control voltages V 1-2
The commercial electro-modulators allow
modulation bandwidths of 40 GHz

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

44/

Example: Use of Mach-Zehnder configuration

in a RZ-coding
intensity
modulation

When a MZM Mach-Zehnder modulator is driven by a voltage:

Vm (t) Vbias VRF (t) Vbias cos(2 m )

ft
VRF
where Vbias is the DC voltage, VRF is the amplitude of the RF signal, f is the
modulation frequency
and m the phase shift

The transmittance can be expresed as:

V (t)

m
V
2
2
T t cos

cos

2V 2

2V

V (t)
bia s RF

2V

where is the MZM phase shift in absence of exciting voltage and V is the
phase voltage

Then:
If Vbias = Vmax the MZM is biased to offer maximum optical transmission
If Vbias = Vmin the MZM is biased to offer minimum optical transmission
MZM interferometer can be also driven in a balanced performance

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

Electric Input

1,0
0,5

Outpu
t
phase
=

Outpu
t
phase
=0
Voltage, V

0,0

Vbias

t
t

50%

1,0

RZ

1,0

Electric Input

Electric Input

Transmittance (V)

Example: Return to zero

implementation for
different duty
cycles

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Outpu
t
phase
0,0 =

Outpu
t
phase
=0

Vbia

Transmitt

0,5

Voltage,
V

Outpu
t
phase
0,0 =
0,5

Outpu
t
phase
=0

Vbias

RZ 33%

Transmittance (V)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

RZ 67%

Voltage,
V

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

46/

Example: Return to zero

implementation for
different duty cycles

Techniques to generate RZ coding signal:

Directly modulated diode laser by an electrical RZ signal (intensity)
Generating an optical pulse train modulated by a no return to zero
data signal

B
Gb/s

NRZ
Information

Diode
Laser

B/2 GHz
+V

Modulated
optical
EO
Modulator signal

NRZ

B Gb/s

Diod
e
Lase
r
B
GHz
+V/
2

EO
Modulators

B/2 GHz
+V

RZ 33, 67%

Diode
Laser

EO
Modulators

RZ 50%
Optical Communication Systems and Networks

B GHz
+V/2

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

47/

Return to zero schemes

RZ pulse of three duty cycles for a bit secuence: 1001101
0 0 0 0

RZ 50%

RZ 67%

RZ 33%

Frequency with regard

to the

Power [dBm]

Power [dBm]

Power [dBm]

The red bar indicates the full-width at half maximum and de duty cycle
and 0 indicate phase shift in RZ CS-RZ-67%.

optical
carrier
[GHz)

Frequency with regard to

the optical carrier
[GHz)

Frequency with regard to

the optical carrier [GHz)
Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

48/

MAIN OPTICAL SWITCHING

TECHNOLOGIES

Bulk opto-mechanical switches

Micro-electro-mechanical (MEMs)
switches
Bubble-based waveguide switches
Electro-optical switches
Thermo-optic switches

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Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

49/

OPTICAL
COMPONENTS:
Micro-electro-mechanical
switch (MEM)
Light passing
through

No bubble
Reflected
beam
(switchi
ng)

Switch based
on a silicon
substrate

Rows of micromirrors mounted on translation

stages controlled by electro-mechanical actuators

2D MEMS: switching takes places in a 2D silicon substrate , where

rows of micromirrors can be fold up or down (by electromagnetic,
electrostatic or piezoelectric method) to deflect incident beams

3D MEMS: steering mirrors allow switching in 3D. It is obtained a

drastically increase of the number of ports, providing more compact
devices (from 256 to over 1000 ports)

Advantages: fast response, high integration and number of ports

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

50/

OPTICAL
COMPONENTS:
Bubble-based
waveguide switch
waveguid
es
Planar
wavegui
de
switch

Reflected
beam
(switching)

Bubble

No bubble
Light passing through
Fluid channels
(trenches filled with index matching gel)
Under normal conditions, light propagates straight on crossover
points, without
interruption

Switching is performed as a result of the bubble formation

after heating the crossover point by termo-electric actuators
the light beam is reflected towards the corresponding
waveguide to the desired output port

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Lecture 6: Optical Components

53

51/

OPTICAL
COMPONENTS:
Switch based on integrated Mach-Zehnder
interferometers
(Electro-optic
control)

Planar
wavegui
de
switch
waveguides

No
bubble

Light passing through

Voltage on
Voltage
(switchin
off
g)
In directional coupler configuration, the coupling ratio varies by
changing
electro-optically the refractive index

 Advantage: Fast response (typically, less than 1 ns) and high level of
integration

Disadvantages: Usually have a relatively high loss and PDL

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Lecture 6: Optical Components

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53

OPTICAL
COMPONENTS:
Switch based on integrated Mach-Zehnder
interferometers
(Thermo-optic
control)

Planar
wavegui
de
switch
waveguides

No
bubble

Light passing through

on
Heat off
(switchi
ng)
In directional coupler configuration, the coupling ratio varies by
changing
thermo-optically the refractive index
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Lecture 6: Optical Components

53/

53

Main disadvantage: Quite slow response (milliseconds)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks

Comparison of different optical switching

technologies

Technolog
y

8x8

Crosst
alk
(dB
55

2D-MEMs

32x32

3D-MEMs

1000x100
0 32x32

Bulkmechanical

Bubblebased
Thermooptic
Electrooptic

Siz
e

Loss
(dB)

PDL (dB)
0,2

Switchi
ng
tim
10 ms

55

0,2

10 ms

55

0,5

10 ms

7,5

50

0,3

10 ms

8x8

40

Low

4x4

35

3
msps
10

Source: Optical Networks. Pp. 208. Rajiv

Ramaswami, Kumar Sivarajan. Ed. Morgan
Kaufmann, 2002