Semiconductor

For devices using semiconductors and their his- 20th century. The rst practical application of semicontory, see Semiconductor device. For other uses, see ductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the
Semiconductor (disambiguation).
Cats-whisker detector, a primitive semiconductor diode
widely used in early radio receivers. Developments in
quantum physics in turn allowed the development of the
Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids
[3]
[1]
with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in 1958.
high resistance higher than typical resistance materials, but still of much lower resistance than insulators.
Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, 1 Properties
which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. Finally, their conducting properties may be altered in use- Variable conductivity Semiconductors in their natural
state are poor conductors because a current requires
ful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction of
the ow of electrons, and semiconductors have their
impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure, which
valence bands lled, preventing the entry ow of
lowers its resistance but also permits the creation of
new electrons. There are several developed techsemiconductor junctions between dierently-doped reniques that allow semiconducting materials to begions of the extrinsic semiconductor crystal. The behavhave like conducting materials, such as doping or
ior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and
gating. These modications have two outcomes:
electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes,
n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or
transistors and all modern electronics.
shortage of electrons, respectively. An unbalanced
Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful
number of electrons would cause a current to ow
properties such as passing current more easily in one dithrough the material.[4]
rection than the other, showing variable resistance, and
sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical prop- Heterojunctions Heterojunctions occur when two diferties of a semiconductor material can be modied by
ferently doped semiconducting materials are joined
doping, or by the application of electrical elds or light,
together. For example, a conguration could consist
devices made from semiconductors can be used for amof p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results
plication, switching, and energy conversion.
in an exchange of electrons and holes between the
dierently doped semiconducting materials. The
The modern understanding of the properties of a semin-doped germanium would have an excess of elecconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the move[2]
trons, and the p-doped germanium would have an
ment of charge carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping
excess of holes. The transfer occurs until equilibgreatly increases the number of charge carriers within the
rium is reached by a process called recombination,
crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly
which causes the migrating electrons from the nfree holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains
type to come in contact with the migrating holes
mostly free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semifrom the p-type. A product of this process is
conductor materials used in electronic devices are doped
charged ions, which result in an electric eld.[2][4]
under precise conditions to control the concentration and
regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconduc- Excited Electrons A dierence in electric potential on
tor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions; the pn
a semiconducting material would cause it to leave
junctions between these regions are responsible for the
thermal equilibrium and create a non-equilibrium
useful electronic behavior.
situation. This introduces electrons and holes to
the system, which interact via a process called
Although some pure elements and many compounds disambipolar diusion. Whenever thermal equilibplay semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and
rium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the
compounds of gallium are the most widely used in elecamount of holes and electrons changes. Such disruptronic devices. Elements near the so-called "metalloid
tions can occur as a result of a temperature dierstaircase, where the metalloids are located on the perience or photons, which can enter the system and creodic table, are usually used as semiconductors.
ate electrons and holes. The process that creates and
Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were
annihilates electrons and holes are called generation
observed throughout the mid 19th and rst decades of the
and recombination.[4]
1

2 MATERIALS

Light emission In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat.[5] These semiconductors are used in the
construction of light emitting diodes and uorescent
quantum dots.
Thermal energy conversion Semiconductors
have
large thermoelectric power factors making them
useful in thermoelectric generators, as well as high
thermoelectric gures of merit making them useful
in thermoelectric coolers.[6]

Materials

Most common semiconducting materials are crystalline

solids, but amorphous and liquid semiconductors are also
known. These include hydrogenated amorphous silicon
and mixtures of arsenic, selenium and tellurium in a variety of proportions. These compounds share with better known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity
with temperature, as well as occasional negative resistance. Such disordered materials lack the rigid crystalline
structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon.
They are generally used in thin lm structures, which do
not require material of higher electronic quality, being
relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage.

2.1
Main article: List of semiconductor materials
A large number of elements and compounds have semi-

Preparation of semiconductor materials

Almost all of todays technology involves the use of

semiconductors, with the most important aspect being
the integrated circuit (IC). Some examples of devices
that contain integrated circuits includes laptops, scanners, cell-phones, etc. Semiconductors for ICs are massproduced. To create an ideal semiconducting material,
chemical purity is paramount. Any small imperfection
can have a drastic eect on how the semiconducting material behaves due to the scale at which the materials are
used.[4]

Silicon crystals are the most common semiconducting materials

used in microelectronics and photovoltaics.

conducting properties, including:[7]

Certain pure elements are found in Group 14 of the
periodic table; the most commercially important of
these elements are silicon and germanium. Silicon
and germanium are used here eectively because
they have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell
which gives them the ability to gain or lose electrons
equally at the same time.

A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required,

since faults in crystal structure (such as dislocations,
twins, and stacking faults) interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are
a major cause of defective semiconductor devices. The
larger the crystal, the more dicult it is to achieve the
necessary perfection. Current mass production processes
use crystal ingots between 100 and 300 mm (4 and 12 in)
in diameter which are grown as cylinders and sliced into
wafers.
There is a combination of processes that is used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is
called thermal oxidation, which forms silicon dioxide
on the surface of the silicon. This is used as a gate
insulator and eld oxide. Other processes are called
photomasks and photolithography. This process is what
creates the patterns on the circuity in the integrated circuit. Ultraviolet light is used along with a photoresist layer
to create a chemical change that generates the patterns for
the circuit.[4]

Etching is the next process that is required. The part of

Binary compounds, particularly between elements in
the silicon that was not covered by the photoresist layer
Groups 13 and 15, such as gallium arsenide, Groups
from the previous step can now be etched. The main pro12 and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between dierent
cess typically used today is called plasma etching. Plasma
group 14 elements, e.g. silicon carbide.
etching usually involves an etch gas pumped in a lowpressure chamber to create plasma. A common etch gas
Certain ternary compounds, oxides and alloys.
is chlorouorocarbon, or more commonly known Freon.
Organic semiconductors, made of organic com- A high radio-frequency voltage between the cathode and
pounds.
anode is what creates the plasma in the chamber. The

3.2

Charge carriers (electrons and holes)

silicon wafer is located on the cathode, which causes it

to be hit by the positively charged ions that are released
from the plasma. The end result is silicon that is etched
anisotropically.[2][4]
The last process is called diusion. This is the process
that gives the semiconducting material its desired semiconducting properties. It is also known as doping. The
process introduces an impure atom to the system, which
creates the p-n junction. In order to get the impure atoms
embedded in the silicon wafer, the wafer is rst put in a
1100 degree Celsius chamber. The atoms are injected in
and eventually diuse with the silicon. After the process
is completed and the silicon has reached room temperature, the doping process is done and the semiconducting
material is ready to be used in an integrated circuit.[2][4]

3
3.1

Physics of semiconductors

3
trons via that state. The energies of these quantum states
are critical, since a state is partially lled only if its energy
is near the Fermi level (see FermiDirac statistics).
High conductivity in a material comes from it having
many partially lled states and much state delocalization.
Metals are good electrical conductors and have many partially lled states with energies near their Fermi level.
Insulators, by contrast, have few partially lled states,
their Fermi levels sit within band gaps with few energy
states to occupy. Importantly, an insulator can be made
to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band
gap, inducing partially lled states in both the band of
states beneath the band gap (valence band) and the band
of states above the band gap (conduction band). An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a band gap that is smaller than
that of an insulator and at room temperature signicant
numbers of electrons can be excited to cross the band
gap.[10]
A pure semiconductor, however, is not very useful, as it is

Energy bands and electrical conduc- neither a very good insulator nor a very good conductor.
tion
However, one important feature of semiconductors (and

some insulators, known as semi-insulators) is that their

Main articles: Electronic band structure and Electrical conductivity can be increased and controlled by doping
conduction
with impurities and gating with electric elds. Doping
Semiconductors are dened by their unique electric con- and gating move either the conduction or valence band
much closer to the Fermi level, and greatly increase the
number of partially lled states.
Some wider-band gap semiconductor materials are sometimes referred to as semi-insulators. When undoped,
these have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators, however they can be doped (making
them as useful as semiconductors). Semi-insulators nd
niche applications in micro-electronics, such as substrates
for HEMT. An example of a common semi-insulator is
gallium arsenide.[11] Some materials, such as titanium
Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at dioxide, can even be used as insulating materials for some
equilibrium. Here, height is energy while width is the density applications, while being treated as wide-gap semiconof available states for a certain energy in the material listed. ductors for other applications.
The shade follows the FermiDirac distribution (black=all states
lled, white=no state lled). In metals and semimetals the
Fermi level EF lies inside at least one band. In insulators and
semiconductors the Fermi level is inside a band gap; however, in
semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to
be thermally populated with electrons or holes.

3.2 Charge carriers (electrons and holes)

ductive behavior, somewhere between that of a metal and

an insulator.[8] The dierences between these materials
can be understood in terms of the quantum states for electrons, each of which may contain zero or one electron (by
the Pauli exclusion principle). These states are associated with the electronic band structure of the material.
Electrical conductivity arises due to the presence of electrons in states that are delocalized (extending through the
material), however in order to transport electrons a state
must be partially lled, containing an electron only part
of the time.[9] If the state is always occupied with an electron, then it is inert, blocking the passage of other elec-

The partial lling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to
that band. The electrons do not stay indenitely (due
to the natural thermal recombination) but they can move
around for some time. The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals)
it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction
band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical ideal gas,
where the electrons y around freely without being subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. In most semiconductors the conduction bands have a parabolic dispersion
relation, and so these electrons respond to forces (elec-

Main article: Electron hole

PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS

tric eld, magnetic eld, etc.) much like they would in

a vacuum, though with a dierent eective mass.[10] Because the electrons behave like an ideal gas, one may also
think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as
the Drude model, and introduce concepts such as electron
mobility.

from neighbour regions containing more of them to meet

together) or externally driven pair generation. The product is a function of the temperature, as the probability of
getting enough thermal energy to produce a pair increases
with temperature, being approximately exp(EG/kT),
where k is Boltzmanns constant, T is absolute temperFor partial lling at the top of the valence band, it is ature and EG is band gap.
helpful to introduce the concept of an electron hole. Al- The probability of meeting is increased by carrier traps
though the electrons in the valence band are always mov- impurities or dislocations which can trap an electron or
ing around, a completely full valence band is inert, not hole and hold it until a pair is completed. Such carrier
conducting any current. If an electron is taken out of the traps are sometimes purposely added to reduce the time
valence band, then the trajectory that the electron would needed to reach the steady state.[12]
normally have taken is now missing its charge. For the
purposes of electric current, this combination of the full
valence band, minus the electron, can be converted into 3.3 Doping
a picture of a completely empty band containing a positively charged particle that moves in the same way as the
Main article: Doping (semiconductor)
electron. Combined with the negative eective mass of
the electrons at the top of the valence band, we arrive
at a picture of a positively charged particle that responds The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modto electric and magnetic elds just as a normal positively ied by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice.
charged particle would do in vacuum, again with some The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconpositive eective mass.[10] This particle is called a hole, ductor is known as doping. The amount of impurity, or
and the collection of holes in the valence band can again dopant, added to an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor varies
be understood in simple classical terms (as with the elec- its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic. By adding impurity to the pure
trons in the conduction band).
semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or millions.
3.2.1

Carrier generation and recombination

Main article: Carrier generation and recombination

When ionizing radiation strikes a semiconductor, it may
excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently
leave a hole. This process is known as electronhole pair
generation. Electron-hole pairs are constantly generated
from thermal energy as well, in the absence of any external energy source.
Electron-hole pairs are also apt to recombine.
Conservation of energy demands that these recombination events, in which an electron loses an amount of
energy larger than the band gap, be accompanied by the
emission of thermal energy (in the form of phonons) or
radiation (in the form of photons).

A 1 cm3 specimen of a metal or semiconductor has of the

order of 1022 atoms. In a metal, every atom donates at
least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm3 of metal
contains on the order of 1022 free electrons, whereas a 1
cm3 sample of pure germanium at 20 C contains about
4.21022 atoms, but only 2.51013 free electrons and
2.51013 holes. The addition of 0.001% of arsenic (an
impurity) donates an extra 1017 free electrons in the same
volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a
factor of 10,000.
The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the
atomic properties of both the dopant and the material
to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classied as either electron
acceptors or donors. Semiconductors doped with donor
impurities are called n-type, while those doped with acceptor impurities are known as p-type. The n and p type
designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the materials majority carrier. The opposite carrier is called the
minority carrier, which exists due to thermal excitation
at a much lower concentration compared to the majority
carrier.

In some states, the generation and recombination of

electronhole pairs are in equipoise. The number of
electron-hole pairs in the steady state at a given temperature is determined by quantum statistical mechanics. The
precise quantum mechanical mechanisms of generation
and recombination are governed by conservation of en- For example, the pure semiconductor silicon has four vaergy and conservation of momentum.
lence electrons which bond each silicon atom to its neighAs the probability that electrons and holes meet together bors. In silicon, the most common dopants are group III
is proportional to the product of their amounts, the prod- and group V elements. Group III elements all contain
uct is in steady state nearly constant at a given temper- three valence electrons, causing them to function as acature, providing that there is no signicant electric eld ceptors when used to dope silicon. When an acceptor
(which might ush carriers of both types, or move them atom replaces a silicon atom in the crystal, a vacant state

5
( an electron hole) is created, which can move around
the lattice and functions as a charge carrier. Group V
elements have ve valence electrons, which allows them
to act as a donor; substitution of these atoms for silicon creates an extra free electron. Therefore, a silicon
crystal doped with boron creates a p-type semiconductor
whereas one doped with phosphorus results in an n-type
material.

a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic

lattices in 1928. In 1930, B. Gudden stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been established by Alan Herries Wilson and
the concept of band gaps had been developed. Walter H.
Schottky and Nevill Francis Mott developed models of
the potential barrier and of the characteristics of a metalsemiconductor junction. By 1938, Boris Davydov had
During manufacture, dopants can be diused into the
semiconductor body by contact with gaseous compounds developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectier, identifying the eect of the pn junction and the importance
of the desired element, or ion implantation can be used
of minority carriers and surface states.[18]
to accurately position the doped regions.

Early history of semiconductors

Further information: Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering

Agreement between theoretical predictions (based on developing quantum mechanics) and experimental results
was sometimes poor. This was later explained by John
Bardeen as due to the extreme structure sensitive behavior of semiconductors, whose properties change dramatically based on tiny amounts of impurities.[18] Commercially pure materials of the 1920s containing varying
proportions of trace contaminants produced diering experimental results. This spurred the development of improved material rening techniques, culminating in modern semiconductor reneries producing materials with
parts-per-trillion purity.

The history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the electrical properties of materials. The properties of negative temperature coecient of resistance, rectication, and light-sensitivity were
observed starting in the early 19th century.
Devices using semiconductors were at rst constructed
Thomas Johann Seebeck was the rst to notice an ef- based on empirical knowledge, before semiconductor
fect due to semiconductors, in 1821.[13] In 1833, Michael theory provided a guide to construction of more capable
Faraday reported that the resistance of specimens of and reliable devices.
silver sulde decreases when they are heated. This is
contrary to the behavior of metallic substances such as
copper. In 1839, A. E. Becquerel reported observation of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte
when struck by light, the photovoltaic eect. In 1873
Willoughby Smith observed that selenium resistors exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In
1874 Karl Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and
rectication in metallic sulphides, although this eect had
been discovered much earlier by M.A. Rosenschold writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in 1835,[14]
and Arthur Schuster found that a copper oxide layer on
wires has rectication properties that ceases when the
wires are cleaned. Adams and Day observed the photovoltaic eect in selenium in 1876.[15]
A unied explanation of these phenomena required a theory of solid-state physics which developed greatly in the
rst half of the 20th Century. In 1878 Edwin Herbert
Hall demonstrated the deection of owing charge carriers by an applied magnetic eld, the Hall eect. The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1897 prompted
theories of electron-based conduction in solids. Karl
Baedeker, by observing a Hall eect with the reverse
sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had
positive charge carriers. Johan Koenigsberger classied
solid materials as metals, insulators and variable conductors in 1914, although his student Josef Weiss introduced
term Halbleiter (semiconductor) in modern meaning in
PhD thesis already in 1910.[16][17] Felix Bloch published

Alexander Graham Bell used the light-sensitive property

of selenium to transmit sound over a beam of light in
1880. A working solar cell, of low eciency, was constructed by Charles Fritts in 1883 using a metal plate
coated with selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device
became commercially useful in photographic light meters
in the 1930s.[18] Point-contact microwave detector rectiers made of lead sulde were used by Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1904; the cats-whisker detector using natural galena or other materials became a common device
in the development of radio. However, it was somewhat
unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for best performance. In 1906 H.J. Round observed
light emission when electric current passed through silicon carbide crystals, the principle behind the light emitting diode. Oleg Losev observed similar light emission
in 1922 but at the time the eect had no practical use.
Power rectiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were
developed in the 1920s and became commercially important as an alternative to vacuum tube rectiers.[15][18]
In the years preceding World War II, infra-red detection and communications devices prompted research into
lead-sulde and lead-selenide materials. These devices
were used for detecting ships and aircraft, for infrared
rangenders, and for voice communication systems. The
point-contact crystal detector became vital for microwave
radio systems, since available vacuum tube devices could
not serve as detectors above about 4000 MHz; advanced

7 FURTHER READING

radar systems relied on the fast response of crystal detectors. Considerable research and development of silicon
materials occurred during the war to develop detectors
of consistent quality.[18]
Detector and power rectiers could not amplify a signal.
Many eorts were made to develop a solid-state amplier, but these were unsuccessful because of limited theoretical understanding of semiconductor materials.[18] In
1922 Oleg Losev developed two-terminal, negative resistance ampliers for radio; however, he perished in
the Siege of Leningrad. In 1926 Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a device resembling a modern eld-eect
transistor, but it was not practical. R. Hilsch and R. W.
Pohl in 1938 demonstrated a solid-state amplier using a
structure resembling the control grid of a vacuum tube;
although the device displayed power gain, it had a cuto frequency of one cycle per second, too low for any
practical applications, but an eective application of the
available theory.[18] At Bell Labs, William Shockley and
A. Holden started investigating solid-state ampliers in
1938. The rst pn junction in silicon was observed by
Russell Ohl about 1941, when a specimen was found to
be light-sensitive, with a sharp boundary between p-type
impurity at one end and n-type at the other. A slice cut
from the specimen at the pn boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light.

[6] How do thermoelectric coolers (TECs) work?". marlow.com. Retrieved 2016-05-07.

[7] B.G. Yacobi, Semiconductor Materials: An Introduction to
Basic Principles, Springer 2003 ISBN 0306473615, pp.
13
[8] Yu, Peter (2010). Fundamentals of Semiconductors.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-642-00709-5.
[9] As in the Mott formula for conductivity, see Cutler, M.; Mott, N. (1969). Observation of Anderson Localization in an Electron Gas. Physical Review 181 (3): 1336. Bibcode:1969PhRv..181.1336C.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.181.1336.
[10] Charles Kittel (1995) Introduction to Solid State Physics,
7th ed. Wiley, ISBN 0471111813.
[11] J. W. Allen (1960).
Gallium Arsenide as a
semi-insulator.
Nature 187 (4735):
403405.
Bibcode:1960Natur.187..403A. doi:10.1038/187403b0.
[12] Louis Nashelsky, Robert L.Boylestad. Electronic Devices
and Circuit Theory (9th ed.). India: Prentice-Hall of India
Private Limited. pp. 710. ISBN 978-81-203-2967-6.
[13] Kirj.ee
[14] Google Books

In France, during the war, Herbert Matar had observed [15] Lidia ukasiak & Andrzej Jakubowski (January 2010).
amplication between adjacent point contacts on a gerHistory of Semiconductors (PDF). Journal of Telecommanium base. After the war, Matar's group announced
munication and Information Technology: 3.
their "Transistron" amplier only shortly after Bell Labs
[16] Busch, G (1989). Early history of the physics and chemannounced the "transistor".

See also
Semiconductor industry
Semiconductor characterization techniques

References

[1] Mehta, V. K. (2008-01-01). Principles of Electronics. S.

Chand. p. 56. ISBN 978-81-219-2450-4. Retrieved 6
December 2015.
[2] Feynman, Richard (1963). Feynman Lectures on Physics.
Basic Books.
[3] Shockley, William (1950). Electrons and holes in semiconductors : with applications to transistor electronics. R.
E. Krieger Pub. Co. ISBN 0-88275-382-7.
[4] Neamen, Donald. Semiconductor Physics and Devices
(PDF). Elizabeth A. Jones.
[5] By Abdul Al-Azzawi. Light and Optics: Principles and
Practices. 2007. March 4, 2016.

istry of semiconductors-from doubts to fact in a hundred years. European Journal of Physics 10 (4): 254
264. Bibcode:1989EJPh...10..254B. doi:10.1088/01430807/10/4/002.

[17] Google Books

[18] Peter Robin Morris (1990) A History of the World Semiconductor Industry, IET, ISBN 0863412270, pp. 1125

7 Further reading
A. A. Balandin & K. L. Wang (2006). Handbook of
Semiconductor Nanostructures and Nanodevices (5Volume Set). American Scientic Publishers. ISBN
1-58883-073-X.
Sze, Simon M. (1981). Physics of Semiconductor
Devices (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons (WIE).
ISBN 0-471-05661-8.
Turley, Jim (2002). The Essential Guide to Semiconductors. Prentice Hall PTR. ISBN 0-13-046404-X.
Yu, Peter Y.; Cardona, Manuel (2004). Fundamentals of Semiconductors : Physics and Materials Properties. Springer. ISBN 3-540-41323-5.

7
Sadao Adachi (2012). The Handbook on Optical
Constants of Semiconductors: In Tables and Figures. World Scientic Publishing. ISBN 9-78981440597-3.
G. B. Abdullayev, T. D. Dzhafarov, S. Torstveit
(Translator), Atomic Diusion in Semiconductor
Structures, Gordon & Breach Science Pub., 1987
ISBN 978-2881241529

External links
Howstuworks semiconductor page
Semiconductor Concepts at Hyperphysics
Calculator for the intrinsic carrier concentration in
silicon
Semiconductor OneSource Hall of Fame, Glossary
Principles of Semiconductor Devices by Bart Van
Zeghbroeck, University of Colorado. An online
textbook]
US Navy Electrical Engineering Training Series
NSM-Archive Physical Properties of Semiconductors]
Semiconductor Manufacturer List
ABACUS: Introduction to Semiconductor Devices
by Gerhard Klimeck and Dragica Vasileska, online
learning resource with simulation tools on nanoHUB
Organic Semiconductor page
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- Introduction to Semiconductors

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Semiconductor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor?oldid=729519393 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Sodium, Mav, Bryan

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Andres, Hashar, Tantalate, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, LMB, Phoebe, Jerzy, ThereIsNoSteve, Rogper~enwiki, Gentgeen, Robbot, Karolkalna,
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Haham hanuka, Merope, Nashikawa, IWAN, Jumbuck, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Anthony Appleyard, Atlant, BryanD, Evil Prince, Redfarmer, Velella, Wtshymanski, Evil Monkey, DV8 2XL, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, Nick Mks, HenryLi, Ceyockey, Firsfron, David Haslam,
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and Anonymous: 688

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