ENT 286 Instrumentation &

Measurement
Measurement of Solid Mechanical
Quantities
Measuring Strain
When a force is applied to a structure, the
components of the structure change slightly
in their dimensions and are said to be
strained

Devices to measure these small changes in
dimensions are called strain gages
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
When a supported beam is bent by applying is
bent by applying a lateral force, the beam will
become longer on the bottom surface and
shorter on the top surface

When beam is loaded, wire is stretched and its
length becomes


The ration is known as strain


l l o +
l l / o
A simple strain gage
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
It is often to determine the stresses in a
structure experimentally to demonstrate that
the structure is sound

For elastic materials stressed in a single
direction, the stain is
c o E =
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
The resistance of a wire is



Strain Gage Factor
A
L
R

=
a
pL d
v S
c
/
2 1 + + =
Foil Strain Gage
Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
To measure strain with a bonded resistance
strain gage, strain gage must be connected to
an electric circuit that is capable of
measuring the minute changes in resistance
corresponding to strain.

We need a device that will measure the
change in resistance rather than the
resistance itself.
Wheatstone Bridge
A simple circuit performs this function is
called Wheatstone Bridge.
Wheatstone Bridge
Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
If all four resistors have same value, the voltage at points
B and D must be the same, therefore Vo must be zero.
(bridge is balanced)

The bridge is considered balanced when R1/R4 = R2/R3
and, therefore, Vo equals zero.

When strain gage is strained, R3 changes from its initial
value, bridge becomes unbalanced and Vo will changed.

Any small change in the resistance of the sensing grid will
put the bridge out of balance, making it suitable for the
detection of strain.
Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
When the bridge is set up so that R3 is the
only active strain gage, a small change in R3
will result in an output voltage from the
bridge

The bridge is allowed to become unbalanced
and the output voltage can be used to
determine the gage resistance.
Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
Using Ohms Law, current flows through
branches ABC and ADC are
4 1
R R
V
I
s
ABC
+
=
3 2
R R
V
I
s
ADC
+
=
Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
Voltage drop across R4, VB-VC is IABCR4
Voltage drop across R3, VD-VC is IADCR3
Then Vo =VD-VB

4 1
4
3 2
3
R R
V R
R R
V R
V
s s
o
+

+
=
) )( ( ) )( (
4 1 3 2
2 4 1 3
4 1 3 2
4 3 2 4 4 3 1 3
R R R R
R R R R
V
R R R R
R R R R R R R R
V V
s s o
+ +

=
+ +
+
=
Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
Before strain is applied, the initial resistance
of the strain gage is R3i.
For the bridge to be initially balance,


When the strain gage is strained, we set


0
2 4 1 3
= R R R R
i
3 3 3
R R R
i
A + =
Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
Then Vo is


Equation relating the strain to the output voltage
(quarter-bridge):


Higher order bridge:

) )( (
4 1 3 3 2
3 1
R R R R R
R R V
V
i
s
o
+ A + +
A
=
i s
i o
a
R SR V
R R V
3 2
2
3 2
) ( +
= c
2 3 3 1 2 4
2
2 3 3 1 2 4
( )
s
o
V R R R R R R
V
R R R R R R
| |
A A A A
= +
|
+
\ .
Exercises
Measuring Displacement
Potentiometer
Linear potentiometer is a device which
resistance varies as a function of the potion
of a slider

With the supply voltage, the output voltage
will vary between zero and the supply
voltage.
Linear Potentiometer
http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/lin
ear-potentiometer-transducer/2011/07/
Linear Potentiometer
For linear potentiometer, the output is a
simple linear function of the slider position.


Linear potentiometer can be used to measure
displacements as small as 0.1 to 0.2 in. up to
displacement of more than 1 ft.
s o
V
L
x
V =
Angular Potentiometer
Angular Potentiometer
Angular Potentiometer can be designed to
measure angular displacement of 3500
o
.
Potentiometer
Potentiometers are quite inexpensive, are
readily available and require no special signal
conditioning


Linear and Rotary Variable
Differential Transformers
Measure displacement by modifying the
spatial distribution of an alternating
magnetic field.

Measure displacements directly
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT has a single primary coil and two
secondary coils.

An oscillating excitation voltage (50 Hz and
25 kHz is applied to the primary coil.

Current flowing through the primary coil
creates an alternating magnetic field, which
induces alternating voltage in coils B and C.


Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
The core, made of ferromagnetic material,
tend to concentrate the magnetic field in its
vicinity

If it is closer to one of the secondary coils,
the voltage in the coil will be higher
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Voltage generated in
coil C will be higher
than that generated in
coil B since the core is
displaced downward.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
The two voltages from coils B and C oppose each
other.

If the core is centered between the two
secondary coils and the voltages in coils B and C
are the same, the net output voltage V
2
will be
zero (or minimum).

If core the core is not centered there will be a
net output voltage.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT sensor output.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT cross section.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Both primary and secondary coils are
wrapped around a hollow, nonmagnetic
bobbin, and the core slides inside the bobbin.


Output voltage versus time for LVDT: (a)
core displaced upward from center; (b)
core displaced down from center.

By sensing the phase of the output
voltage relative to the primary voltage,
the signal conditioner can determine
the direction of the core displacement.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
http://www.rdpe.com/displacement/lvdt/lvdt-principles.htm
Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer
Rotary variable differential transformer: (a) schematic; (b) simplified
construction. [(b) Based on Herceg, 1976.]
Capacitive Displacement Sensor
Most appropriate for measuring very small
displacements (0.00001 to 0.01 in.)

The capacitance of a capacitor is s function of
the distance between the plates and the area
of the plates
d
A
K C
0
e =
Capacitive Displacement Sensor
There are two ways of using capacitive
transducer for displacement measurements.
Capacitive Displacement Sensor
One plate is moved so that
distance d between the plates
varies

The capacitance is a nonlinear
function of the displacement
Capacitive Displacement Sensor
One of the plate can be
moved parallel to the
other plate so that the
overlapping area varies

The capacitance is
approximately a linear
function of the
displacement
Capacitive Displacement Sensor
Since the output of the capacitive sensor is
not a voltage, signal conditioning is required.
Wheatstone bridge for capacitance
measurement.
Examples
Measuring Linear Velocity
Doppler Radar Velocity Measurement
If a beam of radio waves is directed at a
moving object, the frequency of radiation
reflected from object will be altered
Doppler Radar Velocity Measurement
The change in frequency of radiation directed
at the moving object is given by:

u cos 2V
f
D
=
Velocity Determination Using
Displacement and Acceleration
Sensors
Displacement and acceleration transducers provide data that
can be used to determine velocity.

If displacement data are available in the form of x(t), the
velocity can be obtained by differentiating these data:
dt
t dx
V
) (
=
Velocity Determination Using
Displacement and Acceleration
Sensors
If acceleration data are available in the form
a(t), by integration the velocity can be
estimated as
}
+ =
t
t
dt t a V t V
0
) ( ) (
0
Examples
Measuring Angular Velocity
Electric Generator Tachometers
Small DC electric generator is attached to shaft end.

Output of generator is a voltage of the function of shaft
angular velocity
Magnetic Pickup
Uses the principle of emf
distortion.

Pulse counter is used to
calibrated with angular
velocity
Stroboscopic Tachometer
Photoelectric Tachometer
Measuring Acceleration and Vibration
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Piezoelectric Sensing Element
Quartz crystal
When deformed, capable of generating an
electric charge
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Piezoelectric sensors: (a) longitudinal effect; (b) transverse effect.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
When the load is applied, electrons move to
one of the conducting surfaces and away
from the other

Results in charge being stored by the
inherent capacitance of the piezoelectric
material itself.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
For the arrangement of longitudinal effect,
charge generated is


For transverse effect, the charge generated is
d F Q =
a
b
d F Q =
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
If ratio of the dimension, b/a is greater than
1, the transverse effect will produce a greater
charge than the longitudinal effect.

With either loading, the charge is
proportional to the applied force

The charge will result in voltage.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Accelerometer Using Piezoelectric Sensing
Elements
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Consist of housing, a mass (seismic mass) and a
piezoelectric sensing element.

An initial force between the mass and the sensor is
obtained with a preloading spring sleeve.

As the housing of the accelerometer is subject to an
acceleration, the force exerted by the mass on the
quartz crystal is altered.

This generates a charge on the crystal

Measuring Force
Load Cells
Virtually any simple metal structure will deform when
subjected to a force

As long as the resulting stresses are below the material yield
stress, the deflection () and resulting strain () will be linear
functions of the applied force:
o
1
C F =
c
2
C F =
Load Cells
Common types of load cells: (a) cantilever beam; (b) hollow cylinder.
Load Cells
A cantilevered beam instrumented with four strain gages
Two on the top and two on the bottom
Load Cells
The hollow cylinder load cell also uses
four strain gages and is also temperature
compensated.

As the cylinder is compressed, it not only
becomes slightly shorter but also
become slightly larger in diameter

Two of the gages measure the axial
compression

Other two are mounted transversely and
measure the tensile diametral strain
References
http://www.omega.com/literature/transacti
ons/volume3/strain2.html
http://www.rdpe.com/displacement/lvdt/lv
dt-principles.htm