Reheat Factor - Mollier Diiagram
Reheat Factor - Mollier Diiagram
Reheat Factor - Mollier Diiagram
Eldgar
Buckingham
CONTENTS
Page
cyg
Introduction
2.
The
The
3.
Adiabatic flow
^83
4.
Dissipative flow
5.
^84
^86
6.
The
1.
7.
8.
9.
580
heat of steam
582
589
cp plane
Representation of expansion on the
efficiency
Form of the expansion line graphical construction
^the
593
595
598
600
reheat factor
10. First
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Note
602
i?
604
606
609
611
612
615
INTRODUCTION
The
"heat diagram," or
(p diagram, in which the
state of a mass of steam is represented by a point on a plane with
absolute temperature {&) and entropy (^) as rectangular coordinates, has in recent years been much used by writers on technical thermodynamics, and for many purposes it is most instrucBut for the
tive, though some caution is needed in interpreting it.
quantitative solution of problems in steam-turbine design it is by
no means comparable in convenience with the Mollier diagram"
or total heat entropy diagram, in which the representation is on a
so-called
**
579
58o
Bulletin of the
Bureau
of
Standards
[Vol. 7.
No. 4
plane with the total heat (H) and entropy (^) as rectangular
The idea of using a surface with H, cp, and p (prescoordinates.
being
sure) as rectangular coordinates is due to Willard Gibbs,
Prof. Mollier, of
it
The
an introduction, for those not familiar with the subject, to some of the
technically important properties of quantities
and cp and of the
first six
The remainder
paper contains a discussion of the form, on this diagram, of the expansion line for wet
steam flowing through a multistage turbine of known stage efficiency, and the development of a practical method for use by
cp diagram
designers for drawing the expansion line on the
without the use of the laborious step-by-step method.
Mollier diagram.
of the
1.
Let a
CoPC
fluid of
(Fig.
which we
i).
any
and
exit sections.
A
Ao
Po
'"o
Oo Eo
X
^
To
..>
Fig. 1
Let poVoOoEo be the pressure, specific volume, absolute temperature, and internal energy per unit mass of the fluid as it
crosses the entrance section, and let pv6E he the corresponding
quantities at the exit section. These are to be averages over the
section, and the variations from one point to another of the section
are to be small.
Buckingham]
581
Let To be the kinetic energy per unit mass at Ao, of the axial
component ^ of the velocity, and T the corresponding quantity at
A. The channel at ^o and A shall be varying in cross section so
slowly that the kinetic energy of the radial velocity is negligible.
If I per cent of the total kinetic energy is a negligible quantity, a
total taper of one in four, for a cone, is permissible, so that no
severe demands are made on the constancy of cross section at
Ao and A.
Subject to the foregoing restriction in the immediate vicinity of
Ao and A, the shape of the channel between Ao and A is a matter
There may, if we please, be included,
of complete indifference.
as forming a part of the channel or completely inclosed within it,
a motor actuated by the flow of the fluid and delivering work
outside the channel, or a pump actuated by the appHcation of
power from without and doing work on the fluid. The walls of
the channel must be tight so as to prevent leakage of fluid, but
they need not be thermally insulating. The fluid may be any
liquid, vapor, or gas, but for concreteness we shall usually refer to
it
as steam.
We
of the motor.
may
{E + T)
- (Eo + To)
=-
poVo- pv
-W -Q
(i)
in
t.
e. g.,
u.).
^
British thermal
Bulletin of the
582
Rearranging equation
(i),
Bureau
of
Standards
[V01.7.N0.4
we have
(2)
which
is
the
first
pumps
averaging
of either
is
is,
fact,
fluid.
E+pv = H
The quantity
(3)
name
steam
is,
"total heat,"
H as just defined.
The small
all
pressures
Buckingham]
583
{T-To)+W + Q = Ho-H
(4)
3.
An
ADIABATIC
is
FLOW
equation
(4)
reduces to
iT-To)+W = Ho-H
(s)
1909.
Bulletin of the
584
Bureau
of
Standards
[Voi. 7,
No.
and
velocity
is
less
than To,
The simplest
drawing
in
possible case
which there
is
is
now
neither outside
The whole
first
member
of equation
unchanged during
its
fall
of presstue.
is
based.
4.
DISSIPATIVE
FLOW
and
if
we take
Buckingham]
desire to get as
much work
may
causes of waste,
be from
all
The wire-drawing
of
585
e.,
of irreversibility.
an
may be.
is,
work
is
W may have a
finite
W.
Bulletin of the
586
5.
Bureau
of
Standards
[Voi. 7,
No. 4
is
known
as the
"entropy of evaporation."
If a reversible change of state occurs during which the temperature of the body is not constant, we may cut the process up into
a mmiber of small steps; for each of these divide the heat taken
in by the average temperature of the body during that step;
and finally add all these small quotients. If we then reduce the
length and increase the
number
sum
B
approaches a definite limit expressible in the form
-^ where A
A
and
sion
is
state
of the
and
all
The value
final states.
reversible changes
of
tliis
and
more general
of entropy
it is
is
expres-
case of an
evidently included in
change of entropy.
If, as is usual, we take the temperature of the ice point and
the pressure of one atmosphere as our standard conditions, the
entropy of a mass of fluid at any other temperature and pressure,
this
definition of
is
the value of
- from the
an adiabatic process
is
dQ
Buckingham]
587
B
-^ along the
is
A
For heat generated internally has the same
changing the
temperature or otherwise influencing the state of the steam as an
equal amount of heat added from without, so that the final state
effect in
reached is not the same as if there had been the actual addition
of heat from without but no internal generation of heat.
In any actual expansion between two given completely defined
states, the final entropy of the expanding substance is always
B
A
with
74356 12
is
Bulletin of the
588
Bureau
It is therefore
of
Standards
[Voi. 7.
No. 4
and not
is
isentropic.
The expansion
steam in a turbine
may be
deal of dissipation
by eddy
though nearly
it is
far
is
other, because
between the
make
separate parts
Buckingham]
probably
589
It is possible
In such a case the total result would be the same as if the mechanical energy actually wasted inside the turbine had been used up
on bearing friction outside, with no internal heating and no conduction and radiation loss. The expansion might thus be isentropic without being, even approximately, either adiabatic or
reversible.
We
however, treat the turbine problem as one of adiabatic expansion, having therefore an isentropic expansion as its
ideal, and shall treat the external heat losses as negligible and
shall,
(5).
Such a
simplifica-
at
all.
6.
The
{T-To)-^W = Ho-H
gives us information in terms of the total heat
is
(5)
We
H.
have also
and therefore
On
this plane,
if
is
made
ordi-
nate and
g)
abscissa,
Bulletin of the
590
Bureau
of
Standards
[Vol. 7,
No. 4
the difference of ordinate of the initial and final points gives us, at
once, the heat drop and therefore, by equation (5), the mechanical
energy developed.
We
An
heat.
which
it
may be presumed
that the
and horizontal
entropy.
horizontal
distance
reprCvSents
difference
of
Buckingham]
simultaneous values of
steam
table.
The
591
lines
be plotted by taking
for dry saturated steam from the
It
H and
may
easily
values of
and
cp
for
x.
line
55, are
lines of con-
t.
straight for
wet steam,
shown sloping
55 and
i.
e.,
upward with
within the
rising superfield.
These
Within the saturation field they are also isothermals, since the temperature of wet
steam is fixed by its pressure; but above the saturation line they
cease to be isothermals, because superheated steam at a given
pressure may have any temperattue higher than its saturation
are the constant-pressure lines or isopiestics.
temperature.
entropy,
length of cb
= length
oi ac-^6
and
cp
used in
drawing the chart. If these scales are the same, = ac-v-cb = tan a.
If as is usual the scales are different, we have
6 = k tan a
(6)
Bulletin of the
592
i.
Bureau
e.,
of
Standards
iVol.7,No.
if
ac and be
understood
to be the angle between the cp axis and the tangent to the isoThere is no sudden change of direction
piestic at the given point.
at the saturation line, because there is no discontinuity in the temperature but with increasing superheat the temperature and therefore, by (6) the slope of the isopiestics increases and they are concave upward, as shown.
Lines of constant dryness drawn for regularly changing values
are infinitesimal
is
general
if
is
of X, e. g.,
any given
:Jf
= o.9,
:x:
isopiestic,
= o.8, x^o.j,
etc.,
of the
segments on two
/
+^
differ-
where
is
is
evaporation.
we
To prove
this
AB = -ylAO + cW.
consider Fig.
But
CB = = the
/
same
as that of
H,
0;
AC=n=the
e
3,
in
if
the scale of
(p is
entropy of evaporation.
the
We
therefore have
AB = yJ+^^=iVi+^^
If
the scales are not the same there will be a proportionality factor
different
from unity.
Buckingham]
Any
line of
593
all
the isopiestics at
line.
Let us start with one pound of steam at the pressure p^. If the
steam is dry-saturated, its initial state is represented by the
point
by the
intersection of the
same
iso-
and
AC=H^H^
is
the
ideal
maximum
heat-drop available
may
The
ideal yield
The
is
thus be read
off at
H^H^^AD,
and the
Bulletin of the
594
Bureau
AD /AC.
of
Standards
[Voi.
?,
No. 4
evidently equal to
This
is
given
given a priori,
sented by
is
by e = AD/AC.
final
If
were
In order to discuss the efficiency of the separate parts of a multiIn a multistage turbine we have first to define the term stage.
stage impulse turbine, of the Rateau type for instance, points at
the entrances to the various nozzles and at exit from the last com-
In a turbine
of the Parsons type, points in the clearance spaces at entrance to
the fixed blades, together with a point at exit from the last moving row to the exhaust space, are "similarly situated. " We shall
define a stage as the part of the turbine between any two such
This agrees with the usual
adjacent similarly situated points.
definition of a stage for the impulse turbine, but not with that
sometimes adopted for turbines of the Parsons type in which each
row of blades whether fixed or moving is regarded as a separate
stage.
Our definition makes a " stage" consist of a fixed row and
the next following moving row. This use of the term seems more
rational than that which divides the turbine into two kinds of
stages the moving rows and the fixed rows in one of which no
work at all is done by the steam on the rotor. At all events, it is
convenient for the purposes of this paper and will be adopted.
If, then, we consider not a whole turbine but a single stage, we
may say that the change of kinetic energy (T To) through any
stage is negligible.
In an impulse stage T and Tq are usually separately negligible in a Parsons stage the change of steam speed is so
"
small as to
make {T T^
and
Buckingham]
595
no importance in regard
to the turbine as a whole.
If the kinetic energy term is negligible
in comparison with
for each separate stage, it is so for the whole
turbine, and if e is the efficiency in the usual sense we have (Fig. 2)
of this sort regarding a single one
is
of
AD
'=AC
When
for, as
8.
it is
called the
*'
a distinctive term
stage efficiency,
is
'*
needed.
multistage turbine
is
>
*R
Fig.
line
machine
is
properly designed.
There
is
p2,
to dissi-
but by
far
Bulletin of the
596
Bureau
of
Standards
\voi. 7,
no.
the greater part of the reheat is due to blade losses, windage, leakage, and " carry-over " i. e., the kinetic energy of the steam leaving
the last set of moving blades which is in general wasted and not
available for driving the issuing steam directly into the next set
of ncfzzles.
p2.
A, C, E, G.
Now
ciency of the
first
is
the position of
stage:
For
if e is
is
this
we know the
efficiency, we have
fixed
if
effi-
in
while the intermediate pressures are not given but are to be de-
Buckmgkam]
the same in
all
No
the stages.
597
Up
is
large.
to this point
points A, C, E, G.
we have
But
let
us suppose that
what
is
wanted
is
not the steam state at entrance to the nozzles but that at exit
from them, after the reheat in the nozzles but before the further
reheat at the constant lower pressure has occurred. This will
evidently be given by the points B, D, F (Fig. 4). If the stages
are all alike and the intermediate pressures have been so determined, by distributing A, C, E, G, etc., at equal vertical intervals, that the heat drop is the same in each stage, the steam
speed and the reheat will be very nearly the same in each set of
nozzles.
The reheat after passing the nozzles will then be the
same in all the stages and B will be as far below C, measured
vertically, as D is below E, F below G, and so on.
It is true,
this amount can not be determined exactly, but it can be estimated with sufficient accuracy, and furthermore if there are
many stages so that the total heat drop in each is itself small, the
vertical distance between C and B will be still smaller and no
very great error can be made in the position oi B. If, therefore,
the cur\^e AC EG has been drawn the points BDF, etc., may all be
Bulletin of the
598
any other
if
Bureau
of
Standards
[Vol. 7,
The same
is
No. 4
true of
We
useful.
it is
essential that
we should
estimate the
Whatever the
it is
^<p
Fig. 5
Let
(Fig.
5)
be the
initial
steam.
To
follows:
and
AC
we may proceed as
downward from the initial
line
Biukingham]
Divide this at
point.
AB
ADJAC =
so that
599
,
the given
stage
efficiency;
then
will
tan
/8
tan
i-e
or by equation
(7)
(6)
k tan
yS
i-e
6 also falls;
(8)
hence ^ decreases
concave upward.
Let us next consider expansion of wet steam through a number
of successive stages, of equal stage efficiency e, between the
line is
9>
Fig. 6
is
(Fig. 6)
AD'IAC =
stages
Bulletin of the
6oo
Bureau
Standards
of
p.^.
\Voi.7,no.4
The expansion
line
then
and at a point
actual heat-drop
bined efficiency,
the ratio
in
be
satisfied,
isopiestic p2 at
shall
(8)
which
AD
c
is
is
its
tangent
parallel to
= ADIaC,
ADJAD'.
is
is
AB'
The
the com-
This ratio
AD' and
final
by R.
is
known
Its value,
as the ''reheat-
which
in practice
by AD'lAC = e.
given
lies
If,
field.
this curvature
is
distributed, hence
AB
We
have therefore to
Buckingham]
60
Let
let
(Fig. 7)
H and
cp
Fig. 7
on equal
scales so that ^
substitute in equation
,
tan
=1
then have to
(7)
dH
p= acp
r.
-1
a=~
cp
dH
dcp
tan
which gives us
We
in equation (8).
H=
cp
line,
e
^2^2^^' =H^Cp^~-
(9)
equation
(9)
may be
^^^
"
H2
//a
_ tan
H^
A-2
^ 62
Ian a^
6^
H,
and the heat-drop from
to
\e,)
is
therefore given
//.-//.^hIi-^uj
by the equation
(.0)
Bulletin of the
6o2
If
Bureau
of
Standards
[Voi. 7.
No. 4
e{H^H^=eHii^\
is
(A)
From
of {R
this
we
equation
i), which
TABLE
11.
p\
Pi
e=0,2
=0.6.
300
50
0.072
0.034
50
.096
.047
300
.168
.080
300
20
.100
.048
20
.083
.040
300
.186
.088
PRACTICAL WORKING
i) were computed by
Values of
(i^
i) were
values of
(i^
i?
-I=
.207 (0.975
- e)
d^,
{log,, 0,
- log,,
If
this
(i?,,-l)+(i?,3-l)
6^)
exactly,
(-??n-l)
(B)
we should
(C)
Buckingham]
where
603
Taking equation
by a
(R i)
we could then
of
repree
and
instead
of
against
the
inconwe plot (R i) against p as abscissa
venient log d, we shall have reduced our method for finding R to
practical shape.
A single curve is appHcable only to a single value
of e, but we may either work to other values of e by means of
equation (B), or plot a number of curves for different values of e
and interpolate when making the readings of (R i).
In Table II are values of R computed by equation (B) for expansion from 350 pounds to 18 lower pressures, with the stage efficiencies
= o.i,
0.2,
etc.
0.8
TABLE
II
=0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
300
1.0075
1.0066
1.0058
1.0049
1.0041
1.0032
1.0023
1.0015
250
1.0161
1.0143
1.0124
1.0106
1.0088
1.0069
1.0051
1.0032
200
^2
1.0265
1.0235
1.0205
1.0174
1.0144
1.0114
1.0083
1.0053
150
1.0394
1.0349
1.0304
1.0259
1.0214
1.0169
1.0124
1.0079
100
1.0569
1.0504
1.0439
1.0374
1.0309
1.0244
1.0179
1.0114
70
1.0717
1.0635
1.0553
1.0471
1.0389
1.0307
1.0225
1.0143
40
1.0936
1.0829
1.0722
1.0615
1.0508
1.0401
1.0294
1.0187
30
1.1047
1.0927
1.0808
1.0688
1.0568
1.0449
1.0329
1.0209
20
1.1191
1.1055
1.0919
1.0783
1.0646
1.0510
1.0374
1.0238
15
1.1292
1.1144
1.0997
1.0849
1.0702
1.0554
1.0406
1.0258
10
1.1429
1.1265
1.1102
1.0939
1.0775
1.0612
1.0449
1.0285
1.1545
1.1369
1.1192
1.1016
1.0839
1.0663
1.0486
1.0309
1.1651
1.1462
1.1274
1.1085
1.0896
1.0708
1.0519
1.0330
1.1808
1.1601
1.1395
1.1188
1.0981
1.0775
1.0568
1.0361
1.1926
1.1706
1.1486
1.1266
1.1045
1.0825
1.0605
1.0385
1.5
1.2102
1.1782
1.1552
1.1322
1.1092
1.0862
1.0632
1.0402
1.0
1.2120
1.1878
1.1636
1.1394
1.1151
1.0909
1.0667
1.0424
0.5
1.2309
1.2045
1.1781
1.1417
1.1253
1.0989
1.0725
1.0460
74356 12
Bureau
Bulletin of the
6o4
From
differ
from
= o.i;
this only in
by the
Standards
desires
[Voi. 7,
who
of
No. 4
set of
(Ri)
following practical
(R i)
at the
two pres-
sures between which the expansion takes place; their difference is the
desired value of (R
i)
for
= o.i.
For any
other
value of
e,
'^'^
Many
The
rule
may
equation (A)
itself,
(A)
has
now
12.
This question
to be taken up.
cpQ
line.
In
it
where
and Z
= a + bZ
(11)
is
isentropic
^ = (p^.
Equation
assumpReadings on the
tion
By
readings
1.384, 1.544,
Buckingham}
and
605
it
\oge = A-\-BZ
(12)
The values
be made.
of
A and B
(p^.
for
for
now had
is
Values of
(i.
e.,
of Z)
Z = 1645
(13)
%,o<^- 3750.2
The greatest difference between Z obtained from the table and Z
calculated by equation (13) was 0.7 B. t. u. and the average
The differences showed a sysdifference was only 0.3 B. t. u.
tematic nm, but it was wave-like and not progressive, the value
passing through zero in the vicinity of 550, 700, and 900
absolute F.
Equation
a quite exact empirical representation of the facts, as given in the tables, over the whole range of
pressures used in present steam practice. At any other isentropic
where the entropy has the value (p, equation (13) leads evidently
(13) is therefore
to the equation
z = 1645
log,^
- 3750.2
e{(p
- 1 .384)
(14)
6o6
Bureau
Bulletin of the
13.
of
Standards
[Vol. 7.
No.
4.
was deduced,
it
follows that
(13) or
expression.
/
A,
\y
/
i
E
<p
<Po
Fig. 8
AB
Let
line.
(Fig. 8)
Then,
if e is
CD
(15)
DA
Now we
have
DB
"P/p
Also
DA
DB
where the symbol d
refers to
-dH
d<p
line.
i-e
dcp
^dH^^-'T
(16)
an equation which must be satisfied at all points of the expansion line and in all cases, regardless of the distribution of the
as
isopiestics.-^
^
The
is
Buckingham]
607
we have
CD H-Z ^^
AoE DB 9-90
EA
Whence
H-Z
9-<Po=^
Differentiating
by
H and muhiplying by
dZ
ndcf)
.^
gives us
.1
dO
another general relation, which must hold for all points within
the saturation field and for motion of the state point in any direction whatever.
By comparison of equations (16) and (17) we get
7\d
fu
If
we now
let <^o
and equation
log 6
dZ
(18)
may
^ = e\^i+B{H-Z)\
(20)
H = Me^''^+Z +
o\
H and Z.
(21)
eB
which
is
point.
From
equation (19)
and equation
(21)
we
may
get
BZ = log 6 -A,
whence
be written
^ = ^Vz
+ L^
eB
e^
(22)
Bulletin of the
6o8
Bureau
of
initial state,
Standards
[Voi.
no. 4
-^ = H,-Z,-^=L
Then equation
?.
(23)
form
and the heat-drop along the expansion line between two points at
the absolute temperatures d^ and ^2 is given by
H.-H.^Z.-Z.+Lli-f^y]
(25)
line,
H = N^+Z
(26)
N = H,-Z,
(27)
where
initial
point at 6
in
= 6^
to the
(28)
which
N = H,-Z,
(D,)
L = N-'-^
(D,)
it
is
evidently so inconvenient as to
Buckingham]
results obtained
by the
609
1 1
for
it
has been shown that that rule gives sensibly the same results,
within the range of present steam-turbine practice, as equation
as sensibly correct.
14.
The
of
plotted against
1.5
computing
(D)
and com-
rule given in
1 1
The values
points;
by equation
with values obtained by the
tests consisted in
log^Q
and a
The values
cp
chart at
straight line
mm=5o.oi.
of Z^
u.
=75
^=
1.384 were
mm
and, for
and Z2 needed
The slope of
in the
log^^^
6,
compu-
this line
when
||
6io
Bulletin of the
Bureau
of
Standards
[Vol. 7,
somewhat more
No. 4
closely
TABLE
Value of
X[R
by equ.
(22)
/? by
III
rule]
expressed as percentage of
(^1-/^3)
pi
P\
lbs/in
Xx
6=0.1
277.4
12.7
0.981
45.5
277.4
.981
185.0
277.4
.981
44.0
66.2
1.00
33.7
21.9
.99
33.7
21.9
.88
33.7
21.9
.77
20.0
20.0
.99
+0.04
20.0
20.0
.84
20.0
20.0
.79
20.0
120.0
.99
20.0
120.0
.84
+
+
+
+
300.0
300.0
1.00
110.0
110.0
1.00
35.0
35.0
1.00
8.0
8.0
1.00
In the
ratio,
6=0.2
6=0.4
6=0,6
+0.03
-0.02
-0.02
6=0.7
abs
pi
the
first
+
+
+
.04
.03
.06
.09
.20
.09
.06
+
+
.07
.01
.04
.04
.04
.02
+
+
.03
.07
.08
+
+
-
+
+
.04
.04
.06
.05
.04
.01
.06
.07
.03
+
+
.04
.10
.22
.10
.05
.07
.08
+0.03
+
+
.03
.19
.13
.01
.01
.02
.01
.04
.04
.25
.10
.01
.02
initial pressure,
and the
initial
it
{H^-H^, caused by
Buckingham]
6ii
we may conclude that since one of the methods cergives a much more accurate value than the other, the error
quantity,
tainly
is
negligible
of
is
accu-
designing.
15.
Having thus a
we
practical
method
If
p^^
and
p2 are the
may
be found
by the equation
H,-H, = Re{H,-H,)
We
(29)
is
based.
6i2
Bulletin of the
Bureau
of
Standards
[V01.7.N0.4
expansion line but merely the actual heat drop {H^ H^, which
may be expected in a given set of similar stages. If the expansion
ratio is large, neglecting the reheat factor may introduce an error
of 5 per cent or more, which is undesirable and may be avoided
by a single computation of the reheat factor for use in equation
(29).
16.
GENERAL REMARKS
are
isopiestics are
The
were exactly known and expressible in simple mathematical form, the development of a general differential equation
for the expansion line would be a difficult matter and the task
of integrating it would very possibly present insuperable mathematical difficulties. But without attempting this general solution a few pertinent remarks may be made.
(a) Consideration of the Hep chart shows that an isentropic
expansion between two given isopiestics involves a greater change
in temperature for superheated than for wet steam, as may
also be seen from the pv chart.
A dissipative expansion line
Even
if
this
more
first
expected.
is
Up
to 100
Buckingham]
for
613
limits.
(c)
The value
of the quantity (R
i)
is
close designing.
few
high
initial
radial clearances.
first
ratios
6i4
Bulletin of the
Bureau
of
Standards
[Vol.?, No. 4
The notion
initial state.
^H
Fig. 9
Then
if
is
AD H.-H^
AC~H,-H,
is
maximum
may
be assumed in an
impulse stage, the difference of kinetic energy between similarly
situated points
stage.
This
is
is
is
i.
initial state
AD/AC = e
is
at p2,
are
the
as
straight or curved,
so long as
negligible,
If,
is
given beforehand,
is
thus fixed by
question
of a reheat factor.
But the
efficiency
But
if it
diagram drawn with proper allowances for velocity losses in nozzles and blades, with subsequent correction for windage and
leakage, the case may be a trifle different in theory though hardly
in practice.
Buckingham]
A and therefore C
make AD/AC = where
Let
be given, and
e
is
615
let
be so placed as to
It
now
becomes a question of when the various elements of the total dissipation occur and of the temperature of the steam when the
In an impulse
various elements of the reheat are added to it.
stage, in general, only a small fraction of the dissipation occurs
is
it is
effect, is
introduced to
is
distributed
The
improvement
in accuracy
To apply a
In conclusion
we may say
is
concerned, the fact the method given in this paper for finding the
an important
is
on
is
not
In the designing of
turbines with many similar stages, its use may save a great deal
of time that would otherwise have to be spent over the drawing
board.
NOTE (TO SEC. 1).LIMITATIONS OF THE THEORY
restriction
its
usefulness.
Bulletin of the
61
Bureau
of
Standards
Voi.
7,
No. 4
is
they
"
produce heat,
"
ing that the dissipation tends to raise the temperature of the fluid.
tion at once
makes
it
''
we
if
we
use the theory with good judgment and do not throw common
sense to the winds.
If one attempted to measure the temperature
Buckingham]
617
compared
the readings with the theory, one might find very large discrepan-
cies.
The degree
of simplification permissible
depends on the acctiracy expected in using the theory for prediction and is limited by the accuracy attainable in the experimental
In these respects the
verification of the results of prediction.
theory of the steam turbine does not differ at all from other physical
theories only it happens that the accuracy required of the theory
is low on accotmt of experimental difficulties, and that the things
which the theory neglects in making its ideal picture of the facts
are so obvious that anyone can see them.
;
Washington, March
2,
191
1.
!--l
i\
200
PRESSURE
LBS./IN^
PIntc
I.
ABSOLUTE
MM^
220
240
260
280
300
320
340