115 F.

3d 220
65 USLW 2818

Jennifer CUSHMAN, Appellant,

v.
TRANS UNION CORPORATION.
No. 96-1553.

United States Court of Appeals,

Third Circuit.
Argued April 17, 1997.
Decided June 9, 1997.

Scott D. Godshall, Eric J. Rothschild (argued), Pepper, Hamilton &

Scheetz, Philadelphia, PA, for Appellant.
Mark E. Kogan (argued), Marion, Satzberg, Trichon & Kogan,
Philadelphia, PA, for Appellee.
Before: SCIRICA, COWEN and NYGAARD, Circuit Judges.
OPINION OF THE COURT
COWEN, Circuit Judge.

This appeal concerns, among other issues, the extent of a consumer reporting
agency's obligation, pursuant to section 611(a) of the Fair Credit Reporting Act
("FCRA"), 15 U.S.C. 1681i(a) (1982), to conduct a reasonable reinvestigation
of information on a consumer's credit report alleged by the consumer to be
inaccurate. We hold that the district court erred to the extent that it concluded
as a matter of law that defendant Trans Union Corporation ("TUC") fulfilled its
obligation under 1681i(a). Therefore, we will reverse and remand the district
court's grant of judgment as a matter of law on plaintiff-appellant Jennifer
Cushman's claim for negligent noncompliance with that section.

We also hold that Cushman has produced sufficient evidence from which a
reasonable jury could find that she has proved the publication element of her

defamation claim and her claims pursuant to the Vermont Fair Credit Reporting
Act ("VFCRA"), VT.STAT.ANN. tit. 9, 2480a et seq. (1993). We will
reverse and remand the district court's grant of judgment as a matter of law on
those claims. Finally, we remand to the district court to determine whether
Cushman has produced evidence sufficient to justify an award of punitive
damages and to avoid preemption of her defamation claim.I.
3

To the extent the facts are disputed, we view them in the light most favorable to
Cushman. Cushman has a permanent residence in Pennsylvania but attended
college in Vermont during the time period pertinent to this litigation. In the
summer of 1993, an unknown person, possibly a member of her household in
Philadelphia, applied under Cushman's name for credit cards from three credit
grantors: American Express ("Amex"), Citibank Visa ("Citibank"), and Chase
Manhattan Bank ("Chase"). The person provided the credit grantors with
Cushman's social security number, address, and other identifying information.
Credit cards were issued to that person in Cushman's name, and that person
accumulated balances totaling approximately $2400 on the cards between June
of 1993 and April of 1994. All this occurred without Cushman's knowledge.

In August of 1994, an unidentified bill collector informed Cushman that TUC

was publishing a consumer credit report indicating that she was delinquent on
payments to these three credit grantors. Cushman notified TUC that she had not
applied for or used the three credit cards in question, and suggested that a third
party had fraudulently applied for and obtained the cards. In response, a TUC
clerk called Amex and Chase to inquire whether the verifying information
(such as Cushman's name, social security number, and address) in Amex's and
Chase's records matched the information in the TUC report. The TUC clerk
also asked if Cushman had opened a fraud investigation with the credit
grantors. Because the information matched, and because Cushman had not
opened a fraud investigation, the information remained in the TUC report. TUC
was unable to contact Citibank so TUC deleted the Citibank entry from the
report. TUC's investigations are performed by clerks paid $7.50 per hour and
who are expected to perform ten investigations per hour.

There is no evidence that TUC took the necessary steps to obtain access to
pertinent documents from the credit grantors that would enable TUC to perform
a handwriting comparison. TUC did allow Cushman the opportunity to
complete a form requesting that a special handling statement be placed on her
report, and that form required her signature. However, a TUC employee
testified that the form would not have been used for a handwriting comparison
had Cushman completed it. TUC advises consumers in Cushman's position to
communicate with the credit grantors and complete signature verifications and

affidavits of fraud with the credit grantors.

6

Cushman was sent a copy of the updated report still containing the Amex and
Chase delinquencies. She sent a second letter to TUC reiterating her
disagreement with the facts contained in the report and offering to sign
affidavits for TUC to the effect that the delinquencies were not hers. TUC
subsequently performed a reinvestigation identical to the first one but did
nothing more. The credit report was not changed. At no time did TUC provide
Cushman with a description of its reinvestigation procedures.

Cushman brought this action in the district court alleging negligent and willful
failure to reinvestigate the disputed entries in violation of sections 611(a), 616,
and 617 of the FCRA, 15 U.S.C. 1681i(a), 1681n, 1681o; violations of the
VFCRA, VT.STAT.ANN. tit. 9, 2480a et seq.; and defamation.
Subsequently, in April of 1995, TUC verified the information with Citibank,
and placed the Citibank entry back onto Cushman's report. TUC notified
Cushman of the reinsertion through her attorneys.

That September, Cushman for the first time disputed the delinquencies with the
three credit grantors. A Citibank employee, comparing a handwriting sample
provided by Cushman with the credit card application, determined that the card
had been fraudulently obtained. The other two credit grantors came to a similar
conclusion. TUC has since deleted the entries from Cushman's report.

TUC subsequently moved for summary judgment pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 56,

raising several issues addressed by this appeal. The district court denied the
motion. See Cushman v. Trans Union Corp., 920 F.Supp. 80, 83-84
(E.D.Pa.1996). However, at the close of Cushman's presentation of her case at
trial, the district court sua sponte granted TUC judgment as a matter of law
pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 50(a) on all claims. Cushman timely appealed.

II.
A.
As this Court recently wrote:
10 FCRA was enacted in order to ensure that "consumer reporting agencies adopt
The
reasonable procedures for meeting the needs of commerce for consumer credit,
personnel, insurance, and other information in a manner which is fair and equitable
to the consumer, with regard to the confidentiality, accuracy, relevancy, and proper
utilization of such information." The FCRA was prompted by "congressional

concern over abuses in the credit reporting industry." In the FCRA, Congress has
recognized the crucial role that consumer reporting agencies play in collecting and
transmitting consumer credit information, and the detrimental effects inaccurate
information can visit upon both the individual consumer and the nation's economy
as a whole.
11

Philbin v. Trans Union Corp., 101 F.3d 957, 962 (3d Cir.1996) (quoting 15
U.S.C. 1681(b) and Guimond v. Trans Union Credit Information Co., 45 F.3d
1329, 1333 (9th Cir.1995)) (citations omitted).

12

Title 15 U.S.C. 1681i(a) provides in relevant part:

13the completeness or accuracy of any item of information contained in [her] file is

If
disputed by a consumer, and such dispute is directly conveyed to the consumer
reporting agency by the consumer, the consumer reporting agency shall within a
reasonable period of time reinvestigate and record the current status of that
information unless it has reasonable grounds to believe that the dispute by the
consumer is frivolous or irrelevant. If after such reinvestigation such information is
found to be inaccurate or can no longer be verified, the consumer reporting agency
shall promptly delete such information.
14

"Sections 1681n and 1681o of Title 15 respectively provide private rights of

action for willful and negligent noncompliance with any duty imposed by the
FCRA and allow recovery for actual damages and attorneys' fees and costs, as
well as punitive damages in the case of willful noncompliance." Philbin, 101
F.3d at 962.1

1.
15

As an initial matter, we reject the suggestion made by TUC that no cause of

action lies pursuant to 1681i(a) on the ground that 1681i(b) and (c) provide
the exclusive remedy when a consumer disputes information that has been
placed on her credit report. Those subsections provide that in the event a
dispute under subsection (a) is not resolved, "the consumer may file a brief
statement setting forth the nature of the dispute," 15 U.S.C. 1681i(b), and the
statement or a summary must be included in the consumer's credit report. See
15 U.S.C. 1681i(c).

16

Subsections (b) and (c) have not been read as providing the exclusive remedy
for a consumer in Cushman's position. See Henson v. CSC Credit Servs., 29
F.3d 280, 286 (7th Cir.1994); Cahlin v. General Motors Acceptance Corp., 936
F.2d 1151, 1160 (11th Cir.1991); Pinner v.Schmidt, 805 F.2d 1258, 1261-62

(5th Cir.1986); see also Guimond, 45 F.3d at 1335 (dictum); cf. Thompson v.
San Antonio Retail Merchants Assoc., 682 F.2d 509, 514-15 (5th Cir.1982)
(consumer need not pursue remedies under 1681i before suing under
1681e). The obligations prescribed by subsections (b) and (c) are triggered only
after "the reinvestigation [pursuant to subsection (a) ] does not resolve the
dispute." 15 U.S.C. 1681i(b). This presupposes that a reasonable
reinvestigation has already been completed and the dispute nonetheless remains
unresolved. See Guimond, 45 F.3d at 1335. A consumer alleging that no
reasonable reinvestigation has taken place has a separate claim pursuant to
1681i(a).
2.
17

We now turn to the questions of a consumer reporting agency's obligations

pursuant to 1681i(a) and a plaintiff's burden of proving a claim of negligent
noncompliance with that section. TUC contends that 1681i(a) did not impose
on it an obligation to do any more than perform the reinvestigation it performed
in this case. That is, TUC believes that when a consumer informs a consumer
reporting agency that information contained in her consumer report is
inaccurate, the consumer reporting agency is obliged only to confirm the
accuracy of the information with the original source of the information.
According to TUC, it is never required to go beyond the original source in
ascertaining whether the information is accurate.

18

This position has been rejected by the United States Courts of Appeals for the
Fifth and Seventh Circuits. See Henson, 29 F.3d at 286-87; Stevenson v. TRW
Inc., 987 F.2d 288, 293 (5th Cir.1993). In Henson, a state court judgment
docket erroneously stated that an outstanding judgment had been entered
against the plaintiff. Two credit reporting agencies included the erroneous entry
on their consumer reports regarding the plaintiff. See Henson, 29 F.3d at 28283. The plaintiff sued those credit reporting agencies pursuant to both
1681e(b) and 1681i. See id. at 284, 286. Section 1681e(b) requires consumer
reporting agencies "to follow 'reasonable procedures to assure maximum
possible accuracy' of the information" contained in the credit report. Id. at 284
(quoting 15 U.S.C. 1681e(b)).

19

The Seventh Circuit upheld the district court's dismissal of the 1681e(b)
claim. See id. at 285-86. However, the court reversed the district court's
dismissal of the 1681i claim, distinguishing between the duties imposed by
the two sections of the statute. It stated:

A credit reporting agency that has been notified of potentially inaccurate information
20

in a consumer's credit report is in a very different position than one who has no such
notice.... [A] credit reporting agency may initially rely on public court documents,
because to require otherwise would be burdensome and inefficient. However, such
exclusive reliance may not be justified once the credit reporting agency receives
notice that the consumer disputes information contained in his credit report. When a
credit reporting agency receives such notice, it can target its resources in a more
efficient manner and conduct a more thorough investigation.
21

Id. at 286-87 (emphasis added).

22

The Fifth Circuit came to a similar conclusion in Stevenson, 987 F.2d at 293. In
that case, similar to the situation here, the consumer's son had fraudulently
obtained accounts in the consumer's name. See id. at 291. Other inaccurate
information appeared on the credit report as well. See id. The credit reporting
agency sent written forms to the credit granting agencies that had originally
supplied information concerning the consumer, and relied on those credit
grantors to make the conclusive determination of whether the information was
accurate. See id. at 293. Holding that this was insufficient, the court wrote: "In
a reinvestigation of the accuracy of credit reports [pursuant to 1681i(a) ], a
credit bureau must bear some responsibility for evaluating the accuracy of
information obtained from subscribers." Id. (citing Swoager v. Credit Bureau of
Greater St. Petersburg, 608 F.Supp. 972, 976 (M.D.Fla.1985)).

23

The court reasoned that such a result was the only one consistent with the
language of 1681i(a), which requires "that the 'consumer reporting agency
shall within a reasonable period of time reinvestigate' and 'promptly delete'
inaccurate or unverifiable information." Id. (quoting 15 U.S.C. 1681i(a))
(emphasis in Stevenson ). The court expressly rejected the same argument
made here by TUC: "that where fraud has occurred, the consumer must resolve
the problem with the creditor." Id. Rather, "[t]he statute places the burden of
investigation squarely on" the consumer reporting agency. Id.

24

We agree with the conclusions reached by these courts. We assume for the sake
of argument, as the Seventh Circuit concluded, that the costs of requiring
consumer reporting agencies to go beyond the original source of information as
an initial matter outweigh any potential benefits of such a requirement. Thus,
we can assume that absent any indication that the information is inaccurate, the
statute does not mandate such an investigation. However, as the Henson court
explained, once a claimed inaccuracy is pinpointed, a consumer reporting
agency conducting further investigation incurs only the cost of reinvestigating
that one piece of disputed information. In short, when one goes from the
1681e(b) investigation to the 1681i(a) re investigation, the likelihood that the

cost-benefit analysis will shift in favor of the consumer increases markedly.

Judgment as a matter of law, even if appropriate on a 1681e(b) claim, thus
may not be warranted on a 1681i(a) claim.
25

We also agree with the cogent observation by the Fifth Circuit that the plain
language of the statute places the burden of reinvestigation on the consumer
reporting agency. See Stevenson, 987 F.2d at 293. The FCRA evinces
Congress's intent that consumer reporting agencies, having the opportunity to
reap profits through the collection and dissemination of credit information, bear
"grave responsibilities," 15 U.S.C. 1681(a)(4), to ensure the accuracy of that
information. The "grave responsibilit[y]" imposed by 1681i(a) must consist of
something more than merely parroting information received from other
sources. Therefore, a "reinvestigation" that merely shifts the burden back to the
consumer and the credit grantor cannot fulfill the obligations contemplated by
the statute.

26

In addition to these observations, we note that TUC's reading of 1681i(a)

would require it only to replicate the efforts it must undertake in order to
comply with 1681e(b). Such a reading would render the two sections largely
duplicative of each other. We strive to avoid a result that would render statutory
language superfluous, meaningless, or irrelevant. See Sekula v. F.D.I.C., 39
F.3d 448, 454 n. 14 (3d Cir.1994); Pennsylvania Dept. of Public Welfare v.
United States Dept. of Health and Human Servs., 928 F.2d 1378, 1385 (3d
Cir.1991).

27

TUC contends that Podell v. Citicorp Diners Club, Inc., 112 F.3d 98 (2d
Cir.1997), compels that we affirm. TUC is mistaken. In Podell, after being
notified by a consumer of a dispute, a consumer reporting agency had
performed the same sort of perfunctory reinvestigation that TUC performed
here. See id. at 101-02. As here, the consumer sued the consumer reporting
agency pursuant to 15 U.S.C. 1681i. See id. 2 However, the consumer in
Podell did not contend that the extent of the reinvestigation was unreasonably
narrow, as Cushman argues here. Rather, the consumer's position in that case
was that the consumer reporting agency never sent him an updated credit report
or any other notice that a reinvestigation had been performed. See id. Therefore,
he argued, he never had an opportunity to place a statement of dispute in his file
pursuant to 1681i(b) and (c). See id. As the consumer in Podell never took
issue with the reasonableness of the scope of the consumer reporting agency's
reinvestigation, the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit had no occasion to
address this issue.

28

We hold that in order to fulfill its obligation under 1681i(a) "a credit reporting

agency may be required, in certain circumstances, to verify the accuracy of its

initial source of information." Henson, 29 F.3d at 287. We further hold that "
[w]hether the credit reporting agency has a duty to go beyond the original
source will depend" on a number of factors. Id. One of these is "whether the
consumer has alerted the reporting agency to the possibility that the source may
be unreliable or the reporting agency itself knows or should know that the
source is unreliable." Id. A second factor is "the cost of verifying the accuracy
of the source versus the possible harm inaccurately reported information may
cause the consumer." Id. Whatever considerations exist, it is for "the trier of
fact [to] weigh the[se] factors in deciding whether [the defendant] violated the
provisions of section 1681i." Id.
29

In this case, the district court initially denied TUC's motion for summary
judgment and relied on Henson in doing so, stating:

30 scope of the agency's duty to reinvestigate depends upon (1) the cost of
The
verifying the accuracy of the source versus the potential harm to the consumer; and
(2) the extent of the information the credit reporting agency possesses.... Once the
credit reporting agency receives ... notice [from the consumer that the credit report is
inaccurate] it may be required to conduct a more thorough investigation, one that
requires it to make inquiries beyond the original source of the information....
31[T]he decisive inquiry is whether Trans Union could have determined that the
...
accounts were opened fraudulently if it had reasonably investigated the matter.
32

Cushman, 920 F.Supp. at 83(citing Henson, 29 F.3d at 286-87).

33

This was in accord with our holding today. However, after the close of
plaintiff's case the court stated, without further elaboration:

I34have entertained the evidence in this case to this point, and I tell you I am not
persuaded that the plaintiff has met [her] burden to this Court in any claim that is
before it at this juncture.
35

Based on that, I'm going to grant a 50(a) motion in favor of the defendant.

36

App. at 256-57. As far as we can tell, the evidence before the court on
defendant's summary judgment motion was not materially different from the
evidence produced at trial. Most importantly, there was evidence produced at
trial concerning the inaccuracy of the information, Cushman's notification to
TUC of the inaccuracy and the underlying fraud, the nature of TUC's
reinvestigation and the costs incurred by it in performing that reinvestigation,

and the damages suffered by Cushman.

37

A reasonable jury weighing this evidence in light of the factors identified in

Henson and endorsed by us today could have rendered a verdict for Cushman.
The jury could have concluded that after TUC was alerted to the accusation that
the accounts were obtained fraudulently,and then confronted with the credit
grantors' reiteration of the inaccurate information, TUC should have known
that the credit grantors were "unreliable" to the extent that they had not been
informed of the fraud. See Henson, 29 F.3d at 286; see also Pinner, 805 F.2d at
1262 (where consumer informed consumer reporting agency of his personal
dispute with manager of credit grantor, it was unreasonable under 1681i(a) for
consumer reporting agency to rely solely on manager for information); cf.
Bryant v. TRW, Inc., 689 F.2d 72, 79 (6th Cir.1982) (similar efforts
insufficient under 1681e(b)). Similarly, the jury could have concluded that
seventy-five cents per investigation was too little to spend when weighed
against Cushman's damages. See Henson, 29 F.3d at 287. It was for "the trier of
fact [to]weigh the[se] factors." Id. (emphasis added). The district court
arrogated that role to itself, and in doing so, it erred. Therefore, the judgment of
the district court granting judgment as a matter of law on Cushman's claim for
negligent noncompliance with 1681i(a) will be reversed and remanded.

3.
38

Cushman also claims that she is entitled to punitive damages pursuant to 15

U.S.C. 1681n because TUC's alleged noncompliance with 1681i(a) was
willful. "To show willful noncompliance with the FCRA, [Cushman] must
show that [TUC] 'knowingly and intentionally committed an act in conscious
disregard for the rights of others,' but need not show 'malice or evil motive.' "
Philbin, 101 F.3d at 970(quoting Pinner, 805 F.2d at 1263). The Fifth Circuit
has held that "[o]nly defendants who have engaged in 'willful
misrepresentations or concealments' have committed a willful violation and are
subject to punitive damages under 1681n." Stevenson, 987 F.2d at 294
(quoting Pinner, 805 F.2d at 1263). Other courts have allowed punitive
damages in cases involving concealments or misrepresentations without
necessarily limiting the availability of punitive damages to such cases. See, e.g.,
Millstone v. O'Hanlon Reports, Inc., 528 F.2d 829, 834 (8th Cir.1976); Collins
v. Retail Credit Co., 410 F.Supp. 924, 931-32 (E.D.Mich.1976).

39

Although we decline to adopt the Fifth Circuit's holding in Stevenson, we

conclude that to justify an award of punitive damages, a defendant's actions
must be on the same order as willful concealments or misrepresentations. If
Cushman can prove, as she argues, that TUC adopted its reinvestigation policy

either knowing that policy to be in contravention of the rights possessed by

consumers pursuant to the FCRA or in reckless disregard of whether the policy
contravened those rights, she may be awarded punitive damages.
40

The district court concluded that Cushman had not made out a case even of
negligent noncompliance with 1681i(a). It therefore did not consider whether
she had shown TUC's alleged noncompliance to be willful. Because the district
court is more intimately familiar with the record in this matter, it is better
situated than we to determine whether Cushman has produced sufficient
evidence for a reasonable jury to find willfulness on the part of TUC pursuant
to the standards we have set forth above. Therefore we will remand to the
district court for such a determination.

B.
41

Cushman also claims that TUC has violated the VFCRA. Vermont Statutes
Annotated Title 9, 2480d is similar to 15 U.S.C. 1681i, providing, in
pertinent part:

42 If the completeness or accuracy of any item of information contained in the

(a)
consumer's file is disputed by the consumer and the consumer notifies the credit
reporting agency directly of such dispute, the agency shall reinvestigate free of
charge and record the current status of the disputed information on or before 30
business days after the date the agency receives notice from the consumer.
....
43
44 If, after a reinvestigation under subsection (a) of this section of any information
(e)
disputed by the consumer, the information is found to be inaccurate or cannot be
verified, the credit reporting agency shall promptly delete such information from the
consumer's file....
45 If any information is deleted after a reinvestigation under subsection (a) of this
(f)
section, the information may not be reinserted in the consumer's file after deletion
unless the person who furnishes the information reinvestigates and states in writing
or by electronic record to the agency that the information is complete and accurate....
Upon such reinvestigation and statement by the furnisher, the credit reporting
agency shall promptly notify the consumer of any reinsertion.
46 A credit reporting agency shall provide written notice of the results of any
(g)
reinvestigation under this subsection [which] shall include:
....
47

48 a description of the procedure used to determine the accuracy and completeness

(5)
of the information, including the name, business address, and, if available, the
telephone number of any person contacted in connection with such information....
1.
49

As a threshold matter, we must determine whether Cushman's relation to the

state of Vermont is sufficient to bestow on her the protections of the VFCRA.
Vermont Statutes Annotated Title 9, section 2480a(1) defines"consumer" as "a
natural person residing in this state." Thus, we must determine, pursuant to
Vermont law, whether Cushman "resid[ed]" in that state for purposes of the
statute. We have stated that "the term 'resident' has no precise meaning. Rather,
its definition varies with each statutory usage." Government of Virgin Islands
ex rel. Bodin v. Brathwaite, 459 F.2d 543, 544 (3d Cir.1972) (citations
omitted); see also Willenbrock v. Rogers, 255 F.2d 236, 237(3d Cir.1958);
United States v. Stabler, 169 F.2d 995, 998 (3d Cir.1948). Unfortunately, the
word "residing" is not defined in the VFCRA and we have uncovered no cases
addressing what constitutes residency for purposes of the VFCRA.

50

It is perhaps telling that the Vermont legislature left the word "residing"
undefined in the VFCRA. It could have rendered a technical definition of
residency for these purposes as it has for state income tax purposes. See
VT.STAT. ANN. tit. 32, 5811(11)(A). Alternatively, it could have issued
guidelines for the use of a state agency or the courts to establish their own
definition of residency for these purposes, as it has for purposes of determining
who is entitled to lowered tuition rates at state-supported institutions of higher
learning. See VT. STAT. ANN. tit.16, 2282, 2282a.

51

Because it did neither of these things, we conclude that the Vermont legislature
intended "residing" in VT. STAT. ANN. tit. 9, 2480a(1) to have its common
legal meaning. In ordinary legal parlance, residency merely means "living in a
particular locality" but not necessarily with the intent to make that locality "a
fixed and permanent home." BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY 1308-09 (6th
ed.1990); see also Wolinsky v. Bradford Nat'l Bank, 34 B.R. 702, 704
(D.Vt.1983)(pursuant to Vermont law, " '[d]omicile' ... means living in a
locality with the intent to make it a fixed and permanent home, while 'residence'
simply requires bodily presence as an inhabitant in a given place") (citation
omitted); Piche v. Department of Taxes, 152 Vt. 229, 565 A.2d 1283, 1285
(1989)(residence is something less than domicile); Walker v. Walker, 124 Vt.
172, 200 A.2d 267, 269 (1964) (same). But cf. Bonneau v. Russell, 117 Vt.
134, 85 A.2d 569, 570 (1952) (equating residency and domicile for purposes of
VT. STAT. ANN. tit. 47,s 2713). 3 On the other hand, residency implies

something more than "merely transitory in nature," such as the happenstance of

passing through a state on one's way to some other destination. BLACK'S LAW
DICTIONARY at 1309(defining "resident"); see also Guessefeldt v. McGrath,
342 U.S. 308, 312, 72 S.Ct. 338, 341, 96 L.Ed. 342 (1952) (residence, for
purposes of Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, 50 U.S.C.App. 2(a) (1990),
"implies something more than mere physical presence and something less than
domicile").
52

Brathwaite is instructive in this regard. In that case, we were charged with the
task of interpreting the word "resident" in V.I. CODE ANN. tit. 16, 291(a)
(1995), in order to determine whether the petitioner could bring a paternity
proceeding under that section. As in this case, we had little guidance in that
endeavor. We noted that "residence may be taken to indicate merely one's
momentary factual place of abode." Brathwaite, 459 F.2d at 544. We held that
physical presence in a locality "coupled with [an] intent to remain there for a
measurable period of time," satisfied the statute's requirement of residency. Id.
at 544-45. We further concluded that the four-month period during which the
petitioner had continuously lived in the Virgin Islands prior to the conclusion of
the trial in that case sufficed to confer resident status upon her. See id. at 545.
Thus, to be a resident of a locale, one need intend to live there not permanently
nor indefinitely, but only "for a measurable period of time." Id. Moreover,
presence for a period as short as four months will suffice. See also Stabler, 169
F.2d at 998(defendant's "presence in New Jersey over a period of weeks ... was
sufficient to give him a residence in New Jersey" for purposes of 8 U.S.C.
738(b) (repealed 1952),relating to revocation of naturalization).

53

The record reflects that during the period that TUC allegedly failed to fulfill its
obligations pursuant to the VFCRA (roughly from the autumn of 1994 through
the spring of 1995), Cushman was in her senior year at the University of
Vermont in Burlington. See App. at 147-56. It appears that she had been living
in Vermont at least since the summer of 1993, except for "a brief few days at
the end of the summer." Id. at 148. Moreover, she still lived in Vermont at the
time of trial, in the spring of 1996. See id.at 147. The jury could reasonably
infer from the evidence that, at the time of TUC's alleged violation of the
VFCRA, (1)Cushman had already lived in Vermont for over a year, and(2) she
intended to remain in Vermont at least until she graduated from the University
and perhaps indefinitely. Thus, there was sufficient evidence from which a
reasonable jury could conclude that Cushman was "residing" in Vermont
during the relevant time period, pursuant to the ordinary legal meaning of that
term. A jury could therefore conclude that Cushman may invoke the
protections of the VFCRA.4

2.

54

Cushman claims that TUC violated VT. STAT. ANN. tit. 9, 2480d(f), by not
"promptly notify[ing]" her of the reinsertion of the Citibank entry. A TUC
employee testified that it did notify her through her attorneys, see App. at 22324, and Cushman has pointed to no contrary evidence in the record. Cushman
claims that this notification occurred only during discovery in this litigation and
therefore was not sufficiently "prompt[ ]" to satisfy 2480d(f). The record does
not indicate when the notification was made to Cushman's attorneys.
Accordingly,we cannot conclude as a matter of law that TUC fulfilled its
obligations pursuant to that section. The district court's grant of judgment as a
matter of law on this claim will be reversed and remanded for a jury
determination of whether the notification was sufficiently prompt pursuant to
2480d(f).

3.
55

Cushman also claims that TUC violated VT. STAT. ANN. tit. 9, 2480d(g)(5),
by not providing her with a description of its reinvestigation procedures. There
is evidence that TUC did fail in this regard. See App. at 224-26. Therefore
Cushman's claim pursuant to that section of the VFCRA must stand, as must
her claims under those portions of the VFCRA that merely duplicate the
FCRA.5

C.
1.
56

The district court dismissed Cushman's defamation claim on the ground that
she had not produced any evidence of malice and because the FCRA preempts
state law defamation claims except where the plaintiff proves "malice or willful
intent to injure" her. 15 U.S.C. 1681h(e); see Bloom v. I.C. Sys., Inc., 972
F.2d 1067, 1069 (9th Cir.1992); Thornton v. Equifax, Inc., 619 F.2d 700, 703
(8th Cir.1980). The parties have assumed that a showing of "malice or willful
intent to injure" pursuant to 1681h(e) is identical to proof of willfulness under
1681n. This is contrary to the holding of the United States Court of Appeals
for the Eighth Circuit in Thornton, 619 F.2d at 706, that 1681h(e) establishes
a "higher requirement of proof." However, because neither the parties nor the
district court addressed this issue, we will assume without deciding that the
requirements for the two showings are identical. We have explained above that
we will remand to the district court for a determination of whether Cushman
has produced evidence sufficient to justify a finding of willfulness on the part

of TUC pursuant to 1681n. See Part II.A.3 supra. We must likewise remand
for a determination of whether Cushman has produced evidence of "malice or
willful intent to injure" sufficient to avoid preemption of her defamation claim
pursuant to 1681h(e).2.
57

The district court granted TUC judgment as a matter of law on Cushman's

defamation claim on the alternative ground that she had not produced any
evidence of publication. In order to prove defamation pursuant to Pennsylvania
law,6 Cushman must prove, inter alia, publication of the defamatory matter by
TUC. See 42 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. 8343(a)(2) (1982); U.S. Healthcare,
Inc. v. Blue Cross of Greater Philadelphia, 898 F.2d 914, 923 (3d Cir.1990);
Ertel v. Patriot-News Co., 544 Pa. 93, 674 A.2d 1038, 1043, cert. denied, --U.S. ----, 117 S.Ct. 512, 136 L.Ed.2d 401 (1996). Publication consists of the
communication of the information to at least one person other than the person
defamed. See Flaxman v. Burnett, 393 Pa.Super. 520, 574 A.2d 1061, 1066
(1990).

58

A TUC employee testified that the allegedly defamatory information was

published to Chase and Citibank. See App. at 222, 338-39. Moreover, Cushman
testified that an unidentified bill collector initially informed her of the allegedly
defamatory information, from which a jury could infer that the information had
been published to him as well. See id. at 149. A reasonable jury could conclude
that Cushman has satisfied the publication element of her defamation cause of
action.7 Thus, this was not a proper basis upon which to grant TUC judgment as
a matter of law on the defamation claim.

III.
59

The judgment of the district court will be reversed and remanded for further
proceedings consistent with this opinion.

The Fair Credit Reporting Act has since been amended, effective September 30,
1997, by the Consumer Credit Reporting Reform Act of 1996, Pub. Law 104208, Div. A, Title II, 2401 et seq., 110 Stat. 3009, ---- - ----. The
amendments are not relevant to the issues raised in this appeal

Podell also concerned a claim against a different consumer reporting agency

pursuant to 15 U.S.C. 1681e(b). That portion of the opinion is not relevant to
our discussion

Bonneau v. Russell, 117 Vt. 134, 85 A.2d 569, 570 (1952), has been criticized

for "fail[ing] to recognize the distinction in Vermont law between residence and
domicile." Wolinsky v. Bradford Nat'l Bank, 34 B.R. 702, 704 n.1 (D.Vt.1983)
4

Burger King Corp. v. Rudzewicz, 471 U.S. 462, 105 S.Ct. 2174, 85 L.Ed.2d
528 (1985),and International Shoe Co. v. Washington, 326 U.S. 310, 66 S.Ct.
154, 90 L.Ed. 95 (1945), cited by TUC, are inapposite. The question raised is
whether Cushman may invoke the protections of a Vermont statute, regardless
of where the action is brought. This issue is entirely separate and distinct from
the question whether a state or federal court located in Vermont would be able,
consistent with due process principles, to assert personal jurisdiction over TUC

TUC contends that the VFCRA claim should be dismissed on the additional
ground that Cushman proved no damages stemming from the alleged violation
of that statute. TUC points to a "concession" by Cushman's counsel in the
district court that Cushman has not "pointed to any damage evidence
specifically [with regard] to" the Vermont statute. App. at 260. As we read this,
however, it appears that counsel merely stated that any damages caused by the
alleged violations of the VFCRA were identical to those caused by the alleged
violations of the FCRA. Thus, TUC's contention that Cushman conceded away
any claim that she was damaged by a violation of the VFCRA is meritless

Neither party has argued that the defamation claim is governed by the laws of
Vermont or any other jurisdiction. In the absence of such a contention, we
apply the laws of the forum state. See Publicker Indus., Inc. v. Roman Ceramics
Corp., 652 F.2d 340, 343 n. 6 (3d Cir.1981)

We express no opinion as to whether Cushman has set forth evidence sufficient

to prove the other elements of her defamation claim