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Grouting in Difficult Dam

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

Review of Grout Material in Difficult Dam Foundations with


Emphasis on
Cement-Bentonite Material

BY
MBIYU MEDLIN NJOKI
F16/2341/2009

SUPERVISOR: ENG. J. R. RUIGU

A project submitted as a partial fulfillment


for the requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
MARCH 2014

ABSTRACT
Grouting is a popular ground treatment technique, but not well known to most in the engineering
industry. A lot of misconceptions surround this subject. This dissertation presents the research on
grouting in an attempt to clarify the basic parameters involved such as permeability, to provide a
full coverage on the practices in use in the recent past to help aid in its use currently and to report
on their effects to the environment.
Cement based grout is the main material in focus and with the use of documented case studies,
this paper provides a brief discussion of the effectiveness in foundation treatment.
The application of cement based permeation grouting is still largely a trial and error process in
the current practice, especially in the local construction industry.

F16/2341/2009

DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this project to my family for their contribution in my life and steadfast
support which can never be repaid.

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ii

ACKNOWLEGEMENT
Without help, support and encouragement from lecturers, engineers and colleagues among
others, the author would never have been able to finish this work.
The author wishes to express their deep gratitude to their supervisor, Eng. J. R. Ruigu for his
tireless efforts, wise advice and constant guidance.
In the same breath, the author is grateful to Eng. Dedan Otiato for taking the time to expose a
student to the little known field of Grouting and going further as to expect feedback and
recommendations on the subject.
Many thanks to the entire Civil engineering department staff for their helpful advice. The author
is indebted for their resilient effort which made this work fruitful.
This project may never have been accomplished without the support of family and friends who
raised ones spirits when headway in the project seemed improbable. To the class of 2014, thank
you all for the hard work, co-operation and level-headed constructive criticism.
The author wishes to express their sincere gratitude to the following institution: Norken (I) Ltd..
This is in recognition for their support and informative data.
Most importantly, glory be to God for His grace which knows no bounds.

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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEGEMENT ................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii
ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... ix
1.

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 DEFINITION OF GROUTING ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................... 2
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH ........................................................................................... 2
1.4 SCOPE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 3

2.

LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 4


2.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON DAM FOUNDATIONS ....................................... 4
2.1.1. DAM FOUNDATION TYPES ..................................................................................... 4
2.1.2. TREATMENT OF NON-IDEAL DAM FOUNDATIONS .......................................... 5
2.2 GROUTING ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.2.1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER DURING GROUTING .................................................. 11
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUT........................................................................................ 13
2.3.1 EMULSION TYPE...................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2. SOLUTION TYPE GROUT ....................................................................................... 13
2.3.3. SUSPENSION TYPE GROUT ................................................................................... 16
2.3.4 CEMENT-BENTONITE GROUTS ............................................................................. 17
2.4 GROUTING PROCEDURE ............................................................................................... 17
2.4.1 METHODS ................................................................................................................... 17
2.4.2. COMMON EQUIPMENT USED ............................................................................... 19
2.4.3. CLOSURE GROUTING ............................................................................................. 20
2.5 SPACING OF GROUT HOLES ......................................................................................... 23
2.6 GENERAL SIZE AND DEPTH OF GROUT HOLES ...................................................... 24

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2.7. TESTS ASSOCIATED WITH GROUTING ..................................................................... 24


2.7.1. UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST (UCS) ................................... 24
2.7.2 WATER PRESSURE TESTS/ PERMEABILITY TESTS .......................................... 28
2.7.3 SECONDARY PERMEABILITY INDEX (SPI)......................................................... 32
2.8 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT BENTONITE SLURRY ................... 33
3.

CASE STUDIES.................................................................................................................... 34
3.1. THETA DAM, KENYA .................................................................................................... 34
3.1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................. 34
3.1.2 GEOLOGY OF THE SITE........................................................................................... 34
3.1.3 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS ........................................................................ 35
3.1.4 DESIGN, METHODS AND CONSTRUCTION ......................................................... 36
3.1.5 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 37
3.2 TURTLE CREEK DAM, USA ........................................................................................... 39
3.2.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................. 39
3.2.2.

SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS ............................................................................. 40

3.2.3 DESIGN, METHODS AND MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION ........................... 40


3.2.4 SAMPLING AND TESTING ...................................................................................... 42
3.2.5 RESULTS AND FINDINGS........................................................................................ 43
3.3 KARKHEH DAM, IRAN ....................................................................................................... 45
3.3.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................. 45
3.2.2 GEOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 45
3.3.3 DESIGN, METHODS AND CONSTRUCTION ......................................................... 46
3.3.4 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 50
4.

DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 51

5.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................................... 54


5.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 54
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 55

REFRENCES ................................................................................................................................ 56

F16/2341/2009

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1.

Cutoff trench in an embankment dam.

Figure 2.2.

Sheet piling as seen on site.

Figure2.3.

Types and arrangement of grouting equipment used.

Figure2.4.

positions of primary and secondary grout holes.

Figure 2.5

positions of multiple grout holes.

Figure 2.6. (a) Grout permeation within first two stages.


Figure 2.6. (b) Grout permeation within subsequent stage.
Figure2.7.

Grouting required for ideal foundation.

Figure 2.8.

Failure pattern typical of brittle specimens.

Figure 2.9.

Soil consistency in relation to ultimate strength.

Figure 2.11.

Mohrs circle for Unconfined Compression Test.

Figure 2.12.

Layout of the constant head packer test.

Figure 3.1.

A geographic map of Theta dam site.

Figure3.2.

Resistivity values within the different strata located at different depths along dam
axis.

Figure 3.3.

Turtle creek as is seen today.

Figure 3.4.

Plan view of transverse shear walls.

Figure 3.5.

Side view of transverse shear walls.

Figure 3.6.

Table showing average UCS values for samples.

Figure 3.7.

UCS values with time for sample collected.

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Figure 3.8.

Aerial view of Karkheh dam.

Figure 3.9.

Longitudinal cross section of Karkheh dam.

Figure 3.10.

Karkheh dam cutoff walls and the location of the probable chemical grouting
curtain.

Figure 3.11.

Sketch showing the triangular placement of shallow test holes in phase 1 of test
chemical grouting.

Figure 3.12.

Material arrangement within grout hole.

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1.

Comparison of chemical grouts as to their technical aspects and their effects on


human health and the environment.

Table 2.2.

Spacing of grout holes.

Table 2.3.

Relative consistency as a function of unconfined compressive strength.

Table 2.4.

Pressure magnitudes for each stage in Lugeon Test.

Table 2.5.

A graphic summary of the five behavior groups defined by Houlsby (1976), as


well as the representative Lugeon value that should be reported for each group.

Table 2.6.

Properties of rock masses according to lugeon range.

Table 2.7.

Rock mass classification based on the SPI and ground treatment considerations.

Table 3.1.

Grout holes made along dam axis.

Table 3.2

Lugeon values attained before and after grouting.

Table 3.3.

Summary of grouting in phase 1 test holes.

Table 3.4.

Summary of grouting records in the test hole S4.

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ABBREVIATIONS
AA -

acrylic acid

MAA - methacrylic acid


PAH - polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
TDI -

toluene di-isocyanate

BDP- di-n-butylphthalate
DFG - Deutsche Forschungsgesellschaft (German Research Society)

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITION OF GROUTING
Grouting is defined as the procedure of filling or injecting fluid with pressure into structural and
lithological defects or cavities between ground layer and base rock, generally via boreholes.
Grouting was first used in 1802 by the French engineer Charles Berigny using water and
pozzolanic cement mixture in ground grouting.
The purpose of injecting a grout may be any one or more of the following:

To decrease permeability of foundation ground.

To increase shear strength of foundation.

To decrease compressibility of the foundation.

Nowadays, it extends to alleviate settlement of ground caused by basement and tunnel


excavation works, to strengthen ground so that it can be used as a structural member or as a
retaining structure in solving geotechnical problems.
Later, with the development of cement and hydraulic binders, the use of grouting in construction
and mining engineering has become widespread. (Johan Lagerlund, 2009)
Grouting proves especially effective in the following cases:

When the foundation has to be constructed below the ground water table. The deeper the
foundation, the longer the time needed for construction, and therefore, the more benefit
gained from grouting as compared with dewatering.

When there is difficult access to the foundation level. This is very often the case in city
work, in tunnel shafts, sewers, and subway construction.

When the geometric dimensions of the foundation are complicated and involves many
boundaries and contact zones.

When the adjacent structures require that the soil of the foundation strata should not be
excavated (extension of existing foundations into deeper layers).

1
F16/2341/2009

Grouting has been extensively used primarily to control ground water flow under earth and
masonry dams, where rock grouting is used. Since the process fills soil voids with some type of
stabilizing material, grouting is also used to increase soil strength and prevent excessive
settlement.
Grouting, instead of being an old and obsolete ground treatment technique, is still developing in
both methodology as well as hardware engineering. Its application is extending in the civil
engineering field, from small-scale remedial work site to very large-scale project site. It is still
the most popular ground treatment method used today ( V.N.S. Murthy).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Backfill for a borehole instrument is a material that receives a disproportionate lack of


attention despite having a great amount of significance in a construction project.

The area of study is mostly unfamiliar to many engineers since actual drilling and
grouting is done by specialists. Most difficulties and disputes in this phase of work arise
when an inexperienced firm is sub-contracted.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

To provide comprehensive information on grouting in relation to cement based grout


material used in dam foundations.

To clarify misconceptions that may exist in connection with grouting.

It is an attempt to weigh the pros and cons of the methods involved thus bringing the
industry one step closer to perfecting methods used.

F16/2341/2009

1.4 SCOPE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY


General foundation properties will be considered in connection to techniques used to improve on
them. Materials for grouting will be discussed as well as their advantages and disadvantages.
This project also involves data discussions on analysis of geophysical data collected, properties
used for parameters developed for grouting and sensitivity analysis carried out to ascertain
effectiveness of procedure the procedure with due regard to the material in use.
The properties of grout material will be investigated as well as specifications for such design.
Collection of information will be mainly through internet research as well as through library
books, e-books and review of case study reports.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON DAM FOUNDATIONS
2.1.1. DAM FOUNDATION TYPES
It is important to consider the suitability of the various types of rock and soil as foundation and
construction materials when proposing to construct a dam.
The foundation geology at a dam site often dictates the type of dam suitable for that site. The
strength, thickness, and inclination of strata; permeability; fracturing; and faulting are all
important considerations in selecting the dam type be it earthfill, rockfill or concrete. Some of
the different foundations commonly encountered are discussed below.
(a) Rock Foundations -Competent rock foundations, which are free of significant geologic
defects, have relatively high shear strengths and are resistant to erosion and percolation.
In addition they offer few restrictions as to the type of dam that can be built upon them.
The economy of materials or the overall cost should be the ruling factor.
The removal of disintegrated rock together with the sealing of seams and fractures by
grouting is frequently necessary. Weaker rocks such as clay shales, some sandstones,
weathered basalt, etc., may present significant problems to the design and construction of
a dam and may heavily influence the type of dam selected.
(b) Gravel Foundations.-Gravel foundations, if well compacted, are suitable for earthfill or
rockfill dams. Because gravel foundations are frequently subjected to water percolation at
high rates, special precautions just be taken to provide adequate seepage control or
effective water cutoffs or seals.
(c) Silt or Fine Sand Foundations.-Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for low concrete
gravity dams and earthfill dams if properly designed, but they are generally not suitable
for rockfill dams. Design concerns include non uniform settlement, potential soil collapse
upon saturation, uplift forces, the prevention of piping, excessive percolation losses, and
protection of the foundation at the downstream embankment toe from erosion.
(d) Clay Foundations.-Clay foundations can be used for the support of earthfill dams, but
require relatively flat embankment slopes because of relatively lower foundation shear
strengths. Clay foundations under dams can also consolidate significantly.

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Because of the requirement for flatter slopes and the tendency for clay foundations to
settle a lot, it is usually not economical to construct a rockfill dam on a clay foundation.
Clay foundations are also ordinarily not suitable for concrete gravity dams. Tests of the
foundation material in its natural state are usually required to determine the consolidation
characteristics of the foundation strata and their ability to support the superimposed load.
(e) Non-uniform Foundations.-Occasionally, situations occur where reasonably uniform
foundations of any of the types described above cannot be found and where a nonuniform foundation of rock and soft material must be used if the dam is to be built.
Nevertheless, such conditions can often be counterbalanced by special design features.
Even dam sites that are not highly unusual present special problems requiring the
selection of appropriate treatment by experienced engineers.
Foundations are not actually designed. Rather, certain provisions for treatment are made in
designs to ensure that the essential requirements are met. No two foundations are exactly alike;
each foundation presents its own separate and distinct problems requiring corresponding special
treatment and preparation. The importance of adequate foundation treatment is emphasized by
the fact that approximately 40 percent of all earthfill dam accidents and 12 percent of all failures
are attributed to foundation failures.

2.1.2. TREATMENT OF NON-IDEAL DAM FOUNDATIONS


Different treatments are appropriate for different conditions. Foundations are grouped into three
main classes according to their predominant characteristics:
1. Foundations of rock.
2. Foundations of coarse-grained material (sand and gravel).
3. Foundations of fine-grained material (silt and clay).
The character of a foundation, as revealed by exploration, can usually be safely generalized for
the design of dams to fit into one of the classes given above. Once the class is determined, the
nature of the problem requiring treatment will be evident. Ordinarily, coarse-grained, pervious
foundations present no difficulties in the matter of settlement or stability for a small dam;
conversely, fine grained, weak foundations subject to settlement or displacement usually present
no seepage problems.

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2.1.2.1 Rock foundations


Rock foundations are generally considered as the best foundation condition. However, dam sites
with good rock foundations are becoming increasingly rare hence engineers are being forced to
use foundations that are far from ideal because of the growth and shifting of population centers
that cause increased emphasis on water conservation for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use
in new locations.
Treatment of deficient foundation zones is especially critical for the areas beneath the
impervious core and the filter and drainage zones immediately downstream of the impervious
zone.
Rock foundation treatment includes grouting as a measure to counter erosive leakage, excessive
uplift pressure, or high water losses occurring through joints, fissures, crevices, permeable strata,
or along fault planes within the foundation.
The grouting of a dam foundation is usually performed along a single line of grout holes spaced
10 to 20 feet (3m 6 m) centre to centre. This creates some tightening deep in the foundation
and some reduction in permeability. However, multiple lines of grout holes are necessary when
severely fractured or highly permeable rock is encountered. Only multiple-line curtains improve
the degree of reliability, but even then results are speculative because it is impossible to
thoroughly grout all fractures or pores in the foundation. A grout curtain should not be relied on
as the single provision to reduce seepage and related uplift pressures so that downstream seepage
control features are reduced or eliminated. In cases where large zones of fractured rock lie at the
foundation contact or where the zone of broken rock within a fault has great width, it may be
possible to grout the zone by grouting to a shallow depth, usually 10 to 30 feet (3m-9m), by
using a grid pattern. This type of grouting is referred to as blanket grouting. It reduces leakage
in the fractured zone and provides a more firm foundation for the dam. In most cases, the
foundation directly beneath the impervious zone requires some blanket grouting.

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2.1.2.2. Sand and Gravel Foundations


Often the foundations for such dams consist of recent alluvial deposits composed of relatively
pervious sands and gravels overlying impervious geologic formations. The pervious materials
may range from fine sand to openwork gravels, but more often they consist of stratified
heterogeneous mixtures. Generally, sand and gravel foundations have sufficient strength to
adequately support loads caused by the embankment and reservoir, although this must be verified
by adequate exploration, testing and analysis.
Knowledge of the geologic deposition process can help determine the potential occurrence of
low strength zones.
Two basic problems are found in pervious foundations; one pertains to the amount of
underseepage, and the other is concerned with the forces exerted by the seepage.
The type and extent of treatment justified to decrease the amount of seepage should be
determined by the purpose of the dam, the streamflow yield in relation to the reservoir
conservation capacity, and the necessity for making constant reservoir releases to serve senior
water rights or to maintain a live stream for fish or for other conservation purposes. Loss of
water through underseepage may be of economic concern for a storage dam.
Various methods of seepage and percolation control can be used in combination to reduce the
flow and to control seepage forces.
The methods include:

(a) Cutoff trenches


Pervious foundation should be cut off by a trench extending to bedrock or other impervious
stratum. This is the most positive means of controlling the amount of seepage and ensuring that
no difficulty will be encountered by piping through the foundation or by uplift pressures at the
downstream toe.

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Figure 2.1. Cutoff trench in an embankment dam. (ikonet.com)


(b) Sheet piling
This is an earth retention technique that retains soil using steel sheet piles. Steel sheet piling is
relatively expensive and where cobbles or boulders are present, or where the material is highly
resistant to penetration, driving or jetting becomes difficult and costly. It is highly doubtful that
an effective cutoff can be obtained because of the tendency of the piling to wander and become
damaged by breaks in the interlocks or tearing of the steel. A heavy structural section with strong
interlocks should be used if the foundation contains gravel.
Under the best conditions, including the use of compound to seal the interlocks and good contact
of the bottom of the piling with an impervious foundation, it can be expected that the piling will
be only 80 to 90 percent effective in preventing seepage.

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Figure 2.2. Sheet piling as seen on site.(Donegan.co.uk)

(c) Mixed-in-place concrete pile curtains


The mixed-in-place cement-bound curtain is another means of establishing a cutoff in pervious
foundations. The curtain is constructed by successively overlapping individual piles. Each
mixed-in-place pile consists of a column of soil intimately mixed with mortar to form a pile like
structure within the soil. Such a pile is constructed by injecting mortar through a vertical rotating
hollow shaft, the lower end of which is equipped with a mixing head for combining the soil with
the mortar as the latter is injected. The mortar is introduced into soil that has been loosened by
the mixing head as the bit is simultaneously rotated and advanced into, or withdrawn from, the
soil. The piles may be reinforced as required.

(d) Slurry trenches


This is an effective method of constructing positive cutoffs when wet conditions or deep cutoffs
in alluvial valleys make conventional construction methods uneconomical is the slurry trench
method. The technique was adapted from well drilling methods used by the oil industry.
Bentonite clay suspensions are used to support holes cut in soft soils. The slurry trench method
uses water bentonite slurry to seal and support the trench wall during the excavation process.

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2.1.2.3. Silt and Clay Foundations.


Foundations of fine grained soils are usually impermeable enough to avoid the necessity of
providing design features for underseepage and piping.
The main problem with these foundations is stability. In addition to the obvious danger of
bearing failure of foundations of saturated silts and clays, the designs must take into account the
effect of foundation saturation of the dam and of connected works next to the reservoir.
Methods of foundation treatment are based on the soil type, the location of the water table, and
the density of the soil.

(a) Saturated foundations


The methods of treatment applicable to these conditions are;
1. To remove the soils with low shear strength.
2. To provide drainage of the foundation to permit the increase of strength during
construction.
3. To reduce the magnitude of the average shear stress along the potential sliding surface by
flattening the slopes of the embankment.
Removing soft foundation soils is sometimes practicable. Relatively thin layers of soft soils
overlying firm material may be removed when the cost of excavation and refill is less than the
combined cost of special investigations and the flatter embankment slopes required. The most
practicable solution for foundations of saturated fine-grained soils is flattening the embankment
slopes. This means the critical sliding surface will lengthen, thereby decreasing the average shear
stress along its path and increasing the factor of safety against sliding.
(b)Relatively Dry Foundations.
Unsaturated impermeable soils are generally satisfactory for foundations of dams because the
presence of air in the soil voids permits appreciable volume change, increase of normal effective
stress, and mobilization of frictional shear resistance without drainage of the pore fluid.
That is, for a given void ratio, an impervious soil has greater bearing capacity in the unsaturated
condition than in the saturated condition. Also, in a situation where water gets to the foundation,
appreciable settlement would occur thus compromising dam stability.

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Therefore, the foundation in this area should be thoroughly wetted to raise the average water
content to saturation. This ensures voids are filled with water hence settlement that would occur
would be negligible. (United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 1987)

2.2 GROUTING
It is a fact that all dams leak thus the main objective in this regard is to reduce the amount of
leakage so that;

The structure can serve its purpose throughout its design life without compromising on
safety requirements.

The rate of leakage can be reduced to an economically viable level.

The goal is to reduce leakages to 0.03 cumecs but in some cases it is justifiable to allow leakage
of up to 2.3 cumecs. In the case where grouting is done to reduce permeability, tests are usually
carried out to ascertain if grout works must be carried out. (Ramakrishnana et al, 1989)
2.2.1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER DURING GROUTING
Conditions requiring grouting include;

High porosity observed in underground material during site investigation through


scanning and exploratory cores drilled and recovered.

Presence of faults which can also be determined by geophysical mapping.

Foundation conditions often can be determined from a visual inspection of erosion effects, of
outcrops, and of excavations such as highway or railroad cuts, building excavations, abandoned
pits, and quarries in the general area of the dam site. Information on ground-water conditions
often can be obtained from local wells.
Subsurface exploration of the foundation is needed to determine;
1. The depth to bedrock at the dam site.
2. The character of both the bedrock and the soils under the dam and under accompanying
structures.

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A number of drill holes are usually required at a dam site to determine the bedrock profile along
the proposed axis. The number of drill holes required for foundation exploration of dams should
be determined by the complexity of geologic conditions, but the depth of the drill holes should
be greater than the height of the dam.
Tests normally carried out on site comprise geological mapping, geophysical survey, and
recovery of core samples from site for laboratory tests as well as field tests on site.
2.2.1.1 Geological mapping
Geological mapping describes the exercise of representing the earths surface of a specified area
with particular emphasis on the contours and demarcation of overburden and rock outcrops and
their classification according to colour, grain size, origin and estimated depth. Rock units better
known as geologic strata are shown by colours or symbols where they are exposed to the surface.
The rock outcrops are described according to the following: lithological or Petrographic name,
Colour, Hardness and estimated uni-axial compressive or strength (UCS) using Schmidt Hammer,
indicative block or bedding thickness.
2.2.1.2. Geophysical survey
This is simply the collection of sub-surface data for purposes of design. These tests give a picture
of the nature and quality of material under the site in question. Methods that can be used are;
N

Seismic methods such as seismic refraction and seismic tomography.

Siesmoelectrical methods.

Geodesity and gravity techniques.

Magnetic techniques.

Electrical techniques.

Elecromagnetic techniques such as ground penetrating radar.

Remote sensing techniques.

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2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUT


The most accepted form of classifying grout is according to material used. The main types
include;
2.3.1 EMULSION TYPE
These kinds of grout are bituminous. Asphalt grouting has sometimes been used successfully,
particularly in sealing watercourses in underground rock channels. Asphalt grout has also been
used to plug leaks in cofferdams and in natural rock foundations. Asphalt is a brown-to-black
bituminous substance belonging to a group of solid or semisolid hydrocarbons. It occurs
naturally or is obtained as a comparatively nonvolatile residue from the refining of some
petroleums. It melts between 150 F and 200 F. When used for grouting it is generally heated to
400 or 450 F before injection. Asphalt emulsions have also been used for grouting. These are
applied cold. In the emulsion the asphalt is dispersed in colloidal form in water.
After injection the emulsion must be broken so that the asphalt can coagulate to form an
effective grout. Special chemicals are injected with the emulsion for this purpose. Coal-tar pitch
is not a desirable material for grouting since it melts more slowly and chills more quickly than
asphalt grout. When heated above its melting point, coal-tar pitch also emits fumes that are
dangerous to personnel. (Defense Agencies, U.S.A., 1990)

2.3.2. SOLUTION TYPE GROUT


Solution type grout entails chemical grouting which is the process of injecting a chemically
reactive solution that behaves as a fluid but reacts after a predetermined time to form a solid,
semisolid, or gel. Several kinds of chemical grouts are available. The most common are sodium
silicate, acrylate, lignin, urethane, and resin grouts. Chemical grouting requires specially
designed grouting equipment in that the reactive solution is often formed by proportioning the
reacting liquids in an on-line continuous mixer. Typically, chemical-grout plants do not have
particulate materials/filler suspended in a liquid. Further, the materials used in the pumps and
mixers are specifically selected to be nonreactive with the chemicals being mixed and pumped.
The primary advantages of chemical grouts are their low viscosity which enables them to seal
small pores hence providing a low degree of permeability and good control of setting time.

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Unfortunately, chemical grouts are more expensive than suspension type grouts and can have
toxic effects in some circumstances. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1995).
Chemical grouts are relatively low viscosities which cause a higher rate of bleeding when used.
This is unsafe especially in dam foundations if the material contaminates the water in the
reservoir.
Chemical grouts are an ever present source of concern as they are not compatible with the
environment hence could negatively affect the ecosystem of the site creating problems which
may never be fully dealt with.

2.3.2.1. Environmental Considerations


Regarding the environmental compatibility of chemical grouts most concern has arisen in
connection with releases of contaminants during their use. Grouts containing mutagenic (altering
the cell structure of a living thing), cancerogenic(causing cancer) or teratogenic(causing
malformations of a foetus) substances or substances with a high toxicity to aquatic organisms
should be avoided .
Degradation of organic contaminants in the ground can result in reducing foundation conditions
and presence of heavy metal compounds. Acids may dissolve compounds and increase mineral
content and water hardness. After saturation is achieved precipitation can occur and influence
local permeability of the ground.
In the following page is a tabulation of chemical grouts used and effects on humans and the
environment. (European Union, 2002)

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Table 2.1. Comparison of chemical grouts as to their technical aspects and their effects on human health and the environment.

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2.3.3. SUSPENSION TYPE GROUT


Refers to material in suspension within a mixture and comprise clay, cement and lime.
The behavior of the backfill, a material in explicit contact with the formation is critical for
obtaining measurements. Instrument observations may indicate unstable backfill, lack of backfill
or backfill that is too soft or too stiff. Cement-bentonite grout is the most universally applicable
material for successfully backfilling a borehole.
2.3.3.1. Bentonite
Bentonite is a form of clay consisting of mostly montmorilonite(a clay mineral) interlayered with
calcium or sodium and minor amounts of quartz, feldspar, kaolinite, carbonates, sulphides,
sulphates and organic matter and may be chemically classified as absorbent aluminium
phyllosilicate. It expands while absorbing water hence is a good sealant. There are different
types of bentonite in existence named after the dominant element contained. Common kinds are:

Calcium bentonite; It is the main active ingredient of Fullers earth which is highly
plastic sedimentary clay used by military and civil service to decontaminate clothing
exposed to radiation.

Also used to decolorize, filter and purify animal, mineral and vegetable oils.
In addition it is used in the film industry for special effects to create large dust clouds
after creating explosions.

Potassium bentonite; It is formed from an alteration of volcanic ash and is used as pet
litter and in mud-drilling (helps to lubricate and cool cutting tools, remove cutting and
prevent blowouts during drilling).(www.wikipedia.com)
2.3.3.2 Sodium bentonite

Its most notable feature is the ability to swell when wet, absorbing several times its dry mass in
water. By swelling it creates a low permeability barrier which is most appropriate for use in
grout works hence sealing dam foundations. Sodium Bentonite has the ability to absorb small
amounts of water and to prevent the penetration of more water and generates the internal
pressure when it gets wet necessary to form a waterproof seal. This creates a confining expansion
of wet bentonite also gives it the capability to prevent water migration, to self-repair damaged
16
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areas and to reseal cracks that will occur from time to time in most concrete. Bentonites
capacity to self repair and a potential life span measured in centuries (it is already up to 90
million years old) makes it the major sealing component of virtually all toxic waste and landfill
projects.
Bentonite grouts are of low permeability which is ideal but unfortunately they are sensitive to
overmixing leading to a flash set and can be difficult to pump down small (3/4 inch) grout pipes.
2.3.4 CEMENT-BENTONITE GROUTS
Bentonite used on its own is generally unstable since one cannot control its volumetric changes
thus creates uncertainty concerning locally introduced pore water pressures caused by hydration
process.
Cement-bentonite grouts are much easier to use since they allow more working time and can
withstand a wider range of margin in mix ratios in comparison to bentonite grouts.
Most grouts allow for up to 6% of bentonite in the mixture but this design can be altered in
certain cases depending on difficulty encountered in the dam foundation. (Mikkelsen,
P.Erik,2002)

2.4 GROUTING PROCEDURE


2.4.1 METHODS
Many different materials have been injected into soils to produce changes in the engineering
properties of the soil.

In one method a casing is driven and injection is made under pressure to the soil at the
bottom of the hole as the casing is withdrawn.

In another method, a grouting hole is drilled and at each level in which injection is
desired, the drill is withdrawn and a collar is placed at the top of the area to be grouted
and grout is forced into the soil under pressure.

Another method is to perforate the casing in the area to be grouted and leave the casing
permanently in the soil.

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Penetration grouting may involve portland cement or fine grained soils such as bentonite or other
materials of a nature. These materials penetrate only a short distance through most soils and are
primarily useful in very coarse sands or gravels. Viscous fluids, such as a solution of sodium
silicate, may be used to penetrate fine grained soils. Some of these solutions form gels that
restrict permeability and improve compressibility and strength properties. Displacement grouting
usually consists of using a grout like portland cement and sand mixture which when forced into
the soil displaces and compacts the surrounding material about a central core of grout. Injection
of lime is sometimes used to produce lenses in the soil that will block the flow of water and
reduce compressibility and expansion properties of the soil. The lenses are produced by
hydraulic fracturing of the soil. The injection and grouting methods are generally expensive
compared with other stabilization techniques and are primarily used under special situations.
(V.N.S. Murthy)
Bleeding is a term that refers to the instance where the grout mix seeps out of the ground at other
locations nearby the site during pumping in of the grout mix. This could be due to high pressures
used causing fissures that lead to the ground surface or prior presence of fissure which are
difficult to seal at existing pressure. It could also be due to low viscosity of grout material.
Grouting pressures are influenced by the following factors:

Type of rock.

Degree to which rock is fractured.

Jointing system within the rock.

Stratification of rock.

Depth of zone being grouted.

Location of hole being grouted.

Weight of overlying material at time of grouting.

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2.4.2. COMMON EQUIPMENT USED


Cement-Bentonite (CB) Mixing Plant: The plant for making cement bentonite slurry normally
consists of colloidal mixer(s), with valves, hoses, supply lines, pumps, scales, meters, tools, and
other equipment required to prepare slurry and deliver it in a continuous supply from the plant to
the grout holes.
The most common procedure for cement-bentonite grout is done in parts. First, the bentonite is
mixed in a colloidal mixer then let to hydrate. Thereafter it is mixed with cement in a high
velocity mixer.
The resulting grout mix is then transferred to an agitator then pumped in the grout holes at a
specific pressure determined from hydraulic testing (Dugnani 2006).

Figure2.3.Types and arrangement of grouting equipment used.

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2.4.3. CLOSURE GROUTING


This is a procedure in which grouting is done in an area fairly wide apart. The first grout holes
are equidistant and along the plane then the second set of grout holes are done in midway
between the first ones and so on until the grouting is deemed satisfactory.

Figure2.4. positions of primary and secondary grout holes.

The first grout holes are known as primary while the second set of grout holes are called
secondary and the third set are tertiary. If further closure is required the sets of grout hole are
known as quaternary, quinary, quinary, sextary, septenary, octary and so forth.

Figure 2.5 positions of multiple grout holes.

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20

The grout in the primary hole is meant to penetrate and occupy void space as shown in the
illustration below. The subsequent holes contain grout which seals the voids as well as
connecting with the grout from holes adjacent thus creating a chain of grout to act as a barrier.

2.6(a)

2.6(b)

Figure 2.6. Grout permeation within first two stages (a) and subsequent stage (b)
Actual penetrations may be very different and nonsymmetrical. The extent of grout travel from
grout holes depends on many factors, such as Crack size, Grout mix, Mixing methods, Injection
methods, Pressure, Crack configuration, Stage method, Rock movements, Connections between
holes e.t.c.
Closure methods are particularly useful for grout curtains; the grouting is closed down to the
required standard of tightness or to some appropriate spacing.

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21

By comparing water test results and grout takes in the holes as the closure proceeds, a measure is
obtained of the grouting's level of success (or lack of it). This comparison may indicate that
changes to techniques are necessary; it also helps with decisions about when to stop grouting.
For grouting in several stages, the layout below is common. Primary holes run deepest and
subsequent series of grout holes are made to be shallower each time. It usually combines
economy with quality work and avoids doing needless grouting. While at the same time it
enables extra grouting to be given to bad spots found while the work is in progress.
The foundation is, in effect, probed and checked more thoroughly than scattered investigation
holes can provide.

Figure 2.7. Grouting required for ideal foundation.

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22

The layout applies to foundations where permeabilities reduce with depth. There are many
variations on site one extreme is where permeabilities remain high for the full depth of the
curtain coupled with short penetration distance, - in such a case it would probably be fairly
evident at the start that tertiary and possibly even subsequent holes will need to go to the full
depth.
The distance between primaries in a curtain should be as regular as possible in order to simplify
setting out and thus minimize errors. Primary holes should not be so close that they connect with
each other; connections at this juncture can jeopardize the quality of grouting and interfere with
proper evaluation of takes. On the other hand, primary holes should not be so wide apart that it is
necessary to routinely close down to such remote sequences as sextary or septenary in order to
get a reasonable spacing of final holes.(Burk Look, 2007)
2.5 SPACING OF GROUT HOLES
Spacing of grout holes is done according to preference to an adopted method within a certain
country. A general observation is that three kinds of holes are grouted i.e. primary, secondary
and tertiary. Each individual kind is done in a straight line but staggered in relation to the rest.
Below is a table showing examples of preferences in a couple of countries. Dimensions are in
metres.
Table 2.2. Spacing of grout holes.
Country

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

India

12

Kenya

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2.6 GENERAL SIZE AND DEPTH OF GROUT HOLES


General size and depth of grout holes depend on the design requirements and nature of
foundation material.
According to IS: 11293 (Part2)-1993 Guidelines for the design of grout curtains, the following
empirical criteria may be used as a guide:
D= (2/3) H + 8
Where;
D is the depth of the grout curtain in meters and
H is the height of the reservoir water in meters.
This can be altered if the cavities are below the depth well known.
The grout holes may be either vertical or inclined. The orientation, plan and inclination of grout
holes depend upon the type of joints and the other discontinuities in the foundation rock. The
most common practice is to drill holes inclined towards the upstream at 5 to 10 degrees to the
vertical.
2.7. TESTS ASSOCIATED WITH GROUTING
2.7.1. UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST (UCS)
This is a quick test to obtain the shear strength parameters of cohesive(fine grained) soils either
in undisturbed or remolded state. The method is used primarily for saturated, cohesive soils and
is inappropriate for dry sands or crumbly clays because these materials would fall apart without
lateral confinement.
The test is strain controlled and when the soil sample is loaded rapidly, the pore pressures (water
within the soil) undergo changes and do not have enough time to dissipate. The test is thus a
representative of soils in construction sites where the rate of construction is very fast and the
pore waters do not have enough time to dissipate. (University of Texas)

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24

Applications
The test results provide an estimate of the relative consistency of the soil.
Almost used in all geotechnical engineering designs (design and stability analysis of
foundations, retaining walls, slopes and embankments) to obtain a rough estimate of the soil
strength and viable construction techniques
To determine Undrained Shear Strength or Undrained Cohesion (Su or Cu) =

Equipment
Unconfined compression testing machine (Triaxial Machine)
Specimen preparation equipment
Sample extruder
Balance

Figure 2.8. Failure pattern typical of brittle specimens.

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Figure 2.9. Soil consistency in relation to ultimate strength.

Table 2.3. Relative consistency as a function of unconfined compressive strength.

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26

Test Procedure
To perform an unconfined compression test, the sample is extruded from the sampling tube. A
cylindrical sample of soil is trimmed such that the ends are reasonably smooth and the length-todiameter ratio is on the order of two. The soil sample is placed in a loading frame on a metal
plate; by turning a crank, the operator raises the level of the bottom plate. The top of the soil
sample is restrained by the top plate, which is attached to a calibrated proving ring. As the
bottom plate is raised, an axial load is applied to the sample. The operator turns the crank at a
specified rate so that there is constant strain rate. The load is gradually increased to shear the
sample, and readings are taken periodically of the force applied to the sample and the resulting
deformation. The loading is continued until the soil develops an obvious shearing plane or the
deformations become excessive. The measured data are used to determine the strength of the soil
specimen and the stress-strain characteristics. Finally, the sample is oven dried to determine its
water content.
Interpretation of data
The material is supposed to follow the stress relationship plotted below.

Figure 2.11. Mohrs circle for Unconfined Compression Test.


Axial strain,

= 100

Where H is the height of the specimen and H is the change in height of the specimen.

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Stress

Where F - Force recorded at material failure.

; Ai is the initial area of the specimen.

Area correction (Ac) is applied in the interpretation of the results as the cross section of the
sample doesnt remain constant as the load is increased. There will be an observed bulge at the
middle of the specimen due to which it is almost presumptive to consider uniform stress
throughout the specimen length. However, the volume of the specimen is assumed constant.
The maximum load per unit area is defined as the unconfined compressive strength, qu.

2.7.2 WATER PRESSURE TESTS/ PERMEABILITY TESTS


Packer test is a commonly used permeability test also known as Lugeon test; a name derived
from Maurice Lugeon (1933). It is a constant head test that takes place in an isolated portion of
the hole. Water at a constant pressure is injected into a rock mass through a slotted pipe bounded
by pneumatic packers. A pneumatic packer is an inflatable rubber sleeve that expands radially to
seal the annulus space between the drill rods and the boring walls.

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Figure 2.12. Layout of the constant head packer test.


At the beginning of the test a maximum test pressure (PMAX) is defined. PMAX is chosen such that
it does not exceed the confinement stress (3) expected at the depth where the test is being
conducted in order to avoid the development of hydraulic fracturing or hydraulic jacking.

PMAX = D

1psi
ft

Where;
D is equal to the minimum ground coverage depth in the case of a vertical boring in a
flat site or minimum lateral coverage in the case of a test conducted in a hillside.

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The test is conducted in five stages. The first three done with ascending pressures while the last
two pressures are the same as the first two hence creating a pressure loop. These pressures are a
fraction of PMAX as presented in the table below;
Table 2.4. Pressure magnitudes for each stage in Lugeon Test.
Description

Pressure Step

1st stage

Low

0.5 PMAX

2nd stage

Medium

0.75 PMAX

3rd stage

Maximum

PMAX

4th stage

Medium

0.75 PMAX

5th stage

low

0.5 PMAX

Lugeon values; during the execution of each stage, both water pressure (P) and flow rate (q)
values are recorded every minute. Subsequently, average values for P and q are then used to
compute the hydraulic conductivity for each stage. The hydraulic conductivity is expressed in
terms of the Lugeon value, which is empirically defined as the hydraulic conductivity required to
achieve a flow rate of 1 litre/minute per meter of test interval under a reference water pressure
equal to 1 Megapascal (MPa)

Where is a constant for SI unit conversion.


Po is the atmospheric pressure.
L is the depth tested.
Assuming homogenous and isotropic conditions, 1 Lugeon is equivalent to 1.3 10-5 cm/s.
For each test section, results obtained for each pressure stage are interpreted based on typical
behaviours observed. There are five typical behaviours as follows;

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Table 2.5. A graphic summary of the five behavior groups defined by Houlsby (1976), as well as
the representative Lugeon value that should be reported for each group.

Table below describes conditions associated with different Lugeon values, as well as the typical
precision used to report these values. ( Houlsby, A. 1976)
Table 2.6. Properties of rock masses according to lugeon range.

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2.7.3 SECONDARY PERMEABILITY INDEX (SPI)


This test applies to jointed rock where there is presence of fractures. To describe and estimate the
permeability of jointed rock, the result of water pressure test should be transferred to k-value
instead of lugeon value. Much more effort had been done to find correlation between the result
of water pressure test and k-value. This problem was solved by using Secondary Permeability
Index method (SPI). The Secondary Permeability Index (SPI) usually, expressed from the
conversion of the take of water pressure test into a permeability coefficient analogous to porous
mass (Foyo et al 2005). Usually, the grouting of the dam foundation requires that the rock mass
be previously divided in zones with different ground treatment. The Secondary Permeability
Index (SPI), based on water flow trough fissures, allows zoning the dam foundation regarding
different quality classes. The importance of the SPI method is possibility of distinguishing
difference between dilation and hydraulic fracturing. The dilation is occurred at elastic manner,
but the hydraulic fracturing is occurred at plastic manner (Ajalloeian and Moein 2009 ).
Therefore, the Secondary Permeability Index (SPI) is defined as follows:

SPI = C

Ln

2le
+1 Q
r
2le
Ht

Where:
SPI (Secondary Permeability Index) - l/s per m2 of borehole test surface.
C - constant depending upon viscosity for an assumed temperature of rock at 100 C ,
1.4910-10 (Snow, 1968).
le-

length of the test section (m),

r-

borehole radius (m)

Q-

water flow absorbed by fissured rock mass (litres),

T-

duration of each pressure level (seconds)

H-

total pressure expressed as water column (metres).

The SPI establishes a new permeability based rock mass classification (Table 2.5.3.a.). Based on
this classification, different considerations regarding ground treatment are proposed (Foyo et al.
2005). The proposed classification differs from classical geomechanical classifications.

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Most critically, it does not reflect the strength of the intact rock. Instead, the classification
defines the quality of the rock mass based on the permeability of the discontinuities (Foyo et al.
2005).

Table 2.7. Rock mass classification based on the SPI and ground treatment considerations (Foyo
et al. 2005)
Secondary Permeability Index, SPI (1/s m2)
< 2.16 10-14

2.16 10-14

1.72 10-13

1.72 10-12

Rock mass

Class A

Class B

Class C

Class D

Classification

Excellent

GoodFair

Poor

Very poor

Ground

Needless

Local

Required

Extensive

Treatment

2.8 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT BENTONITE SLURRY


The technical specifications are used as a guide to Cement-Bentonite(CB) Slurry manufucture
for a specific site.
In general, there are two types of CB: CB slurry walls made from Portland cement and Bentonite
and CB slurry walls made from Portland cement, Bentonite, and Blast Furnace Slag cement. In
part, the performance specifications will determine the type of CB. These types can be called
CB/PC and CB/BFS.

CB/PC has a fully-cured UCS (unconfined compressive strength) of about 5 to 35


psi and a permeability of about 5 x 10-6 cm/sec

CB/BFS has a cured UCS of about 50 to 200 psi and a permeability of about 1
x10-7cm/sec.

CB is said to have dynamic properties and improves as it cures.

CB properties are also said to be influenced by its shear history so consistent


sampling is critical

Fully cured is usually assume to be 90 days, but CB cures over a long period.

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3. CASE STUDIES
3.1. THETA DAM, KENYA
3.1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Theta dam was constructed on Theta Basin within Kikuyu escarpment located about 80 km from
Nairobi, Kenya. The dam site is at a confluence of two streams and was constructed for the
purposes of providing domestic water supply to approximately 50,000 people near the vicinity.
This dam is 17 m high with an axis which was 63 metres in length.

Figure 3.1. A geographic map of Theta dam site.


3.1.2 GEOLOGY OF THE SITE
The project area has a shallow, red volcanic soil which is locally sticky when wet and a high
fertility rate. The geology of the area is described by Thompson A.O (1964) in his description of
the Geology of the Kijabe Area. The dam site is covered by middle and upper Tertiary volcanics
consisting of basalts, phonolites and trachytes intercalated with their pyroclastic equivalents

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34

which are predominantly tuffs and are divided into upper, middle and lower Kerichwa valley
tuffs. The volcanics overlie the Basement rocks at a relatively greater depth. Although the area is
characterised by minor faults, no major fault has been positively identified. (Athi water Services
Board, 2010)

3.1.3 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS


Geophysical investigations were carried out using Vertical Electric Sounding (VES) which
captured sub-surface changes by use or Electrical Resistivity Tomoghraphy (ERT). The profile
of interest was along the dam axis for a length of 65m. Findings were as shown in the diagram.

Figure 3.2. Resistivity values within the different strata located at different depths along dam
axis.
High resistivity values indicate areas of high density or compact material which have low
permeability while low values imply high permeability. It is clear from the profile that a region
of high permeability existed below the dam axis and core drilling as well as permeability tests
were conducted to confirm this.
Four exploratory holes were drilled along the dam axis with cores being recovered. Recovery of
cores confirmed the geophysical survey.
The permeability of the soil material at the site ranged between 4.6 x 10-6 to 4.9 x
10-8 cm/s (low to very low) and the percentage of fines is at least 80%.

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There was a zone of high porosity which could have been due to rock fissures or presence of an
aquifer. However due to lack of significant faulting activity in the area the particular zone was
probably an aquifer.
3.1.4 DESIGN, METHODS AND CONSTRUCTION
The zone of low resistivity was a cause for concern since water would seep under the dam unless
measures were taken. It was proposed to construct a curtain grout along the dam axis. Primary
holes were 9 spaced 8m apart with Secondary holes 8 in number placed in between the primary
holes. Two raking holes were also done at each end of the axis; one inclined at 55 degrees and
the other inclined at 63 degrees from the horizontal.
The accepted formula for highest pressure used in Kenya is:
P= (2/3) H

where P is pressure and H is the depth to be grouted.

Grout mix comprised 100 litre of water for 1 bag of cement (50 kg) and 2.5 kg of bentonite.
This translated to 5% bentonite in cement grout for the primary holes.
The table below shows the summary of the proposed grout holes and to which depth they were
made. Grout holes with the prefix P are primary in nature while those with the prefix S are
secondary.
Table 3.1. Grout holes made along dam axis.
Chainage along dam axis (m)

Grout hole label

Depth of grout hole(m)

0 + 000

P1

10

0 + 005

S1

10

0 + 010

P2

60

0 + 015

S2

20

0 + 020

P3

60

0 + 022.5

S3

60

0 + 025

P4

50

0 + 027.5

S4

50

0 + 030

P5

60

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36

0 + 035

S5

50

0 + 040

P6

60

0 + 044

S6

20

0 + 048

P7

30

0 + 052

S7

10

0 + 056

P8

10

0 + 060

S8

10

0 + 063

P9

10

3.1.5 RESULTS
Eight primary holes were grouted with the exception of P3 which was used as a test hole. The
results of the lugeon test are tabulated below
Table 3.2 Lugeon values attained before and after grouting.
Borehole chainage

0+ 020 (P3)

Depth of test section

Lugeon values before

Lugeon values after

(m)

grouting.

grouting

0-5

10.42

1.681

5-10

11.68

2.643

10-15

10.75

1.678

15-20

1.75

1.595

20-25

1.24

6.657

25-30

0.28

0.089

30-35

9.17

2.530

35-40

89.95

27.458

40-45

23.23

5.056

45-50

12.32

2.509

50-55

0.16

0.432

55-60

1.59

0.205

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The results above prove that grouting was effective. However, not all Lugoen values were below
5. The zone 35-40 which recorded the largest values was assumed to be where resistivity was
lowest.
Unfortunately Packer tests done at the secondary holes showed Lugeon values greater than 5.
The main cause for this was cited as high pressure used during grouting as well as the aquifer
which transported the grout mix downstream (bleeding) hence significant setting of the material
had not occurred. There were also instances of borehole collapse due to the weak nature of
underground material.
This prompted design mix alteration to up to 20% bentonite in cement grout and reduction of
pressures used in grouting of the secondary grouting holes.
Grouting of the secondary grout holes was conducted so that lugeon values would be less than 5.
The two raking holes were then drilled and water pressure tests conducted. Grout material was
recovered in the cores and the Lugeon values were found out to be less than 2.

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3.2 TURTLE CREEK DAM, USA


3.2.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Turtle Creek Dam is located in Manhattan, Kansas city and acts as a reservoir on the Big Blue
River 8km North of Manhattan. It is a catchment area of about 25,000 km2 with a shoreline of
160 km.

Figure 3.3. Turtle creek as is seen today.


The Corps of Engineers-Kansas City District conducted extensive seismic evaluations for Tuttle
Creek Dam. These evaluations revealed that an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.7 or greater
would cause liquefaction of the foundation sand and result in large deformations or collapse of
the embankment. The maximum credible earthquake (MCE) from the nearby Humboldt Fault
Zone is a magnitude 6.6 earthquake. Slope stability analysis confirmed these findings. To reduce
the risk of deformation and slope instability during and after the MCE, cement bentonite slurry
walls were constructed in the foundation sands through the downstream portion of the
embankment.

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3.2.2. SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS


The soil in the alluvial foundation of Tuttle Creek Dam consists of 8 to 27 ft of silt and low
plasticity clay underlain by sand, silty sand, and gravelly sand. The sand deposits vary in
thickness from about 25 to 60 ft and can be separated into two distinct zones. The upper zone
consists of a 15 to 20-ft-thick layer of loose fine to medium sand and the lower zone consists of a
25 to 30-ft-thick layer of dense coarse to gravelly sand that increases in grain size with depth.
Due to the alluvial Due to the alluvial nature of the foundation deposits, multiple lenses of
cohesive soil exist within the coarse grained layers. Bedrock consists of alternating layers of
shale and limestone. The silt and clay form a natural cohesive soil blanket over the morepermeable sands.
The upper sand zone was determined to be potentially liquefiable during large earthquake
motions. The upper silts and clays were also expected to suffer significant strength loss due to
large strains caused by liquefaction of the underlying sand. It was therefore proposed that a
grout curtain be constructed to increase the bearing strength of the dam.
3.2.3 DESIGN, METHODS AND MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
The Kansas City District found that rehabilitation of the liquefiable foundation sands is required
to prevent an uncontrolled release of the reservoir during or after the design earthquake.
Transverse shear walls were constructed through the embankment and underlying foundation
soils in the downstream slope and toe of the dam.
The walls were 1.22 m wide, 13.72 m long, and generally about 21 m deep. A 3.05 m clearspace
exists between them. Design of the clear-spacing considered requirements for unimpeded
seepage between the walls in both the pervious drain and foundation sands, while also
considering soil displacement between the walls using limit equilibrium methods. These
transverse shear walls are self-hardening cement bentonite slurry walls. (Paul J. Axtell et all)

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Figure 3.4. Plan view of transverse shear walls (units in ft, 1m=3.28ft)

Figure 3.5. Side view of transverse shear walls (units in ft, 1 m=3.28 ft)

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In order to install the walls, a working platform was constructed on the downstream slope of the
dam. The working platform was constructed of predominantly sand with an aggregate surface.
Two kinds of mixes were used; cement consisting of a 50/50 mixture of Portland cement and
ground granulated blast furnace slag (slag). Additionally, a 25/75 Portland cement to slag cement
mix-ratio was used in a small number of walls.
Both mixes included a 5 percent bentonite component. A laboratory investigation was conducted
on recovered samples obtained from production walls (initially they were test walls) to determine
the large-strain, or post-peak, shear strength of the hardened cement-bentonite material.The
results of the laboratory investigation were required for use in limit-equilibrium slope stability
analyses used to design the shear walls and numerical deformation modeling to assess the
earthquake induced permanent deformation of the dam and foundation materials. For the
majority of the production work, unconfined compression tests were used to validate the design.
Construction of the Cement Bentonite wall was done by simultaneously excavating material and
replacing with Walls were constructed by excavating and simultaneously placing self hardening
cement bentonite slurry in the trenches. By continuously placing slurry into the excavation, the
trench would remain open during construction of the wall. Walls were oriented transverse to the
axis of the dam. Walls were typically 3 or 4 feet wide, 45 feet long, and approximately 65 feet
deep.
The slurry level in the walls was observed to drop during cure. The observed drop was a
combination of slurry permeation into the adjacent soil and slurry bleed during curing. The walls
were topped off with fresh slurry daily to account for drop during curing. Total slurry drop was
typically 10% of wall depth.
3.2.4 SAMPLING AND TESTING
This was performed on an onsite batching plant, on the fluid slurry as well as on hardened
material via core drilling. Fluid slurry samples were cast in 3-in by 6-in cylinders. The samples
were originally stored in a 100-percent humidity curing room until being tested for unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) stored submerged under water until UCS testing.

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Coring was conducted on 92% of walls in the test section, and approximately 40% of walls in the
remainder of construction. Walls were typically cored between 60 and 90 days after construction,
but some were cored as early as 28 days and as late as 200 days to observe strength changes with
time.

3.2.5 RESULTS AND FINDINGS


In general, wall strength and specific gravity increased with increasing cement water ratio. Based
on an independent laboratory investigation of the proposed mixes, and verified by full-scale field
measurements, relatively minor strength increases can be expected beyond 90 days for these
materials.

Figure 3.6. Table showing average UCS values for samples.

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Figure 3.7. UCS values with time for sample collected.

The majority of the tests occurred within the 90 day time frame. Walls constructed with 75%
slag content exhibited significantly higher strength than walls of the same cement water (c/w)
ratio constructed with 50% slag content. Strength generally increased with increase in depth and
this was attributed to the increase in specific gravity of the zone examined. (Amod K. Koirala et
all, 2011)

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3.3 KARKHEH DAM, IRAN


3.3.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Karkheh dam is constructed on Karkheh river located 200 kilometers northwest of the Persian
Gulf southwest of Iran. It is an earth-fill dam with a reservoir capacity of 5600Mm3 constructed
for hydropower production. Karkheh earthfill dam is the largest one in Iran.
The dam height over foundation is 127m and the crest length is 3030m. The project includes the
embankment placed across the Karkheh River, a powerhouse with total installed capacity of
400MW, at the left abutment and a gate-controlled chute type spillway with a crest width of 10m
and length of 955m located at right abutment.

Figure 3.8. Aerial view of Karkheh dam.


3.2.2 GEOLOGY
Geology of the sites consists mainly of conglomerate layers with the overall permeability of the
conglomerate estimated to be in the relatively high range of about 4-9 10-4 m/s this is primarily
caused by the zones of discontinuity and open framework gravels. The conglomerate is stratified
by mudstone layers 3 to 9 m thick, and nearly horizontal.

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The mudstone layers at levels below the river have been given negative numbers (-1, -2 and -3)
and those above the river have been attributed positive values (+1, +2, +3 and +4)

Figure 3.9. Longitudinal cross section of Karkheh dam. Hatched area represents the extension
of cutoff wall. The figure is exaggerated in the vertical direction.

The composition of mudstone layers is also variable between the clay rock and sandy-silty rock.
The estimated permeability of the mudstones is between 10-7 and 10-10 m/s. Geotechnical
investigations and observations indicated that these layers are continuous enough at the location
of dam to provide different strata for each conglomerate layer confined by mudstone layers
Due to the high permeability of conglomerate layers, a vertical foundation water sealing system
was required to control water flow to downstream, to reduce exit hydraulic gradient, to prevent
high measure of leakage, to decrease the uplift pressure, and finally to provide associate stability
of the dam body and its hydraulic structures.

3.3.3 DESIGN, METHODS AND CONSTRUCTION


Different water sealing alternatives were considered for the Karkheh dam foundation. The first
alternative was grout curtain, a selection of which was favored by the availability and lower cost
of grouting technology within the country and anticipating suitable performance speed on the
one hand, and lack of other suitable technologies on the other hand. However, theoretical
advantages of grout curtain proved false by test grouting and economical studies. Hence, cutoff
wall was taken into consideration as the second alternative.

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Enormous studies and investigations were carried out leading to design of a plastic concrete
cutoff wall as the main part of the dam foundation water-tightening system.
Therefore a plastic concrete cutoff wall with thickness of 0.8 to 1.0 meter was performed
throughout the dam axis. At different locations of dam, the depth of wall was determined
regarding seepage analysis, construction ability and economical factors

Figure 3.10. Karkheh dam cutoff walls and the location of the probable chemical grouting
curtain.
The dam monitoring data indicated that the cutoff wall rerouted the seepage flow into
preferable paths (sufficiently far) and as a result reduction in the seepage discharge, hydraulic
gradient and pore pressure in the rock masses was obtained which all together provide more
suitable conditions for the stability of the powerhouse slopes.
But in the access gallery 950, the situation was not as successful. Observations showed water
leakage in this section to be higher than anticipated. To remedy the problem of seepage in this
part of dam foundation, the other existing alternative was chemical grouting.

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As the permeability of the formation is around 10-5 cm/sec, a silicate-base chemical grout was
assessed to be a suitable type of grouting of the conglomerate formation. (Heidarzadeh et all)
However, there was no experience of chemical grouting in the country as well as a lack of any
published work on chemical grouting of conglomerate formations. Therefore, ambiguities were
associated with the design and construction of the Karkheh dam chemical grout curtain. To
overcome part of these ambiguities, prior to the main chemical grouting, testing programs were
performed to evaluate the performance of the method in the water sealing of the area using a
combination of field and laboratory tests. At first, extensive site trials and laboratory tests were
carried out to develop an effective grout mix. In these laboratory tests the chemical grouts alone
were examined with regard to viscosity-time behavior, gelation time, temperature-influence,
stability, and deformability. These laboratory tests, led to the selection of the final chemical
grout which was a solution of sodium silicate, water, and ethyl acetate as reactant. This grout
system widely known as sodium silicate system is the most popular chemical grout system
because of its safety and environmental compatibility.
The only concern was that sodium salts can leach from gelled silicate and raise the pH of the
surrounding environment. This was considered to be a relatively small issue.
The second step tested grout-soil interaction: The ease of injection and permeability reduction of
the selected chemical grout was examined in field injection tests. In this step two field tests were
performed including shallow test holes without hydrostatic pressure and full scale tests under
dam real hydrostatic pressure head.
The concentration of the silicate solution which was selected for use in Karkheh dam
ranged between 37%. Such grouts would have viscosity of up to 3 cP(0.003Ns/m2), which was
suitable for the encountered formation.
In phase 1 of test chemical grouting, shallow test holes with depths ranging between 4 to 5
meters were used which did not undergo any hydrostatic pressure. These grouting holes each
having 101 mm diameters were drilled in the corners and side midpoints of an equilateral
triangle located near gallery 950.
As can be seen in the figure 3.11, a test hole named CH (Control Hole) was drilled in the center
of the triangle to be used for water pressure test to assess the effectiveness of the process.

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Figure 3.11. Sketch showing the triangular placement of shallow test holes in phase 1 of test
chemical grouting.
The Complex Curtain Method(CCM)
Cement-bentonite grouting was done followed by sodium silicate chemical grouting in alternate
sections of the holes. At first all grouting sections would be injected by cementitious grouts. In
the next stage, the remaining section would then be treated by the injection of chemical grouts.
(A.A. Mirghasemi et all)

Figure 3.12. Material arrangement within grout hole.


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3.3.4 RESULTS
Chemical grout from design grout mix was injected into holes S1, S2 and S3. In this stage, the
permeability test was taken in the intermediate holes S5, S6 and S7 indicated that the
permeability varied from 70 to 102.5 Lugeons. Finally, after injection of chemical grouts in all
test holes, the permeability at the Control Hole (CH) showed the value of 73 Lugeons, which was
more than the acceptable limit of about 5 Lugeons. Results of performed chemical grouting in
triangular test holes indicated that improvement of conglomerate formation was not satisfactory.
It can be inferred that some cavities or perforations remained untapped or untreated.
Table 3.3. Summary of grouting in phase 1 test holes (che.gro. chemical grouting).

The technique of chemical grouting was effective for clogging of small voids and the
developed silica gels could not resist against water flow in large openings. In other words,
it was found that for treatment of a medium having both large and small voids like conglomerate
formations, a combination of chemical and cementitious grouting was employed in order to fill
small and large openings respectively.

Water pressure test was conducted on test hole S4 and the results attained are tabulated below.

Table 3.4. Summary of grouting records in the test hole S4.

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4. DISCUSSION
As more development takes place in the world, it has become increasingly hard to find an ideal
site for projects. An ideal site would have a sound foundation such that a project could be
constructed and function as expected. Unfortunately this is not always the case and more
important factors such as available land and resources required for operation and maintenance
override the need to have a sound foundation on site.
As a consequence, a site with a weak foundation may be chosen and that foundation improved to
achieve the standards and specifications needed to construct a dam. While other methods such as
sheet piling and cutoff trenches are suitable, grouting offers the least disruptive method of
dealing with weak foundations.
Data obtained from Theta dam show that grouting in primary holes using cement bentonite
sealed the pores in the foundation and reduced permeability from 89.95 lugeons to 27.46 lugeons
in the most permeable zone.
Bentonite in the grout mix was then increased to improve its sealing characteristics. The second
stage of grouting in secondary holes reduced permeability to values below 2 Lugeons which was
within the accepted range of less than 5 Lugeons.
This indicated that grouting using cement bentonite was successful. Grouting in subsequent
stages reduces the amount of material used. Such a technique initiates a self-checking
mechanism to ensure the permeability sought is attained since tests were done after each stage to
confirm permeability achieved before proceeding.
In Turtle Creek dam, grouting using cement bentonite material was done using walls rather than
grout holes. This ensured that the foundation would be strong enough to provide support and
resistance to the dam in the event of an earthquake. Results from Unconfined Compressive
Strength(UCS) tests showed sample material to have achieved sufficient strength to withstand
the Maximum Credible Earthquake expected(6.7). This was due to the increased strength of the
foundation which also made it more stable.

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The cement bentonite grouts were considered highly effective for conglomerate foundations such
as in Karkheh dam thus it was used. Test results confirmed that Lugeon values dropped from 70
to 29 in control hole 4. This is a difference in 41 Lugeon values which was a lot but still not
within the acceptable range.
Sodium Silicate grouts were used to seal small pores hence offered more effective hydraulic
resistance to seepage within the foundation. Water pressure tests conducted showed a change in
Lugeon values from 29 to 1.2 in control hole 4. This Lugeon value was within the accepted range
thus grouting was successful.
The use of sodium silicate solutions are generally considered to be non-toxic and noncorrosive.
They are considered to be free of health hazards and environmental effects. However, sodium
salts can leach from gelled silicate and raise the pH of the surrounding environment.
Combining different kinds of grouts was ideal since cement bentonite sealed the large pores
found in conglomerate foundations. The remaining pores were small hence a lower rate of
bleeding would occur during grouting which was economical. These pores were sealed with
chemical grout which through which reduced permeability hence seepage was negligible.

However cementitous grouts supposedly degrade at a faster rate than the other kinds of material
available and are a relatively short term solution to problems including seepage and stability.
In respect to dams it may be theorized that this degradation may have little effect on the
functionality as:

Sediments will fill up the dam and reduce its capacity to the point where the dam is not
useful. By this point, degradations will not matter since the project lifespan will have
ended.

After a period of time, earth movements and compressibility of sediments will cause
stratification. This may in turn retard the increase in permeability caused by degradation
to levels that are acceptable.

With the exception of sodium silicate grouts, most kind of chemical grouts provide potentially
harmful and irreversible side effects. It is this nature that requires specialized technology in its
use. . This especially applies to developing nations which may not have the correct technology to
successfully and safely conduct chemical grouting. Lowered viscosity and longer time to gel

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increases risk of water contamination. Workers suffer risk from exposure and there is no exact
way to quantify the exact risks involved.

Emulsion grouts require greater expertise to use since the bitumen in the mix must be heated to
high temperatures (120o Celsius- 140o Celsius). Unfortunately the fumes emitted during this
exercise are harmful if inhaled thus endanger workers and pollute the air. In addition, the worlds
petroleum reserves are finite thus;

Bitumen becomes more expensive to attain due to becoming high demand. Financial
project constraints which are a feature in most projects could eliminate emulsion grout as
a material to be used.

Bitumen has other uses such as in road construction which may unfortunately take
priority over the field of grouting.

As with most engineering, a balance is sought such that the project under construction may be as
useful as possible while creating the least damage possible.

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5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION


5.1 CONCLUSION
Grouting using cement bentonite in Theta dam construction reduced permeability to acceptable
levels thus was effective. Grouting in stages enabled permeability to be checked before
proceeding to the secondary stage which could prove to be economical since process can be
stopped once specifications are attained.
Foundations can be made strong enough to withstand undesirable loads by use of cement
bentonite grout which is currently the best material available. This case was seen in Turtle creek
dam where grouting walls in foundation using cement bentonite increased the design strength of
the foundation.
Grout material may be used in combination to get optimum use of their properties. In Karkheh
dam, Cement bentonite grout sealed pore within its conglomerate foundation while the chemical
grout was used to effectively reduce seepage by sealing the remaining small pores.
Chemical grouts are effective in sealing small pores but have side effects on the environment.
There may be more than one grouting technique that can solve one particular geotechnical
problem, but precautions to take during the construction work, progress and cost level maybe
quite different.
Emulsion grouts contain bitumen which is harmful when inhaled and a finite resource hence it is
rarely considered as a material for continuing and future use in grouting.

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5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
New materials should be considered to deal with the challenges surrounding grouting. While the
advancements made so far are impressive, more must be done.
Use of new techniques in grouting should be encouraged of instead of purely relying on the tried
methods. Although new methods are risky, they could provide better advantages.
Information should be made more readily available on such procedures since with increase in
population more sites are made to be ideal instead of searching for the ideal site.
Research on projects involving new techniques and material used should be encouraged. Testing
on different kinds of grouts and their variants should be considered. This will increase improve
options available for consideration on grouting.
Probable measures to reduce side effects of chemical grouting should be investigated to ensure
safety for future generations.
Ambiguity in projects involving grouting should be avoided in order to increase accountability
and credibility. It will also help to effectively monitor any changes and effects(both long-term
and short-term) that occur.

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cutoff wall at Karkheh dam.

Ajalloeian, R, Moein, F (2009) Evaluation of Damsites Groutability Using Secondary


Permeability Index, Rock Classification (Case Studies), American Journal of Applied
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Amod K. Koirala, Ph.D., Glen M. Bellew, P.E., John C. Dillon, P.E., David L. Mathews,
P.E., 21stCenturyDamDesign Advances and Adaptations 31st Annual United States
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Athi water Services Board (2010)-Theta Dam Factual Report.

Braja M. Das (2002) Soil mechanics Laboratory Manual 6th edition Oxford University
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Geotechnical Laboratory-Lecture notes.

Defense Agencies, U.S.A. (1990)- Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) Grouting methods
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Foyo, A, Miguel A. Sanchez, Carmen Tomillo (2005) A proposal for a Secondary


Permeability Index obtained from water pressure tests in dam foundations", Engineering
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Giovanni Dugnani (2006) Discussion of how many components in a grout


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Chemical Grouting of Conglomerate Foundations Mohammad.

Houlsby, A. (1976). Routine Interpretation of the Lugeon Water-Test. Q. J. Eng. Geol.


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IS: 11293 (Part2)-1993 Guidelines for the design of grout curtains

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Kharagpur - Design and Construction of Concrete Gravity Dams(Lecture notes) ,Version


2 Civil Engineering IIT.

Lagerlund ,Johan (2009) - Remedial Injection Grouting of Embankment Dams With NonHardening Grouts. Licentiate Thesis, Stockholm.

Look, Burk (2007)- Handbook of geotechnical Engineering, Taylor and Francis Group
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Mikkelsen, P.Erik (2002) - Cement-Bentonite Grout backfill for Borehole Instruments.


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Musset, Alan E; Khan, M. Aftab (2000) - Looking into the Earth: An introduction to
geological physics, Cambridge University Press.

Paul J. Axtell et all - Peak and Post-Peak Shear Strength of Cement-Bentonite

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U.S. Army Corps of Engineers(1995)- Engineer Manual 1110-1-3500 31 January

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