Grouting in Difficult Dam
Grouting in Difficult Dam
Grouting in Difficult Dam
BY
MBIYU MEDLIN NJOKI
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ABSTRACT
Grouting is a popular ground treatment technique, but not well known to most in the engineering
industry. A lot of misconceptions surround this subject. This dissertation presents the research on
grouting in an attempt to clarify the basic parameters involved such as permeability, to provide a
full coverage on the practices in use in the recent past to help aid in its use currently and to report
on their effects to the environment.
Cement based grout is the main material in focus and with the use of documented case studies,
this paper provides a brief discussion of the effectiveness in foundation treatment.
The application of cement based permeation grouting is still largely a trial and error process in
the current practice, especially in the local construction industry.
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DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this project to my family for their contribution in my life and steadfast
support which can never be repaid.
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ACKNOWLEGEMENT
Without help, support and encouragement from lecturers, engineers and colleagues among
others, the author would never have been able to finish this work.
The author wishes to express their deep gratitude to their supervisor, Eng. J. R. Ruigu for his
tireless efforts, wise advice and constant guidance.
In the same breath, the author is grateful to Eng. Dedan Otiato for taking the time to expose a
student to the little known field of Grouting and going further as to expect feedback and
recommendations on the subject.
Many thanks to the entire Civil engineering department staff for their helpful advice. The author
is indebted for their resilient effort which made this work fruitful.
This project may never have been accomplished without the support of family and friends who
raised ones spirits when headway in the project seemed improbable. To the class of 2014, thank
you all for the hard work, co-operation and level-headed constructive criticism.
The author wishes to express their sincere gratitude to the following institution: Norken (I) Ltd..
This is in recognition for their support and informative data.
Most importantly, glory be to God for His grace which knows no bounds.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEGEMENT ................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii
ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... ix
1.
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 DEFINITION OF GROUTING ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................... 2
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH ........................................................................................... 2
1.4 SCOPE AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 3
2.
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CASE STUDIES.................................................................................................................... 34
3.1. THETA DAM, KENYA .................................................................................................... 34
3.1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................. 34
3.1.2 GEOLOGY OF THE SITE........................................................................................... 34
3.1.3 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS ........................................................................ 35
3.1.4 DESIGN, METHODS AND CONSTRUCTION ......................................................... 36
3.1.5 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 37
3.2 TURTLE CREEK DAM, USA ........................................................................................... 39
3.2.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ............................................................................. 39
3.2.2.
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 51
5.
REFRENCES ................................................................................................................................ 56
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.2.
Figure2.3.
Figure2.4.
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.12.
Figure 3.1.
Figure3.2.
Resistivity values within the different strata located at different depths along dam
axis.
Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.7.
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Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.10.
Karkheh dam cutoff walls and the location of the probable chemical grouting
curtain.
Figure 3.11.
Sketch showing the triangular placement of shallow test holes in phase 1 of test
chemical grouting.
Figure 3.12.
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1.
Table 2.2.
Table 2.3.
Table 2.4.
Table 2.5.
Table 2.6.
Table 2.7.
Rock mass classification based on the SPI and ground treatment considerations.
Table 3.1.
Table 3.2
Table 3.3.
Table 3.4.
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ABBREVIATIONS
AA -
acrylic acid
toluene di-isocyanate
BDP- di-n-butylphthalate
DFG - Deutsche Forschungsgesellschaft (German Research Society)
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITION OF GROUTING
Grouting is defined as the procedure of filling or injecting fluid with pressure into structural and
lithological defects or cavities between ground layer and base rock, generally via boreholes.
Grouting was first used in 1802 by the French engineer Charles Berigny using water and
pozzolanic cement mixture in ground grouting.
The purpose of injecting a grout may be any one or more of the following:
When the foundation has to be constructed below the ground water table. The deeper the
foundation, the longer the time needed for construction, and therefore, the more benefit
gained from grouting as compared with dewatering.
When there is difficult access to the foundation level. This is very often the case in city
work, in tunnel shafts, sewers, and subway construction.
When the geometric dimensions of the foundation are complicated and involves many
boundaries and contact zones.
When the adjacent structures require that the soil of the foundation strata should not be
excavated (extension of existing foundations into deeper layers).
1
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Grouting has been extensively used primarily to control ground water flow under earth and
masonry dams, where rock grouting is used. Since the process fills soil voids with some type of
stabilizing material, grouting is also used to increase soil strength and prevent excessive
settlement.
Grouting, instead of being an old and obsolete ground treatment technique, is still developing in
both methodology as well as hardware engineering. Its application is extending in the civil
engineering field, from small-scale remedial work site to very large-scale project site. It is still
the most popular ground treatment method used today ( V.N.S. Murthy).
The area of study is mostly unfamiliar to many engineers since actual drilling and
grouting is done by specialists. Most difficulties and disputes in this phase of work arise
when an inexperienced firm is sub-contracted.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
It is an attempt to weigh the pros and cons of the methods involved thus bringing the
industry one step closer to perfecting methods used.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON DAM FOUNDATIONS
2.1.1. DAM FOUNDATION TYPES
It is important to consider the suitability of the various types of rock and soil as foundation and
construction materials when proposing to construct a dam.
The foundation geology at a dam site often dictates the type of dam suitable for that site. The
strength, thickness, and inclination of strata; permeability; fracturing; and faulting are all
important considerations in selecting the dam type be it earthfill, rockfill or concrete. Some of
the different foundations commonly encountered are discussed below.
(a) Rock Foundations -Competent rock foundations, which are free of significant geologic
defects, have relatively high shear strengths and are resistant to erosion and percolation.
In addition they offer few restrictions as to the type of dam that can be built upon them.
The economy of materials or the overall cost should be the ruling factor.
The removal of disintegrated rock together with the sealing of seams and fractures by
grouting is frequently necessary. Weaker rocks such as clay shales, some sandstones,
weathered basalt, etc., may present significant problems to the design and construction of
a dam and may heavily influence the type of dam selected.
(b) Gravel Foundations.-Gravel foundations, if well compacted, are suitable for earthfill or
rockfill dams. Because gravel foundations are frequently subjected to water percolation at
high rates, special precautions just be taken to provide adequate seepage control or
effective water cutoffs or seals.
(c) Silt or Fine Sand Foundations.-Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for low concrete
gravity dams and earthfill dams if properly designed, but they are generally not suitable
for rockfill dams. Design concerns include non uniform settlement, potential soil collapse
upon saturation, uplift forces, the prevention of piping, excessive percolation losses, and
protection of the foundation at the downstream embankment toe from erosion.
(d) Clay Foundations.-Clay foundations can be used for the support of earthfill dams, but
require relatively flat embankment slopes because of relatively lower foundation shear
strengths. Clay foundations under dams can also consolidate significantly.
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Because of the requirement for flatter slopes and the tendency for clay foundations to
settle a lot, it is usually not economical to construct a rockfill dam on a clay foundation.
Clay foundations are also ordinarily not suitable for concrete gravity dams. Tests of the
foundation material in its natural state are usually required to determine the consolidation
characteristics of the foundation strata and their ability to support the superimposed load.
(e) Non-uniform Foundations.-Occasionally, situations occur where reasonably uniform
foundations of any of the types described above cannot be found and where a nonuniform foundation of rock and soft material must be used if the dam is to be built.
Nevertheless, such conditions can often be counterbalanced by special design features.
Even dam sites that are not highly unusual present special problems requiring the
selection of appropriate treatment by experienced engineers.
Foundations are not actually designed. Rather, certain provisions for treatment are made in
designs to ensure that the essential requirements are met. No two foundations are exactly alike;
each foundation presents its own separate and distinct problems requiring corresponding special
treatment and preparation. The importance of adequate foundation treatment is emphasized by
the fact that approximately 40 percent of all earthfill dam accidents and 12 percent of all failures
are attributed to foundation failures.
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Therefore, the foundation in this area should be thoroughly wetted to raise the average water
content to saturation. This ensures voids are filled with water hence settlement that would occur
would be negligible. (United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 1987)
2.2 GROUTING
It is a fact that all dams leak thus the main objective in this regard is to reduce the amount of
leakage so that;
The structure can serve its purpose throughout its design life without compromising on
safety requirements.
The goal is to reduce leakages to 0.03 cumecs but in some cases it is justifiable to allow leakage
of up to 2.3 cumecs. In the case where grouting is done to reduce permeability, tests are usually
carried out to ascertain if grout works must be carried out. (Ramakrishnana et al, 1989)
2.2.1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER DURING GROUTING
Conditions requiring grouting include;
Foundation conditions often can be determined from a visual inspection of erosion effects, of
outcrops, and of excavations such as highway or railroad cuts, building excavations, abandoned
pits, and quarries in the general area of the dam site. Information on ground-water conditions
often can be obtained from local wells.
Subsurface exploration of the foundation is needed to determine;
1. The depth to bedrock at the dam site.
2. The character of both the bedrock and the soils under the dam and under accompanying
structures.
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A number of drill holes are usually required at a dam site to determine the bedrock profile along
the proposed axis. The number of drill holes required for foundation exploration of dams should
be determined by the complexity of geologic conditions, but the depth of the drill holes should
be greater than the height of the dam.
Tests normally carried out on site comprise geological mapping, geophysical survey, and
recovery of core samples from site for laboratory tests as well as field tests on site.
2.2.1.1 Geological mapping
Geological mapping describes the exercise of representing the earths surface of a specified area
with particular emphasis on the contours and demarcation of overburden and rock outcrops and
their classification according to colour, grain size, origin and estimated depth. Rock units better
known as geologic strata are shown by colours or symbols where they are exposed to the surface.
The rock outcrops are described according to the following: lithological or Petrographic name,
Colour, Hardness and estimated uni-axial compressive or strength (UCS) using Schmidt Hammer,
indicative block or bedding thickness.
2.2.1.2. Geophysical survey
This is simply the collection of sub-surface data for purposes of design. These tests give a picture
of the nature and quality of material under the site in question. Methods that can be used are;
N
Siesmoelectrical methods.
Magnetic techniques.
Electrical techniques.
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Unfortunately, chemical grouts are more expensive than suspension type grouts and can have
toxic effects in some circumstances. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1995).
Chemical grouts are relatively low viscosities which cause a higher rate of bleeding when used.
This is unsafe especially in dam foundations if the material contaminates the water in the
reservoir.
Chemical grouts are an ever present source of concern as they are not compatible with the
environment hence could negatively affect the ecosystem of the site creating problems which
may never be fully dealt with.
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Table 2.1. Comparison of chemical grouts as to their technical aspects and their effects on human health and the environment.
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Calcium bentonite; It is the main active ingredient of Fullers earth which is highly
plastic sedimentary clay used by military and civil service to decontaminate clothing
exposed to radiation.
Also used to decolorize, filter and purify animal, mineral and vegetable oils.
In addition it is used in the film industry for special effects to create large dust clouds
after creating explosions.
Potassium bentonite; It is formed from an alteration of volcanic ash and is used as pet
litter and in mud-drilling (helps to lubricate and cool cutting tools, remove cutting and
prevent blowouts during drilling).(www.wikipedia.com)
2.3.3.2 Sodium bentonite
Its most notable feature is the ability to swell when wet, absorbing several times its dry mass in
water. By swelling it creates a low permeability barrier which is most appropriate for use in
grout works hence sealing dam foundations. Sodium Bentonite has the ability to absorb small
amounts of water and to prevent the penetration of more water and generates the internal
pressure when it gets wet necessary to form a waterproof seal. This creates a confining expansion
of wet bentonite also gives it the capability to prevent water migration, to self-repair damaged
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areas and to reseal cracks that will occur from time to time in most concrete. Bentonites
capacity to self repair and a potential life span measured in centuries (it is already up to 90
million years old) makes it the major sealing component of virtually all toxic waste and landfill
projects.
Bentonite grouts are of low permeability which is ideal but unfortunately they are sensitive to
overmixing leading to a flash set and can be difficult to pump down small (3/4 inch) grout pipes.
2.3.4 CEMENT-BENTONITE GROUTS
Bentonite used on its own is generally unstable since one cannot control its volumetric changes
thus creates uncertainty concerning locally introduced pore water pressures caused by hydration
process.
Cement-bentonite grouts are much easier to use since they allow more working time and can
withstand a wider range of margin in mix ratios in comparison to bentonite grouts.
Most grouts allow for up to 6% of bentonite in the mixture but this design can be altered in
certain cases depending on difficulty encountered in the dam foundation. (Mikkelsen,
P.Erik,2002)
In one method a casing is driven and injection is made under pressure to the soil at the
bottom of the hole as the casing is withdrawn.
In another method, a grouting hole is drilled and at each level in which injection is
desired, the drill is withdrawn and a collar is placed at the top of the area to be grouted
and grout is forced into the soil under pressure.
Another method is to perforate the casing in the area to be grouted and leave the casing
permanently in the soil.
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Penetration grouting may involve portland cement or fine grained soils such as bentonite or other
materials of a nature. These materials penetrate only a short distance through most soils and are
primarily useful in very coarse sands or gravels. Viscous fluids, such as a solution of sodium
silicate, may be used to penetrate fine grained soils. Some of these solutions form gels that
restrict permeability and improve compressibility and strength properties. Displacement grouting
usually consists of using a grout like portland cement and sand mixture which when forced into
the soil displaces and compacts the surrounding material about a central core of grout. Injection
of lime is sometimes used to produce lenses in the soil that will block the flow of water and
reduce compressibility and expansion properties of the soil. The lenses are produced by
hydraulic fracturing of the soil. The injection and grouting methods are generally expensive
compared with other stabilization techniques and are primarily used under special situations.
(V.N.S. Murthy)
Bleeding is a term that refers to the instance where the grout mix seeps out of the ground at other
locations nearby the site during pumping in of the grout mix. This could be due to high pressures
used causing fissures that lead to the ground surface or prior presence of fissure which are
difficult to seal at existing pressure. It could also be due to low viscosity of grout material.
Grouting pressures are influenced by the following factors:
Type of rock.
Stratification of rock.
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The first grout holes are known as primary while the second set of grout holes are called
secondary and the third set are tertiary. If further closure is required the sets of grout hole are
known as quaternary, quinary, quinary, sextary, septenary, octary and so forth.
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The grout in the primary hole is meant to penetrate and occupy void space as shown in the
illustration below. The subsequent holes contain grout which seals the voids as well as
connecting with the grout from holes adjacent thus creating a chain of grout to act as a barrier.
2.6(a)
2.6(b)
Figure 2.6. Grout permeation within first two stages (a) and subsequent stage (b)
Actual penetrations may be very different and nonsymmetrical. The extent of grout travel from
grout holes depends on many factors, such as Crack size, Grout mix, Mixing methods, Injection
methods, Pressure, Crack configuration, Stage method, Rock movements, Connections between
holes e.t.c.
Closure methods are particularly useful for grout curtains; the grouting is closed down to the
required standard of tightness or to some appropriate spacing.
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By comparing water test results and grout takes in the holes as the closure proceeds, a measure is
obtained of the grouting's level of success (or lack of it). This comparison may indicate that
changes to techniques are necessary; it also helps with decisions about when to stop grouting.
For grouting in several stages, the layout below is common. Primary holes run deepest and
subsequent series of grout holes are made to be shallower each time. It usually combines
economy with quality work and avoids doing needless grouting. While at the same time it
enables extra grouting to be given to bad spots found while the work is in progress.
The foundation is, in effect, probed and checked more thoroughly than scattered investigation
holes can provide.
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The layout applies to foundations where permeabilities reduce with depth. There are many
variations on site one extreme is where permeabilities remain high for the full depth of the
curtain coupled with short penetration distance, - in such a case it would probably be fairly
evident at the start that tertiary and possibly even subsequent holes will need to go to the full
depth.
The distance between primaries in a curtain should be as regular as possible in order to simplify
setting out and thus minimize errors. Primary holes should not be so close that they connect with
each other; connections at this juncture can jeopardize the quality of grouting and interfere with
proper evaluation of takes. On the other hand, primary holes should not be so wide apart that it is
necessary to routinely close down to such remote sequences as sextary or septenary in order to
get a reasonable spacing of final holes.(Burk Look, 2007)
2.5 SPACING OF GROUT HOLES
Spacing of grout holes is done according to preference to an adopted method within a certain
country. A general observation is that three kinds of holes are grouted i.e. primary, secondary
and tertiary. Each individual kind is done in a straight line but staggered in relation to the rest.
Below is a table showing examples of preferences in a couple of countries. Dimensions are in
metres.
Table 2.2. Spacing of grout holes.
Country
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
India
12
Kenya
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Applications
The test results provide an estimate of the relative consistency of the soil.
Almost used in all geotechnical engineering designs (design and stability analysis of
foundations, retaining walls, slopes and embankments) to obtain a rough estimate of the soil
strength and viable construction techniques
To determine Undrained Shear Strength or Undrained Cohesion (Su or Cu) =
Equipment
Unconfined compression testing machine (Triaxial Machine)
Specimen preparation equipment
Sample extruder
Balance
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Test Procedure
To perform an unconfined compression test, the sample is extruded from the sampling tube. A
cylindrical sample of soil is trimmed such that the ends are reasonably smooth and the length-todiameter ratio is on the order of two. The soil sample is placed in a loading frame on a metal
plate; by turning a crank, the operator raises the level of the bottom plate. The top of the soil
sample is restrained by the top plate, which is attached to a calibrated proving ring. As the
bottom plate is raised, an axial load is applied to the sample. The operator turns the crank at a
specified rate so that there is constant strain rate. The load is gradually increased to shear the
sample, and readings are taken periodically of the force applied to the sample and the resulting
deformation. The loading is continued until the soil develops an obvious shearing plane or the
deformations become excessive. The measured data are used to determine the strength of the soil
specimen and the stress-strain characteristics. Finally, the sample is oven dried to determine its
water content.
Interpretation of data
The material is supposed to follow the stress relationship plotted below.
= 100
Where H is the height of the specimen and H is the change in height of the specimen.
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Stress
Area correction (Ac) is applied in the interpretation of the results as the cross section of the
sample doesnt remain constant as the load is increased. There will be an observed bulge at the
middle of the specimen due to which it is almost presumptive to consider uniform stress
throughout the specimen length. However, the volume of the specimen is assumed constant.
The maximum load per unit area is defined as the unconfined compressive strength, qu.
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PMAX = D
1psi
ft
Where;
D is equal to the minimum ground coverage depth in the case of a vertical boring in a
flat site or minimum lateral coverage in the case of a test conducted in a hillside.
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The test is conducted in five stages. The first three done with ascending pressures while the last
two pressures are the same as the first two hence creating a pressure loop. These pressures are a
fraction of PMAX as presented in the table below;
Table 2.4. Pressure magnitudes for each stage in Lugeon Test.
Description
Pressure Step
1st stage
Low
0.5 PMAX
2nd stage
Medium
0.75 PMAX
3rd stage
Maximum
PMAX
4th stage
Medium
0.75 PMAX
5th stage
low
0.5 PMAX
Lugeon values; during the execution of each stage, both water pressure (P) and flow rate (q)
values are recorded every minute. Subsequently, average values for P and q are then used to
compute the hydraulic conductivity for each stage. The hydraulic conductivity is expressed in
terms of the Lugeon value, which is empirically defined as the hydraulic conductivity required to
achieve a flow rate of 1 litre/minute per meter of test interval under a reference water pressure
equal to 1 Megapascal (MPa)
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Table 2.5. A graphic summary of the five behavior groups defined by Houlsby (1976), as well as
the representative Lugeon value that should be reported for each group.
Table below describes conditions associated with different Lugeon values, as well as the typical
precision used to report these values. ( Houlsby, A. 1976)
Table 2.6. Properties of rock masses according to lugeon range.
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SPI = C
Ln
2le
+1 Q
r
2le
Ht
Where:
SPI (Secondary Permeability Index) - l/s per m2 of borehole test surface.
C - constant depending upon viscosity for an assumed temperature of rock at 100 C ,
1.4910-10 (Snow, 1968).
le-
r-
Q-
T-
H-
The SPI establishes a new permeability based rock mass classification (Table 2.5.3.a.). Based on
this classification, different considerations regarding ground treatment are proposed (Foyo et al.
2005). The proposed classification differs from classical geomechanical classifications.
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Most critically, it does not reflect the strength of the intact rock. Instead, the classification
defines the quality of the rock mass based on the permeability of the discontinuities (Foyo et al.
2005).
Table 2.7. Rock mass classification based on the SPI and ground treatment considerations (Foyo
et al. 2005)
Secondary Permeability Index, SPI (1/s m2)
< 2.16 10-14
2.16 10-14
1.72 10-13
1.72 10-12
Rock mass
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Classification
Excellent
GoodFair
Poor
Very poor
Ground
Needless
Local
Required
Extensive
Treatment
CB/BFS has a cured UCS of about 50 to 200 psi and a permeability of about 1
x10-7cm/sec.
Fully cured is usually assume to be 90 days, but CB cures over a long period.
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3. CASE STUDIES
3.1. THETA DAM, KENYA
3.1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Theta dam was constructed on Theta Basin within Kikuyu escarpment located about 80 km from
Nairobi, Kenya. The dam site is at a confluence of two streams and was constructed for the
purposes of providing domestic water supply to approximately 50,000 people near the vicinity.
This dam is 17 m high with an axis which was 63 metres in length.
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which are predominantly tuffs and are divided into upper, middle and lower Kerichwa valley
tuffs. The volcanics overlie the Basement rocks at a relatively greater depth. Although the area is
characterised by minor faults, no major fault has been positively identified. (Athi water Services
Board, 2010)
Figure 3.2. Resistivity values within the different strata located at different depths along dam
axis.
High resistivity values indicate areas of high density or compact material which have low
permeability while low values imply high permeability. It is clear from the profile that a region
of high permeability existed below the dam axis and core drilling as well as permeability tests
were conducted to confirm this.
Four exploratory holes were drilled along the dam axis with cores being recovered. Recovery of
cores confirmed the geophysical survey.
The permeability of the soil material at the site ranged between 4.6 x 10-6 to 4.9 x
10-8 cm/s (low to very low) and the percentage of fines is at least 80%.
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There was a zone of high porosity which could have been due to rock fissures or presence of an
aquifer. However due to lack of significant faulting activity in the area the particular zone was
probably an aquifer.
3.1.4 DESIGN, METHODS AND CONSTRUCTION
The zone of low resistivity was a cause for concern since water would seep under the dam unless
measures were taken. It was proposed to construct a curtain grout along the dam axis. Primary
holes were 9 spaced 8m apart with Secondary holes 8 in number placed in between the primary
holes. Two raking holes were also done at each end of the axis; one inclined at 55 degrees and
the other inclined at 63 degrees from the horizontal.
The accepted formula for highest pressure used in Kenya is:
P= (2/3) H
Grout mix comprised 100 litre of water for 1 bag of cement (50 kg) and 2.5 kg of bentonite.
This translated to 5% bentonite in cement grout for the primary holes.
The table below shows the summary of the proposed grout holes and to which depth they were
made. Grout holes with the prefix P are primary in nature while those with the prefix S are
secondary.
Table 3.1. Grout holes made along dam axis.
Chainage along dam axis (m)
0 + 000
P1
10
0 + 005
S1
10
0 + 010
P2
60
0 + 015
S2
20
0 + 020
P3
60
0 + 022.5
S3
60
0 + 025
P4
50
0 + 027.5
S4
50
0 + 030
P5
60
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0 + 035
S5
50
0 + 040
P6
60
0 + 044
S6
20
0 + 048
P7
30
0 + 052
S7
10
0 + 056
P8
10
0 + 060
S8
10
0 + 063
P9
10
3.1.5 RESULTS
Eight primary holes were grouted with the exception of P3 which was used as a test hole. The
results of the lugeon test are tabulated below
Table 3.2 Lugeon values attained before and after grouting.
Borehole chainage
0+ 020 (P3)
(m)
grouting.
grouting
0-5
10.42
1.681
5-10
11.68
2.643
10-15
10.75
1.678
15-20
1.75
1.595
20-25
1.24
6.657
25-30
0.28
0.089
30-35
9.17
2.530
35-40
89.95
27.458
40-45
23.23
5.056
45-50
12.32
2.509
50-55
0.16
0.432
55-60
1.59
0.205
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The results above prove that grouting was effective. However, not all Lugoen values were below
5. The zone 35-40 which recorded the largest values was assumed to be where resistivity was
lowest.
Unfortunately Packer tests done at the secondary holes showed Lugeon values greater than 5.
The main cause for this was cited as high pressure used during grouting as well as the aquifer
which transported the grout mix downstream (bleeding) hence significant setting of the material
had not occurred. There were also instances of borehole collapse due to the weak nature of
underground material.
This prompted design mix alteration to up to 20% bentonite in cement grout and reduction of
pressures used in grouting of the secondary grouting holes.
Grouting of the secondary grout holes was conducted so that lugeon values would be less than 5.
The two raking holes were then drilled and water pressure tests conducted. Grout material was
recovered in the cores and the Lugeon values were found out to be less than 2.
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Figure 3.4. Plan view of transverse shear walls (units in ft, 1m=3.28ft)
Figure 3.5. Side view of transverse shear walls (units in ft, 1 m=3.28 ft)
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In order to install the walls, a working platform was constructed on the downstream slope of the
dam. The working platform was constructed of predominantly sand with an aggregate surface.
Two kinds of mixes were used; cement consisting of a 50/50 mixture of Portland cement and
ground granulated blast furnace slag (slag). Additionally, a 25/75 Portland cement to slag cement
mix-ratio was used in a small number of walls.
Both mixes included a 5 percent bentonite component. A laboratory investigation was conducted
on recovered samples obtained from production walls (initially they were test walls) to determine
the large-strain, or post-peak, shear strength of the hardened cement-bentonite material.The
results of the laboratory investigation were required for use in limit-equilibrium slope stability
analyses used to design the shear walls and numerical deformation modeling to assess the
earthquake induced permanent deformation of the dam and foundation materials. For the
majority of the production work, unconfined compression tests were used to validate the design.
Construction of the Cement Bentonite wall was done by simultaneously excavating material and
replacing with Walls were constructed by excavating and simultaneously placing self hardening
cement bentonite slurry in the trenches. By continuously placing slurry into the excavation, the
trench would remain open during construction of the wall. Walls were oriented transverse to the
axis of the dam. Walls were typically 3 or 4 feet wide, 45 feet long, and approximately 65 feet
deep.
The slurry level in the walls was observed to drop during cure. The observed drop was a
combination of slurry permeation into the adjacent soil and slurry bleed during curing. The walls
were topped off with fresh slurry daily to account for drop during curing. Total slurry drop was
typically 10% of wall depth.
3.2.4 SAMPLING AND TESTING
This was performed on an onsite batching plant, on the fluid slurry as well as on hardened
material via core drilling. Fluid slurry samples were cast in 3-in by 6-in cylinders. The samples
were originally stored in a 100-percent humidity curing room until being tested for unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) stored submerged under water until UCS testing.
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Coring was conducted on 92% of walls in the test section, and approximately 40% of walls in the
remainder of construction. Walls were typically cored between 60 and 90 days after construction,
but some were cored as early as 28 days and as late as 200 days to observe strength changes with
time.
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The majority of the tests occurred within the 90 day time frame. Walls constructed with 75%
slag content exhibited significantly higher strength than walls of the same cement water (c/w)
ratio constructed with 50% slag content. Strength generally increased with increase in depth and
this was attributed to the increase in specific gravity of the zone examined. (Amod K. Koirala et
all, 2011)
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The mudstone layers at levels below the river have been given negative numbers (-1, -2 and -3)
and those above the river have been attributed positive values (+1, +2, +3 and +4)
Figure 3.9. Longitudinal cross section of Karkheh dam. Hatched area represents the extension
of cutoff wall. The figure is exaggerated in the vertical direction.
The composition of mudstone layers is also variable between the clay rock and sandy-silty rock.
The estimated permeability of the mudstones is between 10-7 and 10-10 m/s. Geotechnical
investigations and observations indicated that these layers are continuous enough at the location
of dam to provide different strata for each conglomerate layer confined by mudstone layers
Due to the high permeability of conglomerate layers, a vertical foundation water sealing system
was required to control water flow to downstream, to reduce exit hydraulic gradient, to prevent
high measure of leakage, to decrease the uplift pressure, and finally to provide associate stability
of the dam body and its hydraulic structures.
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Enormous studies and investigations were carried out leading to design of a plastic concrete
cutoff wall as the main part of the dam foundation water-tightening system.
Therefore a plastic concrete cutoff wall with thickness of 0.8 to 1.0 meter was performed
throughout the dam axis. At different locations of dam, the depth of wall was determined
regarding seepage analysis, construction ability and economical factors
Figure 3.10. Karkheh dam cutoff walls and the location of the probable chemical grouting
curtain.
The dam monitoring data indicated that the cutoff wall rerouted the seepage flow into
preferable paths (sufficiently far) and as a result reduction in the seepage discharge, hydraulic
gradient and pore pressure in the rock masses was obtained which all together provide more
suitable conditions for the stability of the powerhouse slopes.
But in the access gallery 950, the situation was not as successful. Observations showed water
leakage in this section to be higher than anticipated. To remedy the problem of seepage in this
part of dam foundation, the other existing alternative was chemical grouting.
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As the permeability of the formation is around 10-5 cm/sec, a silicate-base chemical grout was
assessed to be a suitable type of grouting of the conglomerate formation. (Heidarzadeh et all)
However, there was no experience of chemical grouting in the country as well as a lack of any
published work on chemical grouting of conglomerate formations. Therefore, ambiguities were
associated with the design and construction of the Karkheh dam chemical grout curtain. To
overcome part of these ambiguities, prior to the main chemical grouting, testing programs were
performed to evaluate the performance of the method in the water sealing of the area using a
combination of field and laboratory tests. At first, extensive site trials and laboratory tests were
carried out to develop an effective grout mix. In these laboratory tests the chemical grouts alone
were examined with regard to viscosity-time behavior, gelation time, temperature-influence,
stability, and deformability. These laboratory tests, led to the selection of the final chemical
grout which was a solution of sodium silicate, water, and ethyl acetate as reactant. This grout
system widely known as sodium silicate system is the most popular chemical grout system
because of its safety and environmental compatibility.
The only concern was that sodium salts can leach from gelled silicate and raise the pH of the
surrounding environment. This was considered to be a relatively small issue.
The second step tested grout-soil interaction: The ease of injection and permeability reduction of
the selected chemical grout was examined in field injection tests. In this step two field tests were
performed including shallow test holes without hydrostatic pressure and full scale tests under
dam real hydrostatic pressure head.
The concentration of the silicate solution which was selected for use in Karkheh dam
ranged between 37%. Such grouts would have viscosity of up to 3 cP(0.003Ns/m2), which was
suitable for the encountered formation.
In phase 1 of test chemical grouting, shallow test holes with depths ranging between 4 to 5
meters were used which did not undergo any hydrostatic pressure. These grouting holes each
having 101 mm diameters were drilled in the corners and side midpoints of an equilateral
triangle located near gallery 950.
As can be seen in the figure 3.11, a test hole named CH (Control Hole) was drilled in the center
of the triangle to be used for water pressure test to assess the effectiveness of the process.
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Figure 3.11. Sketch showing the triangular placement of shallow test holes in phase 1 of test
chemical grouting.
The Complex Curtain Method(CCM)
Cement-bentonite grouting was done followed by sodium silicate chemical grouting in alternate
sections of the holes. At first all grouting sections would be injected by cementitious grouts. In
the next stage, the remaining section would then be treated by the injection of chemical grouts.
(A.A. Mirghasemi et all)
49
3.3.4 RESULTS
Chemical grout from design grout mix was injected into holes S1, S2 and S3. In this stage, the
permeability test was taken in the intermediate holes S5, S6 and S7 indicated that the
permeability varied from 70 to 102.5 Lugeons. Finally, after injection of chemical grouts in all
test holes, the permeability at the Control Hole (CH) showed the value of 73 Lugeons, which was
more than the acceptable limit of about 5 Lugeons. Results of performed chemical grouting in
triangular test holes indicated that improvement of conglomerate formation was not satisfactory.
It can be inferred that some cavities or perforations remained untapped or untreated.
Table 3.3. Summary of grouting in phase 1 test holes (che.gro. chemical grouting).
The technique of chemical grouting was effective for clogging of small voids and the
developed silica gels could not resist against water flow in large openings. In other words,
it was found that for treatment of a medium having both large and small voids like conglomerate
formations, a combination of chemical and cementitious grouting was employed in order to fill
small and large openings respectively.
Water pressure test was conducted on test hole S4 and the results attained are tabulated below.
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4. DISCUSSION
As more development takes place in the world, it has become increasingly hard to find an ideal
site for projects. An ideal site would have a sound foundation such that a project could be
constructed and function as expected. Unfortunately this is not always the case and more
important factors such as available land and resources required for operation and maintenance
override the need to have a sound foundation on site.
As a consequence, a site with a weak foundation may be chosen and that foundation improved to
achieve the standards and specifications needed to construct a dam. While other methods such as
sheet piling and cutoff trenches are suitable, grouting offers the least disruptive method of
dealing with weak foundations.
Data obtained from Theta dam show that grouting in primary holes using cement bentonite
sealed the pores in the foundation and reduced permeability from 89.95 lugeons to 27.46 lugeons
in the most permeable zone.
Bentonite in the grout mix was then increased to improve its sealing characteristics. The second
stage of grouting in secondary holes reduced permeability to values below 2 Lugeons which was
within the accepted range of less than 5 Lugeons.
This indicated that grouting using cement bentonite was successful. Grouting in subsequent
stages reduces the amount of material used. Such a technique initiates a self-checking
mechanism to ensure the permeability sought is attained since tests were done after each stage to
confirm permeability achieved before proceeding.
In Turtle Creek dam, grouting using cement bentonite material was done using walls rather than
grout holes. This ensured that the foundation would be strong enough to provide support and
resistance to the dam in the event of an earthquake. Results from Unconfined Compressive
Strength(UCS) tests showed sample material to have achieved sufficient strength to withstand
the Maximum Credible Earthquake expected(6.7). This was due to the increased strength of the
foundation which also made it more stable.
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The cement bentonite grouts were considered highly effective for conglomerate foundations such
as in Karkheh dam thus it was used. Test results confirmed that Lugeon values dropped from 70
to 29 in control hole 4. This is a difference in 41 Lugeon values which was a lot but still not
within the acceptable range.
Sodium Silicate grouts were used to seal small pores hence offered more effective hydraulic
resistance to seepage within the foundation. Water pressure tests conducted showed a change in
Lugeon values from 29 to 1.2 in control hole 4. This Lugeon value was within the accepted range
thus grouting was successful.
The use of sodium silicate solutions are generally considered to be non-toxic and noncorrosive.
They are considered to be free of health hazards and environmental effects. However, sodium
salts can leach from gelled silicate and raise the pH of the surrounding environment.
Combining different kinds of grouts was ideal since cement bentonite sealed the large pores
found in conglomerate foundations. The remaining pores were small hence a lower rate of
bleeding would occur during grouting which was economical. These pores were sealed with
chemical grout which through which reduced permeability hence seepage was negligible.
However cementitous grouts supposedly degrade at a faster rate than the other kinds of material
available and are a relatively short term solution to problems including seepage and stability.
In respect to dams it may be theorized that this degradation may have little effect on the
functionality as:
Sediments will fill up the dam and reduce its capacity to the point where the dam is not
useful. By this point, degradations will not matter since the project lifespan will have
ended.
After a period of time, earth movements and compressibility of sediments will cause
stratification. This may in turn retard the increase in permeability caused by degradation
to levels that are acceptable.
With the exception of sodium silicate grouts, most kind of chemical grouts provide potentially
harmful and irreversible side effects. It is this nature that requires specialized technology in its
use. . This especially applies to developing nations which may not have the correct technology to
successfully and safely conduct chemical grouting. Lowered viscosity and longer time to gel
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increases risk of water contamination. Workers suffer risk from exposure and there is no exact
way to quantify the exact risks involved.
Emulsion grouts require greater expertise to use since the bitumen in the mix must be heated to
high temperatures (120o Celsius- 140o Celsius). Unfortunately the fumes emitted during this
exercise are harmful if inhaled thus endanger workers and pollute the air. In addition, the worlds
petroleum reserves are finite thus;
Bitumen becomes more expensive to attain due to becoming high demand. Financial
project constraints which are a feature in most projects could eliminate emulsion grout as
a material to be used.
Bitumen has other uses such as in road construction which may unfortunately take
priority over the field of grouting.
As with most engineering, a balance is sought such that the project under construction may be as
useful as possible while creating the least damage possible.
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5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
New materials should be considered to deal with the challenges surrounding grouting. While the
advancements made so far are impressive, more must be done.
Use of new techniques in grouting should be encouraged of instead of purely relying on the tried
methods. Although new methods are risky, they could provide better advantages.
Information should be made more readily available on such procedures since with increase in
population more sites are made to be ideal instead of searching for the ideal site.
Research on projects involving new techniques and material used should be encouraged. Testing
on different kinds of grouts and their variants should be considered. This will increase improve
options available for consideration on grouting.
Probable measures to reduce side effects of chemical grouting should be investigated to ensure
safety for future generations.
Ambiguity in projects involving grouting should be avoided in order to increase accountability
and credibility. It will also help to effectively monitor any changes and effects(both long-term
and short-term) that occur.
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REFRENCES
A.A. Mirghasemi, Mahab Ghodss Co. and University of Tehran, Iran M. Pakzad, Mahab
Ghodss Co., Iran B. Shadravan, University of Ottawa, Canada - The worlds largest
cutoff wall at Karkheh dam.
Amod K. Koirala, Ph.D., Glen M. Bellew, P.E., John C. Dillon, P.E., David L. Mathews,
P.E., 21stCenturyDamDesign Advances and Adaptations 31st Annual United States
Society on Dams Conference San Diego,California,April11-15,2011
Braja M. Das (2002) Soil mechanics Laboratory Manual 6th edition Oxford University
Press.
Defense Agencies, U.S.A. (1990)- Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) Grouting methods
and equipment.
European Union, Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Notification Unit(28 January 2002) Strategy For Limiting Risks(Workers: Methacrylic Acid,
Environment: Methacrylic Acid /Acrylic Acid Used in Chemical Grouts) Revised Draft
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Lagerlund ,Johan (2009) - Remedial Injection Grouting of Embankment Dams With NonHardening Grouts. Licentiate Thesis, Stockholm.
Look, Burk (2007)- Handbook of geotechnical Engineering, Taylor and Francis Group
London UK.
Musset, Alan E; Khan, M. Aftab (2000) - Looking into the Earth: An introduction to
geological physics, Cambridge University Press.
V.N.S. Murthy, Principles and practices of soil mechanics and soil engineering
Geotechnical engineering.
Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tcdam-fromwest.jpg.
www.donegan.co.uk.
www.ikonet.com.
www.wikipedia.com
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