Peyotl and Mescaline

WESTON LA BARRE, PH.D.*

Although only more recently studied than the well

known mescaline-containing peyote cactus (Lophophora
williamsii) of North America, the use of mescalinecontaining Cactaccae in South America now appears to be
far older archeologically. Four Andean Trichocereus
species contain the hallucinogenic drug mescaline: 7'.
macrogonus; T. terscbeckii; T. werdermannianus; and T.
pachanoi. Of these, the last is the most important
ethnographically. Trichocereus pachanoi is a smooth,
ribbed, comparatively slender, night-blooming, columnar
species of cactus which was located in Andean Ecuador by
Britton and Rose in 1920; in 1959 the German botanist Curt
Backeberg extended this area to include northern Peru and
Bolivia.
In Peru this Trichocereus is known in folk medicine as
"San Pedro" and in Ecuador as aguacolla. San Pedro als
forms a part of the hallucinogenic drink cimora, which also
includes other Cactaceae and a datura. The mescaline
content of San Pedro is about 0.12 percent of the green
plant and two percent when dried. In 1939 the Swedish
pharmacologist Stig Agurell discovered seven other
alkaloids in the plant but these occur in insignificant
quantities.
Peruvian medicine men most commonly use a sevenribbed San Pedro cactus in their shamanistic cures. But the
rarer four-ribbed specimens, like a four-leaved clover, are
regarded as especially lucky and powerful, because these
symbolize the "four winds" and "four
*James B. Duke Professor of Anthropology, Duke
University, Durham, North Carolina 27706.

Journal of Psychedelic Drugs

roads," where there are supernatural powers associated with

the cardinal points that are invoked during rituals.
Preparation of the medicine is simple. Four cacti (the
thinnest are the best), bought in the local native herb
market, are sliced like a loaf of bread and boiled for seven
hours in a five-gallon can of water. The completed brew,
usually with nothing else added, is placed among the
numerous other articles on the shaman's "mesa" or
medicine altar. However, for illnesses thought to be caused
by black magic, powdered bones, dust from a cemetery and
dirt from archeological ruins are added; and sometimes also
four kinds of bornarno (blanco, amarillo, morado and cuti)
as well as condor purga condorilia (yerba de la justicia or
majoraha) and other unidentified plants are boiled
separately and added later to the San Pedro drink.
"Floripondio" (Datura arborea) is added by many
curanderos in the Chiclaya region. The mescaline and other
drugs in these brews can be counted on to produce visual
and other hallucinations-sure signs for American Indians
that they are in the presence of supernatural powers.
The great antiquity of San Pedro use in aboriginal
Peru is well attested. The earliest depiction is found on
an incised block of stone recently excavated from the
sunken plaza in the court of the Old Temple at Chavin
de Huantar in the north Peruvian highlands. The
specimen referred to dates from about 1300 B.C. or
early in the Chavin period. The carving shows the
principal Chavin deity, an anthropomorphic mythical
being with snakes for hair, fangs and a two-headed
serpent belt, harpy eagle claws and holding in its

Vol. 11(1-2) Jan-Jun, 1979

LA BARRE
outstretched right hand a four-ribbed San Pedro cactus.
Chavin textiles recently discovered in coastal southern Peru
show the cactus associated with a hummingbird and a feline
animal - which in much of South America is the animalfamiliar into which the medicine man is thought to be able to
metamorphose. Ceramic representations, often associated
with deer, are datable circa 1000-700 B.C. Five other Chavin
vessels, dating from circa 700-500 B.C., show the cactus
with jaguars. Another, of similar date, I suggest may depict
the use of San Pedro infusion as an enema.
Other finds showing the San Pedro cactus are of later
date: Nazca urns of about 100 B.C.-700 A.D.; Salinar
ceramics (circa 400-200 B.C.); Moche (circa 100 B.C.-700
A.D.)- in the last style often showing a shawl-clad, owl-faced
female shamaness. Chimu vessels dating 700-1745 A.D. still
depict the San Pedro cactus, the use of which persisted in the
colonial period, despite efforts to suppress it. Our earliest
written documents on San Pedro are 17th century. In 1631
Father Oliva described tile ritual usc of huachuma or San
Pedro, as in 1653 did Father Cobo both expressing Church
hostility to traditional folk healing which has, however,
continued into modern times. The folk-medical use of this
mescaline-containing cactus therefore spans some 33
centuries of continuous employment (Sharon 1978; Schultes
1977b; La Barre 1974; Furst 1972; de Rios 1969, 1968).
By contrast, in North America the use of another
mescaline-containing cactus, Lophophora williamsii or
peyote, can at present be Cl4-dated only to 810-1070 A.D. In
1941 Walter Taylor (1966) excavated a peyote-button
necklace in a Mayan mortuary-complex cave site (CM-79).
One of the oldest materials ever submitted to alkaloid
analysis,
through
thin-layer
chromatography,
gas
chromatography and mass spectrometry, this specimen from
west-central Coahuila somewhat surprisingly still contained
identifiable mescaline, anhalonine, lophophorine, pellotine
and anhalonidine. In suitably dry sites, alkaloids persist for
remarkably long periods: Ilex guayusa leaves from a
medicine man's tomb in Bolivia, Cl4-dated to 375 A.D., still
contained caffeine and traces of nicotine were identified from
a tobacco sample in the same tomb (Bruhn et al. 1978).
The peyote cactus is a small, spineless, carrot-shaped,
mostly subterranean gray-green cactus; only the small
pincushion-like top of which protrudes above the ground.
The radial (sometimes spiral, sometimes sinuous), rounded
superficial ribs contain small tufts like grayish artist
paintbrushes in rows from which the name Lopbophora,
"crest-bearing," is taken. Cut off transversely at about ground
level and dried, "peyote buttons" are obtained, hard-corky
Journal of Psychedelic Drugs

PEYOTL & MESCALINE

and bitter-nauseous in taste. (The misnamed "peyote bean" is
entirely different, being the "Red Bean" Sophora
secundiflora; nor is "mescal" bean or button a very good
name, since mescal proper is the giant non-cactaceous
succulent Agave americana, the mucilaginous sap of which
is brewed into the national drink of the Mexican poor,
pulque beer, often distilled into the familiar tequila
whiskey.)
Peyote grows wild from the Rio Grande southwestward
into much of northern Mexico. In pre-Columbian times
peyote was used by the Tepehuane, Tarahumare, Nahuatl
(Aztec) and other Mexican tribes-among whom the presentday Huichol have perhaps best preserved the prehistoric
ritual, which was a first-fruits ceremony using parched or
popped corn in honey-water, stoneless fruits and boneless
meat. Huichol peyote is symbolically equated with "Elder
Brother Deer" and the first specimen found on the days-long
ritual pilgrimage to find peyote is shot with a bow and arrow
by the presiding shaman as though the plant were a deer.
Quantities of the green plant are consumed at night by
communicants sitting around "Grandfather Fire," another
ancient Huichol supernatural figure.
Although the aboriginal tribes of Texas and
northwestern Mexico are even now very poorly known, from
the first of my studies 40 years ago this area has seemed to
me the place of origin of the peyote religion in the United
States, which later archeological and ethnographic evidence
appears to have confirmed. The extraordinarily complete
fieldwork of Morris Opler has suggested to some
anthropologists that peyote came to the United States via the
Mescalero Apache (La Barre 1975). But the ritual use of
peyote in the Pueblo and Athapaskan Southwest has always
had a tough time, even among the Mescalero, among whom
peyotism is said now to be extinct. The Texan Lipan are a
likelier Apache group and, even more probably, the
Tonkawa and other little-known tribes in Texas and
northeastern Mexico. For example, E1 Paso and Eagle Pass
are still the border points of heaviest international trade in
the harvested plants (Morgan 1976); and sehi, the Kiowa
word for peyote, is a Quer6taro term in Mexico (Bruhn &
Holmstedt 1974; Diguet 1907).
The ritual use of peyote in central Mexico is
documented from the 16th century, in northwestern
Mexico and bordering Texas from the 17th century and in
parts of the southern Plains from the 18th century.
Although the major spread of the peyote cult occurred
after the failure of the Ghost Dance movement to get rid
of the White man, and after the Sioux Uprising of 1890,

Vol. 11 (1-2) Jan-Jun, 1979

LA BARRE
I now believe with Omer Stewart (1974, 1972) that the key
tribes for later diffusion, the Kiowa and the Comanche,
certainly had peyote by 1870 and perhaps before. In the
20th century peyotism has spread over the Plains northward
to Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Canada and westward to
Nevada-central California tribes besides taking in many of
the Algonkian-speaking residual-reservation tribes from the
Midwest and Eastern woodlands. Over 250,000 Indians, in
as many as two or three dozen tribes, now practice the
peyote ritual of the so-called "Native American Church."
Anthropologists, notably Stewart and Aberle, have
consistently and successfully defended the aboriginal use of
peyote, which current laws now specifically exempt from
regulation.
The principal significance in eating the peyote cactus is
that the mescaline contained in it induces spectacular visual
hallucinations in color, which are regarded (after the
aboriginal pattern of the vision quest) as direct contacts
with the supernatural, the manitou of the Algonkians, the
wakan of the Siouans, the orenda of the lroquoians and so
forth. Typical visions might be of a dog with a clam-shell
head, which it opens and closes ridiculously as it tries to
support itself on duck-headed feet, and the visionary may
be hard-put to suppress unseemly laughter. Both Indian and
White users have reported frightening and rather paranoid
experiences while under the influence of peyote. Sometimes
the visions may be abstract, as of fields of sparkling manycolored jewels, or of vast cosmic curtains undulating like an
aurora borealis. In one meeting, the drum handle (made of
excess lacing wound into a kind of handle) looked to me
like a Gila monster, though I was intellectually aware it was
not and was not frightened, Hallucinations in other sensory
modalities (auditory, olfactory and the like) are not
uncommon, including synesthetic hallucinations (as when
one Indian heard the sun coming up with a roar) and even
kinesthetic sensations (as when another participant felt he
was lifted up into the air by the sound of the drumming).
Anciently Indians went out alone on the vision quest for
supernatural "medicine" power; with peyote people can
have an assembled vision quest largely guaranteed
pharmacologically.
In the standard Kiowa-Comanche peyote ritual of
the Plains, the Indians, often from several tribes, gather
about dusk in a circle within a large tipi (sometimes
there is a second, concentric circle of women behind the
men) around a central fire. The fire, built of sticks like
interlaced fingers, with the opening eastward toward the
tipi door, burns within the horns of a crescent-shaped
earth altar, with a "peyote road" groove symbolizing the

Journal of Psychedelic Drugs

PEYOTL & MESCALINE

individual life span along its top and a fetish "Father
Peyote" placed on its center crest. West of the altar, in the
traditional place of honor, sits the presiding shaman or
"Road Chief," assisted by his "Drum Chief." Another
assistant, the "Cedar Chief," sprinkles cedar shavings on the
fire, in the smoke of which everyone censes himself/herself,
rubbing the smoke over the arms and legs, chest and head.
Sometimes the sagebrush (Artemisia) on which
communicants sit is similarly rubbed on the body.
The Fire Chicf sits north of the eastern door of the tipi
and during the night he shapes the ashes from the fire into a
"water bird" (cormorant-messenger) or "Thunderbird."
When the Road Chief passes around oblong-cut, dried
cornhusk or blackjack-oak leaves and tobacco (Bull
Durham is ritually required), participants each roll a
cigarette, lighted by a carved firestick provided by the Fire
Chief. The smoking is regarded as individual prayer to the
Father Peyote. All movements within the tipi must be
"sunwise" or clockwise and it is bad manners to pass
between a smoker and the altar thus interrupting the prayer.
But at other times, on permission from the Road Chief, a
person may leave in clockwise circuit under strict necessity,
such as vomiting from eating too much peyote.
The Road Chief sings the "Opening Song," which
tends to be the same traditional one all over the Plains,
holding the shaman's staff in the left hand and shaking a
sacred gourd-rattle (often carved with some peyote
symbolisms and beaded on the handle) in the right hand,
after which each person begins with eating four buttons (the
Plains ritual number) to thc singing of individual peyote
songs, often "caught" during an earlier meeting. The singer
holds thc shaman's staff and rattle which arc always passed
to the left, singing to the accompaniment of the Drum Chief
(first for the Road Chief and then in succession by the
drum-partner to one's right). The drum is made of a small
Sears-Roebuck, three-legged iron kettle, half-filled with
water and four quenched coals symbolizing lightning as the
drumming symbolizes thunder. The deerskin drumhead is
laced and secured under the kettle in a Morning Star pattern
over seven stone bosses. Since each person sings four
songs, a circuit of four times around a moderately large
meeting takes almost all night.
At midnight the Road Chief sings the "Midnight
Song," calling back the staff and the drum from
wherever it is at the time; possibly for Freudian reasons,
the drum-kettle must always be passed under the
shaman's staff. Then the Road Chief goes outside the
tipi, whistles at the cardinal points with an eagle
wingbone whistle, at which time communicants may

Vol. 11(1-2) Jan-Jun, 1979

LA BARRE

leave briefly, always clockwise, for micturition. Toward

dawn the lively and favorite "Morning Song" is sung by the
Road Chief after which the ritual breakfast is brought in and
placed in line from the fire west-to-east in this order: water;
parched corn in honey-water; stoneless fruit; and boneless
meat. (One of my fellow ethnographers reported a Northern
Cheyenne meeting in which the ritual meal consisted of
Cracker Jack, canned peaches and canned corn beef - yet it
must be admitted that these still fulfilled the requirements of
the ancient Mexican ritual of parched corn in honey-water,
stoneless fruit and boneless meat.) Sometimes an honored
White person is given a fork or spoon to eat with, but I soon
learned to sit as the first person south of the door and could
thus eat hygienically with fingers in approved Indian
fashion, being thus the first to eat from the enameled and
figure-painted food vessels. After everyone has catch in
clockwise order, the Road Chief sings the "Closing Sting,"
and people may then pass into the morning sunlight.
During the forenoon after a meeting, the men lounge
undcr a ramada or willow-thatched shade, recounting their
peyote visions and consulting one another about possible
meanings. About noon a secular and more ample meal is
served by the women, under the tutelage of the Road Chief's
wife, who represents "Peyote Woman" of the origin legend.
Usually the food is provided by the Road Chief, or by some
individual who has "vowed" the meeting for a cure or some
other special purpose, but others may and do contribute to
the cost of food and of the peyote imported from Mexico. If
not all eaten, the food, according to good manners, is taken
home by the participants, and the peyote meeting is over.
Meetings are usually held in a Saturday night; afterward
there is ample time on Sunday for participants to return
home, sometimes from an appreciable distance. There is no
after-effect that cannot be imputed to fatigue from a
sleepless night.
There is some ethnographic and archeological evidence
that a "Red Bean Cult," using Sopbora secundiflora beans,
preceded the diffusion of peyotism in trans-Pecos Texas and
in the Plains. This, however, was a male-initiation ceremony
limited to a half-dozen tribes and shared traits too unspecific
to have influenced the essentially Mexican-Texas form of
the peyote rite. Besides, there has been some question
whether the Red Bean, which is highly toxic, contains a true
hallucinogen; the ethnobotanist William Merrill (1977) has
cautioned us that, beyond the ritual use in a scant dozen
tribes, the mere presence of mescal-bean artifacts in several
dozen tribes does not establish use as an hallucinogen. The
archeologist Newcomb (1967), however, has argued

Journal of Psychedelic Drugs

PEYOTL & MESCALINE

convincingly that the rock art of Texas Indians in the Pecos

River Style was associated with the use of the mescal bean
by a medicine society. The archeological sequence in the
Mexico-Texas region appears to be, from the bottom up, the
use of: Ungnadia speciosa or Texas buckeye (which is,
however, highly toxic); next, Sophora secundiflora or the
Red Bean; and finally, peyote or Lophophora williamsii.
Adovasio and Fry (1976) make the highly plausible
suggestion that Indians substituted successively less toxic
and more effective hallucinogenic plants over prehistoric
times. The place of psilocybin mushrooms, which are quite
non-toxic but which are not reported archeologically from
this same northeastern region, would be most interesting in
this sequence. But their earliest occurrence appears to be in
highland Guatemala as testified by the "mushroom stones"
of Borhegyi (1961).
Mescaline is not notably toxic, though use of synthetic
mescaline causes protracted stomach cramps in some
individuals. There are no known human deaths from the use
of mescaline or of pan-peyotl, though Indian users boast
that they have eaten 30 or more buttons at one meeting,
lndians commonly believe that the use of peyote cures
alcoholism, but I consider that the reasons for this are at
best psychological. However, the drinking of alcohol with
peyote might easily result in vomiting. Lophopbora
williamsii is now known to contain more than 30 alkaloids
and their amine derivatives- an unusual number, even for a
cactus- which has led Schultes to call peyote a veritable
chemical factory. These alkaloids are mostly phenethylamines and the biogenetically-related simple isoquinolines.
Mescaline itself is a phenethylamine and is the chief
substance producing "hallucinations in Technicolor.''
Because of this pharmacodynamic fact, young
persons of the counterculture took up mescaline in the
1960s, among other hallucinogens like LSD. It is doubtful,
however,
whether
they
very
often
actually
obtained mescaline. The Toronto-based Addiction
Research Foundation found that none of the 23 street-drug
samples they collected, sold as "mescaline," actually
contained any of this substance; my former student, Dr.
Frances Cheek of the New Jersey Neuro-Psychiatric
Institute in Princeton, in a three-year sampling of East
Coast street drugs, found that none sold as "mescaline"
actually contained it in pure form (STASH Staff 1974).
Indian tribes have persistently stated that there were
two kinds of peyote, but since their distinction was based
on a folkloristic male/female dichotomy in a nondioecious cactus, their contention was largely

Vol. 11 (1-2) Jan-Jun, 1979

LA BARRE
dismissed. An earlier belief in two botanical species of
Lophophora was destroyed taxonomically by the
observation of the two supposed species growing from the
same root. It is therefore most interesting that Edward F.
Anderson (1970, 1959) has now established to the
satisfaction of botanists that there are two species of peyote,
Lophophora williamsii and L. diffusa- the latter of more
restricted provenience within the area of the former and
perhaps phylogenetically ancestral to it.
Dr. John Raleigh Briggs of Dallas, Texas first brought
peyote to the attention of doctors in 1887. In Bartlett's
Dictionary of Americanisms (Third edition, 1860), there is
reference under "Whiskey Root" to what was probably
peyote, and some soldiers in Civil War times evidently
knew the plant. The celebrated traveler, Sir Richard Burton,
compared peyote to fly agaric (Araanita muscaria), which
is "surely the first such comparison" (Bruhn & Holmstedt
1974). Mrs. Anna B. Nickels of Laredo, Texas was the next
supplier after Briggs to the pharmaceutical firm of ParkeDavis. An earlier puzzle arising from Heffter's negative
results can probably best be explained by his having been
furnished with plants obtained in Querataro, that is, with
Lophophora diffusa, 90 percent of the alkaloids of which
are pellotine with almost no mescaline (Bruhn & lIolmstedt
1974). Another medically interesting point is that Furst and
Coe (1977) believe the Maya and Huichol Indians both
used peyote in an enema infusion. This would parallel a
possible similar usage of Trichocereus pachanoi in Peru, as
I have conjectured earlier.
Ever since the pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus,
western science has accepted as veritable evidence only
intersubjectively-accessible information. But, just as
plainly, shamanistic and other religious revelation has relied
heavily upon the overwhelming individual vision as the
touchstone for supernatural truth-and I have suggested in an
earlier presentation that hallucinogens may have been one
source of such supernatural revelations. Schultes (1977a)
now lists "some hundred species" of hallucinogens used by
New World aboriginals. The fact is puzzling when
compared with the small number known in the Old World which has a far larger geographic area than the New World,
and surely as varied ecological and climatic regions.
Moreover, the Old World was far longer inhabited by
humans or humanlike forebears who might have discovered
hallucinogens in their food quest. I have suggested an
anthropological answer to this legitimate botanical
question: that hunting peoples in the New World have
longer preserved the old shamanic vision quest, which Boas
long ago considered the foundation of American Indian
religions in both North and South America (La Barre 1970).

Journal of' Psychedelic Drugs

PEYOTL & MESCALINE

That is to say, American Indians are in a sense culturally
programmed to find, use and retain plant hallucinogens
because of their epistemological orientation toward the
visionary experience in shamanic religion. Schultes agrees,
I believe, that there are no objective floristic reasons for the
great discrepancy in number of Old and New World plant
hallucinogens. Incidentally, I would like to support strongly
Dr. Schultes' suggestion that, with further exploration,
Colombia will be found to be a center of native
hallucinogens comparable with Mexico and Peru. Schultes
(1977c) no doubt had good botanical reasons for his
opinion, and I believe that quite independent and equally
good ethnological evidence agrees with his conclusion.
I should like to conclude with some remarks, not quite
so agreeable, concerning our own tribe, some of the
chieftains of which I consider are irrationally stultifying
scientific research in their insensate pharmacophobia. The
Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of
1970 prohibits the manufacture, production, creation or
distribution of mescaline, peyote, psilocybin and other
hallucinogens; acts punishable by not more than five years
imprisonment and/or a fine of not more than $15,000, with
a second offense doubling these penalties. Simple
possession, in small amounts for personal use, carries a
penalty of one year imprisonment and/or $1,000 fine.
Political pressures, sometimes panicky and quite
undiscriminating among various chemical substances, are
behind this drastic legislation, for it is politically profitable
to be "against drugs." But it is largely "locking the barn
door after the horse is stolen," because nothing is so old hat
as last year's fads among the young who have given up the
use of most soft drugs in preference for alcohol. Granted,
there should be no lessening of the severity of laws against
opiates, which along with alcohol and other central nervous
system depressants are possibly the only truly addictive
drugs. But the laws against marijuana are probably too
Draconian and in any case (for ecological-botanical
reasons) largely as unenforceable as the Volstead Act.
I was recently in Bangkok, Thailand and Singapore,
Malaysia-having just before leaving read Emboden
(1972) on Mitragyna speciosa* as a possible withdrawal
agent for opium addiction. In these oriental countries I
found it impossible to obtain either kratom (the leaves)
or mambog (the syrupy infusion) for experimental use by
university pharmacologists, largely, I believe, because of
the offical American pharmacophobia that is now
apparently spreading all around the world. I am not a
pharmacologist, but as an anthropological traveler 1
would like to suppose that we ought to thoroughly

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PEYOTL & MESCALINE

investigate any substance that shows promise in withdrawal

from opiates.
Again, when I investigated another matter in the early
1970s, I discovered that there were only half a dozen
ongoing investigations of psilocybin. Only two of these
were being conducted on human subjects and neither had
any therapeutic bearing. However, on the basis of
psychological study in two cases, I believe that the quite
non-toxic drug, psilocybin, shows considerable promise for
selective use in psychiatry, specifically in cases of acute
obsessive-compulsive neurosis. Quite apart from its
expected euphoriant effect on marked depressive
components, I believe on psychodynamic grounds that the
tapping of deeply repressed affective elements in such cases,
during the full consciousness of the subjects (and hence
rememberable) as a startling didactic experience of
discovery, and in conjunction with simultaneous
psychotherapy, shows distinct possibilities in speeding up
psychotherapy in such log-jams as we find in the therapy of
obsessive-compulsives. Because of the full consciousness of
the subject under psilocybin, this use would be superior to
that of the commonly-employed amobarbital, in which the

patient falls asleep, thus perhaps aiding the psychiatrist in

gaining knowledge about the patient, but without the
conscious participation or consent of the patient and in no
way overcoming psychological resistances in facing and
understanding problems. But current experiments with
psilocybin in psychiatry are, to my knowledge, exactly nil.
This I regard as deplorable.
NOTE
* I have learned from Raffauf (letter of 7 November,
1977) that there has been some pharmacological work,
largely disappointing, on mitragynine, considered to be the
active agent in the compound. But to his knowledge no one
had investigated the non-alkaloidal components of the
plant, he was able to collect a sufficient quantity in New
Guinea, which he regards as inferior in mitragynine content
to the Thai and Malaysian material. The World Health
Organization (WHO), in collaboration with the Thai
government, apparently banned its cultivation, but evidently
unsuccessfully since it was still available in the klong
markets around Bangkok in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

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Vol. 11 (1-2) Jan-Jun, 1979