Running head: MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY

Mathematics, Education Theories And Technology In Action

Yurby Rivas Barrera, Kristen Callender, Nicholas DiLauro and Saira Khan

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

Alliant International UniversityAbstract

Our project seeks to use technology tools to apply a number of educational theories to a series of
four lesson plans which target a specific Common Core State Standards (CCSS), (Common Core
State Standards, 2010) mathematics topic. Each of the lesson deals with characteristics of linear
equations and graphs and applies a number of principles and techniques from educational
theories. Among the theoretical techniques used are First Principles of Instruction (Merrill, 2002)
and Reducing Cognitive Overload which appear in the first lesson; Learning by Design (LBD),
(Georgia Institute of Technology, n.d.), Problem Based Learning (PBL), Case Based Reasoning
(CBR), (Kolodner, Hmelo & Narayanan, n.d.), Teaching Agents and Learning by Teaching
(LBT) (Leelawong & Biswas, n.d.), which appear in lesson two; gaming and simulation in lesson
three; and data analysis and virtual communities in lesson four. Aspects of situated cognition
(Brown, Coolins & Duguid, 198), anchored instruction (The Cognition and Technology Group at
Vanderbilt, 1990 and goal based scenarios (GBS) (Schank, 1992) were included in a number of
the lessons. We concluded that the application of educational theories to a specific topic, while
not the ideal way to approach educational principles, was at least a way to enrich content, engage
students and align learning with activity.
Keywords: Common Core State Standards, educational theories, learning by design, problem
based learning, case based reasoning, teaching agents, learning by teaching, data analysis, virtual
communities, situated cognition, anchored instruction, goal based scenarios

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

Mathematics, Education Theories and Technology in Action

For our project we created a series of lesson plans for 8th grade algebra centered on a
single general topic, linear equations and their graphs. Each lesson used technology tools to
apply educational theories while at the same time supporting specific Common Core State
Standards (CCSS), (Common Core State Standards, 2010). We wanted to see what challenges
would be encountered using a predetermined general topic and then finding opportunities to
apply new educational theories and principles to a particular concept within the topic area. We
saw this as a realistic approach to learning theories. Often it is possible to find a topic which fits
a particular theory or even find an activity which supports a particular theory and then allow the
content learned to evolve from this activity. However, it is often much more difficult to be
confronted with a required topic and then search for ways to apply more progressive approaches
to learning. This latter approach is the pathway we chose. The first lesson presents the concept of
slope and the slope-intercept form of the linear equation in a flipped and blended lesson plan
while incorporating some of the main ideas of the first principles of instruction and social
cognitive theory. It also makes use of media to reinforce some of these ideas. The second lesson
uses learning by design and goal based scenario theory to present linear graphing. The third
lesson uses gaming and simulation to address the process of deriving a linear equation from two
points on the line. The fourth lesson seeks to incorporate communities of practice, social
networking and data analysis into a lesson activity which challenges students to collect, analyze
and present data as linear graphs and equations. Finally, the theories of anchored instruction and
situated cognition were addressed in aspects of all four lessons. In each of these lessons we
strove to highlight specific educational theories while maintaining an underlying subject matter
closely aligned with standards. At the same time we reflected on how various theories and
techniques might enhance previous lessons. We did not overlook the possibility of using previous

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

theories and techniques as we explored new ones. It is hoped that this will provide a continuity of
purpose in the lessons and encourage a high level of student engagement. Rather than seeing the
various theories as distinct self-contained entities, we saw them more as a palate from which we
could blend the colors to achieve an organic and meaningful array of lessons.
The first lesson incorporates some of the first principles of instruction identified by
Merrill (Merrill, 2002), elements of which are found in a wide selection of teaching theories, to
address the subject of linear equations. Merrill identifies four principles of learning which work
together to solve a problem. These principles are activation, demonstration, application and
integration. Activation involves using prior knowledge to reinforce new knowledge. This was
accomplished in the lesson by integrating the circumference to diameter ratio into a linear
equation lesson. Students will see that the relationship between various circumferences of a
circle to their respective diameters is a linear one, i.e., the rate of change or slope is constant (pi).
Demonstration is used in the pre-lesson by providing links to videos which explain some of the
prerequisite knowledge for the lesson. The demonstration phase is also present in the lesson itself
and will depend on some of the activation derived from the pre-lesson. Application plays a part
in the problem solving portion of the lesson wherein students are asked to apply what they have
learned from the demonstration and pre-lesson. Finally, integration is achieved by linking the
pre-lesson, demonstration, and application phases to a classroom activityplotting the
relationship of the circumference to the diameter. The lesson also employs the self-efficacy
which Bandura (Bandura, 2001) sees as an important facet of the learning process. For example,
in this lesson the activity of graphing measured circumferences and diameters is error prone due
to the limitations of the measuring technique. Nevertheless, a general pattern emerges which
demonstrates the concept and hopefully reinforces student self-efficacy by taking the focus off

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

the inaccuracies and instead showing how they contribute to an accurate understanding of the
concept. Use was also made of the nine ways to reduce cognitive overload as described by
Mayer and Moreno (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Pre-training is an essential element of the flipped
lesson. Segmenting was taken into account to by dividing the lesson into various phases. Offloading was used to divide the lesson between visual and auditory. Also, class slides were
examined to achieve alignment. While not a perfect application of the theoretical principles
discussed, the lesson was able to make use of some of the underlying techniques to enhance a
defined concept.
Learning by Design and the use of Teaching Agents were approaches to educational
theory which also challenged our topic driven approach. As was the case with other theories only
elements of these techniques could be incorporated into the second lesson plan. The goals of
problem-based learning (PBL) and its use of case-based reasoning (CBR), (Kolodner, Hmelo &
Narayanan , n.d.) are very challenging. Even the authors suggest blending this into a wellplanned curriculum over a period of time. They suggest using purposely complex, ill-structured,
and open-ended (Kolodner, Hmelo & Narayanan , n.d., p. 4) problems and offer ways of
managing the complexity using collaboration, coaching, tools for organizing their progress, and
scoping or scaffolding problems. Many of these ideas are similar to the principles introduced in
the previously discussed design theories. Learning by design (Georgia Institue of Technology,
n.d.) takes an even more open-ended approach by proposing design projects which challenge
students to experiment, collaborate, analyze, make decisions and develop complex skills. Ideally,
these types of environments require planning and time to execute properly and pose many
challenges to the student and teacher. If successful the knowledge gained is much more
transferable across disciplines because it is rooted in and stimulates the natural processes of

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

learning. Self-regulated learning (SRL) and Learning by Teaching (LBT), (LeelaWong &
Biswas, n.d.) were also methods which posed similar problems with regards to scope. However,
these techniques were more adaptable to a short, subject focused lesson plan. In our lesson plan
we sought to stimulate Learning by Design by giving students a somewhat open-ended
assignment. They are asked to create their own lesson plan using a poster board graph and
attachable lines to address three aspects of linear equations, the relationship of slopes of parallel
lines, the relationship of slopes of perpendicular lines and the effect of changes in the values of
the equations to the shift of the graph. This approach encourages Learning by Design and
collaboration as the students work together in their guided practice to refine their lesson plan
ideas. The teacher is available to serve as mentor to enhance the process, but allows the students
to drive the process. These elements are especially seen in the guided practice wherein they are
given a free range as to how to present their topic so long as it remains within certain constraints.
In the end the lesson plan provides a tangible approach to some complex characteristics of linear
equations and encourages student creativity and collaboration through the application of aspects
of the aforementioned theories. The subject central approach of our project posed similar
challenges as those encountered in other lessons, and this is further evidenced in the gaming and
simulation approaches which are addressed in the next lesson.
The third lesson which incorporates elements of games and simulation targets the CCSS
topic of finding a linear equation from two points using the slope and point-slope equations.
Kafai makes a distinction between instructionist and constructionist perspectives (Kafai, 2006).
An instructionist approach inserts the content into an activity whereas the goal of a
constructionist approach is to have the activity serve as a catalyst for the learning content. This
somewhat parallels Paperts (Papert, 1980) observation that computers in education could have a

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

QWERTY effect in that they could be a mode of perpetuating educational techniques which he
sees as detrimental to the learning process. This would be the instructionist pathway. His vision
is for simulation which enhances the natural learning process which parallels the constructionist
model. We saw many challenges to using the simulation and constructionist models since our
original paradigm was based on using a particular CCSS topic and applying educational theories
to lessons to it. We decided on using both the instructionist and constructionist approaches and
presented students with two sets of games in this lesson plan. The instructionist approach is seen
in the television style game which is just a container for classroom exercises. For the
constructionist approach we sought to create an original game which engaged student interest
through simulation. The spaceship rescue game falls short of many of the ideals of the
constructionist model, but it does include simulation elements which could help engage student
interest. The most valuable aspect of the games and simulation are that they spark student
competition, engagement and collaboration while at the same time presenting material which
otherwise might be perceived as rote. We reflected back to our video and media lesson plan and
saw that there were elements in it of what Papert described as activity which fosters the learning
of complex relationships. The comparison of the circumference to the diameters of circular
objects and the graphing of the relationship could lead to the sort of complex intuitions that
Papert saw occurring in his LOGO games. Similarly, the simulation game could lead students to
see other practical relationships that are linear. However limited, the lesson plan attempts to
combine two views of gaming and simulation towards the discrete topic of linear equations.
The fourth lesson adapted the principles of data collection and virtual communities to the
linear analysis of the circumference to diameter relationship. Data analysis is crucial to the
development of theories and new ideas. By paying close attention to patterns, the stories behind

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

outliers, relationships between and among data sets, and the external factors that may have
affected the data, students may come to have a deeper understanding of the crucial distinction
between theory and evidence, (Analyzinig Data, n.d.). In addition, this lesson plan incorporates
online sharing of data amongst students. The students use social media, Google+ , to share their
data with the whole class. These two techniques work together to arouse student engagement and
enhance their understanding of linear relationships.
The theories of situated cognition, anchored instruction and goal based scenarios had
similarities in the way they approached learning. All of them emphasized the need for an activity
which brings relevance to the information learned. In situated cognition, activity, concept and
culture work together to form the learning experience (Brown, Coolins & Duguid, 1989).
Anchored instruction emphasized the need for an activity to avoid inert knowledge and to
bring relevance to the knowledge (The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1990).
Anchored instruction developed many of its concepts from situated cognition theory. Goal-based
scenario theory emphasizes the importance of goals as the root of human learning (Schank,
1992). All three acknowledged the importance of apprenticeship and building skill sets to
support the activity around which the learning centers. We sought to include elements of these
theories in all lesson plans. For example the gaming lessons presents the students with a specific
problem to solve in game format. The first and fourth lessons anchor the learning in the activity
of measuring, collecting and graphing data while the second lessons situates the learning in the
activity of creating a leaning board and accompanying lesson.
In all four lesson plans we attempted to stay closely aligned to a specific content and
apply principles of various educational theories. It was not too difficult to find applications of
linear equations which could be turned into activities, but it was harder to find activities which

MATHEMATICS, EDUCATION THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION

would organically evolve into an understanding of linear equations. Having the constraints of
choosing a specific topic and the additional constraints of a traditional lesson plan forced a
adaptive approach which did not meet the ideals of many theories. Nevertheless, it is hoped that
the construction of lesson plans around specific activities helped to clarify difficult concepts and
at the same time engage student interest. Overall the application of the theoretical principles
served to enrich the content of lessons, and, as we progressed, we saw many opportunities to
combine principles from multiple theories into a single lesson. As a future study, it would be
valuable to evaluate these lesson plans in action and use the results to develop an activity which
spanned multiple lessons and which would allow a more organic unfolding of the concepts of the
linear equation within that activity.

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References
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Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated Cognition and the Culture of
Learning. Center for the Study of Learning, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign.
Common Core State Standards, CCSS Copyright 2010 National Governors Association
Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights
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Kafai, Y.B. (2006). Playing and Making Games for Learning: Instructionist and
Constructionist Perspectives for Game Studies. Games and Culture, 1(1), 36-40.
Kolodner, J.L., Hmelo, C.E., & Narayanan, N.H. (n.d.). Problem-Based Learning Meets
Case-Based Reasoning from The EduTech Institute College of Computing, Georgia
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Leelawong. K, & Biswas, G. (n.d.). Designing Learning by Teaching Agents: The Bettys
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Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and

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