ArcelorMittal Europe - Long Products

Sections and Merchant Bars

Corrosion protection

Architects Claude Vasconi & Jean Petit - Chamber of Commerce Luxembourg

of rolled steel sections using hot-dip galvanization

Grenoble Ice Rink, France - Architects Isabelle Hrault & Yves Arnod - photo Andr Morin

Thanks to its exceptional

physical and mechanical
characteristics, steel is most
popular amongst designers

Contents

Foreword

1. Risk of corrosion and protection period

2. Corrosion protection methods

3. Hot-dip galvanizing

10

4. Characteristics of hot-dip galvanizing of steel structures

17

5. Requirements for materials

21

6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing

25

7. Requirements for the fabrication of steel structures

31

8. Requirements for hot-dip galvanizing

33

9. Duplex systems

35

10. Cost effectiveness

37

References

39

Technical advisory & nishing

42

Your partners

43

Courtesy of Vollack Management GmbH, Germany

Dren Car Park, Germany

Foreword
When it comes to choosing materials, steel,
because of its exceptional physical and
mechanical characteristics, is the most popular
amongst designers. It can be used to rapidly
build economical, durable, and safe structures.
The steel used to make hot-rolled sections,
which can themselves be indenitely recycled,
is made from recycled scrap. It is particularly
suitable for machining and shaping. However, it
tends to react with agents in the atmosphere
to form stable thermodynamic bonds ferrous
oxides and/or salts.

Large numbers of steel structures, some

of them a hundred years old, which have
beneted from the combination of a suitable
corrosion protection treatment and regular
maintenance, show impressively the potential
of steel. However, these types of structures,
requiring high maintenance costs, are no longer
acceptable today.

In laymans terms: steel rusts!

The service life of a structure depends on

the rate of reaction between the steel and its
environment. These reactions depend on the
nature and concentration of the corrosive agents
present.
Corrosion protection of structures must
therefore be considered as intervening in this
process in order to prevent the reaction or
greatly reduce the rate.

New requirements govern the design of the

steel structures of the twenty-rst century:

The ability of steel to revert to its natural or

original state is called corrosion.

The primary quality of steel i.e. its ability to

retain its physical and mechanical strength, or
in the case of a steel structure, its load bearing
capacity, is generally long-lasting and is only
compromised when corrosion reduces its cross
section to such a degree that safety is adversely
affected.

Environmental protection policies enforced

at both the national and international level
have lead to a considerable reduction in the
amount of corrosive load in the atmosphere
over the last twenty years. This has
resulted in a noticeable drop in the average
corrosion rate of steel and zinc as well as
improved resistance of coating systems.

Zinc baths have sufficient capacity and

are large enough to allow widespread
hot-dip galvanization of steel structures
involving large components.
Combining the hot-dip galvanization
technique with adapted paint systems for
zinc coatings - so called duplex systems
renders maintenance unnecessary with,
in most cases, the corrosion protection
not requiring any attention for the
entire service life of the structure.
Corrosion protection is becoming
an integral part of the fabrication
process for steel structures.

The design of steel structures is substantially

improved through the effectiveness of
welding procedures and the vast range of
rolled sections available thus contributing
positively to ensure that corrosion protection
systems have long service lives. Maintenance
and renovation costs continue to fall because
the amount of exposed surface area has
been greatly reduced and ease of access
improved. The ability of new coatings to
resist the stresses in their surroundings
has been increased considerably. New
inexpensive coating methods are employed in
fabrication shops and on construction sites.

Architects Schneider + Schumacher

Erco high rack warehouse, Ldenscheid, Germany

1. Risk of corrosion and protection period

1. Risk of corrosion
The risk of corrosion of steel structures
emanates from the surrounding atmospheric
conditions.

Over the last few years, the complex influence

of atmospheric polluters on the corrosion rate of
unprotected structural steel and zinc has been
analysed as part of several European research
programmes [1].

The result of this work has led to the drafting

of the standard ISO 9223 Corrosion of metals
and alloys Corrosivity of atmospheres
Classification. The basic information containing
the classifications for the corrosivity of
atmospheres and the corrosion rates of plain
The exposure time to moisture, which is the
amount of time that the relative humidity of the carbon steel, zinc, copper, and aluminium,
air is > 80% at an ambient temperature of >0C, determined as a function of the corrosive load,
is sufficiently accurate to allow the protection
is the main determinant as regards atmospheric
period of paints and zinc coatings to be
corrosion and corrosion rate of metals.
calculated in a practical fashion.
The absence of moisture considerably slows
down the corrosion rate of steel and zinc even in This standard was also used as the basis for
the classification of the corrosivity of ambient
the presence of high concentrations of gaseous
(SO2, NOx etc) or solid polluters (dust containing atmospheric conditions in EN ISO 12994-2.
aggressive particles).
The nature and extent of any corrosion is linked
to the amount of time that metal surfaces are
exposed to moisture and to the amount of air
pollution.

EN ISO 12944 characterises atmospheric

conditions in the form of corrosivity categories
based on figures of the loss of mass or thickness
per unit surface area of steel or zinc during the
first year of exposure to different atmospheric
conditions (Table 1).
Examples of characteristic ambient conditions
help to assign the appropriate corrosivity
category to the structures and facilitate
the determination of the required corrosion
protection, by emphasising the protection
period.
Apart from unusual circumstances, this method
allows a sufficiently reliable assessment to be
made of the corrosive load for the majority of
steel structures.

Table 1 Risk of corrosion - Classification of ambient conditions according to EN ISO 12994-2.

Corrosion risk
category

Loss of thickness of zinc

in the
rst year (m)*

C 1 Very low

Examples of typical environments

External

Internal

Less than 0.1

Isolated building. Relative humidity of air:

less than 60%

C 2 Low

0.1 0 .7

Slightly polluted atmosphere,

dry climate e.g. rural areas

Non-isolated building with temporary water

condensation e.g. warehouses, sports halls

C 3 medium

0.7 2.1

Urban or industrial atmosphere with low

level of SO2 pollution or coastal areas with
low salinity

Premises characterised by high relative

humidity of the air and impurities, e.g.
breweries, laundries, diaries

C 4 high

2.1 4.2

Industrial or coastal atmosphere with low

salinity

Swimming pools, chemical factories

C 5 Very high I

4.2 8.4

Industrial atmosphere with considerable

humidity and aggressive atmospheres

C 5 Very high M

4.2 8.4

Coastal area with high salinity

Buildings or areas with almost

continuous water condensation and high
levels of pollution

* can also be expressed in loss of mass (g/m2)

Architects Helmut Jahn - Photo K. Idelberger

The levels of airborne SO2 are measured at numerous locations in Europe.

European research has also allowed the relationship between the corrosion
rate of zinc, the levels of airborne SO2 and the wetting time / amount of
rainfall, to be analysed [2].
The loss of zinc as a function of the concentration of airborne SO2 has
been plotted on a graph on the basis of this research (Figure 1). This
shows a simplified, but perfectly useable version for determining the
corrosivity category according to EN ISO 129442, on the basis of the
figures available for SO2 concentrations [g/m3] at various locations.
However, it should be emphasised that the corrosivity category
determined in this way characterises the corrosive load at the
macroclimatic level. Particular microclimatic features, perhaps deriving
from emission sources in the vicinity of the steel structures, or the use of
an unsuitable design for ensuring corrosion protection, are not included
and must be specified by the owner, for example, in the case of structures
built for the chemical industry.
In Europe, the considerable reduction in the amount of airborne SO2 has
resulted in a substantial decrease in the corrosive load. The average annual
corrosion rate of zinc for 1992/1993 was 8 g/m2 or 1.1m [3]. These
figures are still valid today.

Figure 1 Loss of zinc as a function of SO2 pollution (according to Knotkova/Porter)

Loss of zinc/year [m]

3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

Average annual figure of sulphur dioxide [g/m3]

60

Santiago-Bernabeu Stadium, Madrid, Spain

2. Protection period
The protection period of coatings is defined in EN ISO 12944-1 as the
expected service life up until the moment where the system needs
attention for the first time.
EN ISO 14713 defines the protection period up until attention is first
needed of zinc coatings as being the time between the application of the
first coating and the moment when it first needs maintenance in order to
ensure the protection of the base material.
The protection period is a vital factor when selecting and defining
corrosion protection systems. This technical concept helps the owner of
the structure to specify his maintenance schedule.
The protection period is not a guarantee period. Generally, the guarantee
period, a legal concept, is shorter than the protection period. There is no
link between these two concepts.
Nowadays, it is possible to imagine corrosion protection not requiring any
or hardly no attention for the entire service life of hot-dip galvanized steel
structures, even if exposed to poor weather conditions.
The protection period of a zinc coating depends mainly, for a given
corrosive load, on the thickness of the applied coat. Figure 4 uses the
figures for loss of thickness of zinc indicated in Table 1 to show the
relationship between the protection period / the thickness of the zinc
coat and the corrosive load. It can be generally assumed that there is a
uniform loss of zinc across the entire coated surface. If we consider the
macroclimatic corrosive charge of category C3, currently valid in Europe,
and characterised by a zinc loss of between 0.7 and 2.1 m during the
first year, we obtain a protection period of at least 40 years for a minimum
zinc coat thickness of 85 m, as specified in EN ISO 1461 (Table 3) for
steel product thicknesses of >6 mm.

We have to once again state that the protection period determined in

accordance with the method above is only valid for the corrosive loads
considered at the macroclimatic level.
Special microclimatic features and higher loads particular to the structure,
such as an accumulation of dust with a prolonged exposure to moisture
can considerably reduce the protection period.
It is now possible, as a result of the clear definition of ambient atmospheric
conditions - corrosivity categories - and access to measurements used as
the basis for calculating the protection period, to properly design suitable
corrosion protection systems in accordance with EN ISO 12944-5 and
EN ISO 1461.

Figure 2 Protection period of zinc coatings as a function of the thickness of the coat
and the corrosive load

Protection period (years)

100

80
C1
60

C2

40

C3

20

C4

C5
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Thickness of the zinc coating [m]

Architects Estudio Lamela - Photo Estudio Lamela, Francisco Pablo Laso

2. Corrosion protection methods

Architects Jean Nouvel & Didier Brault - Photo Philippe Ruault

Cognac-Jay Foundation, Rueil-Malmaison, France

When considering the corrosion protection of

steel structures, a distinction is made between
active and passive measures.
Active corrosion protection aims at preventing
corrosion or reducing the rate of the corrosion
reaction by:

Due to their broad range of application

possibilities and their efficiency, the following
methods dominate the corrosion protection of
steel structures:

interfering in the corrosion process,

e.g. reducing air pollution
choosing a suitable material, e.g. using
corrosion resistant materials

Optimal corrosion protection is achieved

by combining active and passive corrosion
protection methods, based on the appropriate
detailing prior to the application of the passive
corrosion protection.

coatings based on liquid or powder coatings

metallic coatings (zinc, aluminum or
zinc-/aluminum alloys) applied by hotdip galvanization or thermal spraying

In the following, the most efficient passive

corrosion protection method for steel structures,
namely hot-dip galvanizing, will be presented
together with material-, design- and processrelated requirements.

combination of metallic coatings

and paint systems

using detailing appropriate for

corrosion protection

The goal of passive corrosion protection is

to shield the steel surface from corrosive
substances.

Santiago-Bernabeu Stadium, Madrid, Spain

3. Hot-dip galvanizing

1. Method
Hot-dip galvanization is the application of zinc
or iron/zinc alloy coatings by immersing the
prepared steel in molten zinc.
A distinction must be made between:

the continuous method (for sheets, wire

rod, etc.),
the discontinuous method (for sections,
structural elements, and small parts).

Only the discontinuous method in accordance

with EN ISO 1461 may be used for steel
structures.
It is essential for hot-dip galvanizing, namely
the iron-zinc reaction, that the steel surface to
be galvanized shall be metallically clean, i.e. free
from grease, rust and scale.

This high level of surface preparation level Be

according to EN ISO 12944-4 is achieved by
first conditioning the material to be galvanized
in acid or alkali degreasing baths, then pickling
in diluted hydrochloric acid, followed by fluxing.
When the part to be galvanized is immersed in
the zinc bath (between 440 and 460C), the
flux, which is usually a mixture of zinc chloride
and ammonium chloride, protects the metallic
surface and improves its wettability as regards
the molten zinc.

The speed of the iron-zinc reaction depends on

the galvanizing parameters and the chemical
composition of the steel, particularly its silicon
and phosphorus content. Reactive steels
build up thick layers of iron-zinc alloys and the
residual heat in the galvanized material can even
transform the pure zinc coat into a coat of ironzinc alloy.
This reaction can be interrupted or slowed down
considerably by an immediate quenching of the
galvanized part in a water bath.

Zinc is the main component of the zinc bath,

and the total amount of additional elements
(with the exception of iron and tin) shall not
exceed the sum of 1.5%.

Figure 3 schematically represents the principle of

the discontinuous galvanization process.

The cleansed and fluxed part can be dried prior

to galvanization in an oven at temperatures
between 80 and 100C.
During immersion in the zinc bath, layers of
iron-zinc alloys build up on the surface of the
steel element which are generally covered with
a coat of pure zinc upon removal from the bath.

Figure 3 Principle of the discontinuous galvanization process

Degreasing bath

Rinsing bath

Pickling bath

Rinsing bath

Flux bath

Drying oven

Zinc bath

Water bath

11

3. Hot-dip galvanizing

2. The iron-zinc reaction

Nowadays, the usual structural steels are
basically all suitable for hot-dip galvanizing.
However, they possess individual characteristics
which influence the result of the galvanizing
process.
Hot-dip galvanizing is a reaction between the
surface of steel and molten zinc which results in
a zinc coating whose thickness and appearance
are basically determined by the chemical
composition of the steel and the galvanization
parameters (zinc bath temperature, immersion
time). The surface condition of the steel element
may also influence the result of galvanization.
The behaviour of steels during galvanization can
be divided into four groups on the basis of their
Si and P contents (Table 2).
The steels of the ArcelorMittal long products are
of the Sebisty type and have typically a silicon
content of between 0.15% and 0.25%, and a
phosphorous content of less than 0.040%.
There are overlaps between the groups,
influenced by the temperature of the zinc bath.
The iron-zinc reaction also depends on the
topography of the steels surface, especially
when using steels in the transition range
between the ones with a low Si and P content
and the ones from the Sandelin group,. This may
result in local or widespread variations in the
thickness and appearance of the zinc coat.

Similar appearances can also be caused by local

thermal stresses at the surface of the steel,
as happens during oxygen-cutting or flame
straightening. Here, the cause is probably due to
localised changes of the chemical composition in
the heat affected zone close to the surface as a
result of the oxidation of the so-called reactive
elements in the steel (i.e. Si, P), which lose thus
their influence on the iron-zinc reaction.
The variation in the galvanization behaviour of
welds vs. adjacent steel surfaces is the result of
differences in the chemical composition of the
welding consumables and the base material. The
zinc coating on grinded surfaces of welds may
also be thicker or have a different appearance
with regard to adjacent areas.

Galvanizers have very few means at their

disposal for influencing the quality of the zinc
coating, which depends mainly on the chemical
composition of the steel.
Theoretically, it is possible to influence the
thickness of the zinc coat by controlling the
immersion time, the chemical composition
and the melting temperature of the zinc
bath. As shown in Figure 4, there is however
no consistent relationship between these
parameters.

The thickness of the zinc coat increases

with temperature up to a Si + P content of
approximately 0.12%. Beyond this point, the
relationship is reversed up to a Si + P content of
0.27%; in case of Sebisty steels, the thickness
of the zinc coat decreases with an increase in
Generally, blast-cleaned surfaces, i.e. sand or
the bath temperature. It then increases again
shot blasted prior to galvanization, react faster
with an increase in the melting temperature of
on contact with molten zinc, resulting in thicker
zinc layers when compared to steel surfaces that the zinc from a Si + P content of approximately
0.27% and more.
are simply pickled.
Unevenness and imperfections in the steel
surface deriving from rolling, straightening and
other processes are usually not smoothed out
by the zinc coating, in most cases, they are even
visually amplified.

Table 2 Classification of the galvanization behaviour of structural steels according to their silicon and phosphorus
contents.

Group

silicon + phosphorous [%]

Zinc coating

Steel with low

Si + P content

< 0.03

Silvery bright, zinc spangles, thin

coat

Sandelin steels

0.03 < 0.13

Grey, sometimes granular, very

thick coat

Sebisty steels

Steel with high

Si + P content

0.13 < 0.28

Silvery bright to pale grey, coat of

average thickness coat

0.28

Pale grey, very thick coat

3. Hot-dip galvanizing

This is the reason why EN ISO 1461 indicates

only minimum values for the local and average
thickness of the coat (Table 3) and does not
provide any upper limits.
In practise, the galvanizer needs to know
the chemical composition of the material to
be galvanized in order to be able to adjust
the immersion time and the temperature.
For technical and cost effectiveness reasons
however, the galvanizer only considers variations

in the temperature of the zinc bath for medium

and long term periods.

bath. It is essential that these aspects are

discussed with the galvanizer.

In case special requirements are laid down for

the thickness or the appearance of the zinc
coat (e.g. a silvery bright zinc coating requested
for architectural purposes) in addition to the
quality requirements according to EN ISO 1461,
it is important that particular care is given to
the choice of homogenous materials, design,
fabrication and to the composition of the zinc-

It is possible to actively affect the iron-zinc

reaction, i.e. eliminate, or at least reduce the
effect from the chemical composition of the
steel on the result of the galvanization process,
by adding small amounts of Sn, Ni, Bi, and Al to
the molten zinc. Resulting consequences will be
discussed in the chapters 4 to 8.

Figure 4 Relationship between the thickness of the zinc coating, the Si + P content and the melting temperature of
the zinc temperature for an immersion time of 10 minutes [4].

Thickness of coat (m)

600
500
400
300
200
10 minutes at 440 C
10 minutes at 450 C

100

10 minutes at 460 C

0,05

0,1

0,15

0,2

0,25

0,3

0,35

0,4

0,45

Si + P content (%)

Table 3

Thickness of zinc coatings as a function of the thickness of the material according to EN ISO 1461

Local coat thickness

(minimum value) [m]

Average coat thickness

(minimum value) [m]

t 6 mm

70

85

t 3 mm and < 6 mm

55

70

Material thickness

13

3. Hot-dip galvanizing

3. Adhesion capacity of zinc coatings

In accordance with EN ISO 1461, adhesion
between the zinc coating and the substrate does
not normally need to be tested, because zinc
coatings have adequate adherence for resisting
mechanical impacts during normal handling
operations and use without spalling or flaking
off.
If adhesion needs to be checked, e.g. in the case
of parts exposed to high mechanical stresses,
impact or notch tests may be performed.
However, there is no European standard for the
testing of adhesion.
The methods routinely employed, such as
the cross-hatch test, ASTM hammer test
(ASTM A 123) and the impact tests in
accordance with DIN 50978, are restricted to a
maximum coat thickness of approximately 150
m, and provide only qualitative information.
Moreover, these methods mainly assess the
ductility and sensitivity to scaling of zinc
coatings rather than their adhesion capability.

Erco high rack warehouse, Ldenscheid, Germany

The modified test method used for organic

coatings i.e. Tear off test to assess adhesion
capability in accordance with EN ISO 26624
[5] allows the adhesion of zinc coatings to be
determined with statistical reliability up to
45 MPa.
These characteristic adhesion values indicate
the tensile strength or uplift resistance of
zinc coatings, which, in conjunction with the
(adhesive or cohesive) failure patterns, enable
the assessment of their adhesion capacity.
With the exception of Sebisty steels, measured
average values for the adhesion of zinc coatings
in accordance with EN ISO 1461 are generally
greater than 20 MPa. The values for Sebisty
steels vary from 10 to 18 MPa.
Appropriate tests have confirmed the indication
given in EN ISO 1461 stating that undamaged
zinc coatings have sufficient adhesion [6].

3. Hot-dip galvanizing

4. Repair of damaged zinc coatings

In accordance with EN ISO 1461, the
imperfections in zinc coatings may not exceed
0.5% of the total surface of the building
component. A single defect may not exceed
10 cm2 and must to be repaired in accordance
with requirements.

The repair of imperfections using thermal zinc

spraying (with or without subsequent sealing)
is admittedly the most expensive and onerous
repair method, but it does offer a protection
period comparable to that of the original intact
zinc coating. Its technical feasibility must be
checked in advance, particularly with regard
to the accessibility of the surfaces to be
repaired. Also, the higher costs must be agreed
beforehand.

The internal surfaces of inaccessible hollow

structures are exempted from this requirement,
because it is difficult or impossible to inspect and Repair using zinc-rich paint is effective as
well, but its quality very much depends on the
because of poor access for repair purposes.
preparation of the surface, the suitability of
the paint itself, the correct application and the
The standard considers three repair methods:
thickness of the coating.
Thermal spraying with zinc
The soldering repair technique with zinc alloy
Use of zinc-rich paint
is relatively expensive and the result obtained
Solder with a zinc-alloy stick
is usually unsatisfactory. In particular soldering
with tin, which is difficult to melt, gives poor
The repair techniques are not ranked in any
results. This method is therefore disappearing
particular order.
from the market.
Unless otherwise stipulated, the repair method is
The particular characteristics of the repair
at the galvanizers discretion.
method with respect to the application
of subsequent coats must be taken into
The galvanizer shall advise the building owner
consideration. Compatibility between the
or end-user of the repair method that has
repair coating and subsequent coats must
been used. Appropriate zinc powder-based
be guaranteed. For powder coatings, stoving
systems are mainly used. Single component
temperatures up to 200C have to be
polyurethane/zinc powder-based primers are
considered.
recommended, provided their suitability has
been certified by the manufacturer. This repair
method is practical, effective if implemented
correctly, and reasonably priced.

Before applying a repair coat, the affected

surface must be cleaned and, if necessary,
descaled. A high quality surface preparation can
be obtained by manually grinding to a surface
condition of PMa or by blasting to a surface
condition of Sa 2 or (EN ISO 12944-4). The
requirements relating to surface roughness must
be considered when selecting the repair method.
The coat thickness of the repaired area shall be
at least 30 m greater than the required local
thickness of the zinc coating as given in Table 3.
According to this standard, defects in the zinc
coating resulting from the interventions by third
parties during fabrication or erection must be
repaired in the same way. Zinc coatings have
a better resistance against mechanical loads
than organic paints. It is however technically
impossible to completely avoid damages or a
reduction of coat thickness in the areas where
handling gear is applied, even if all necessary
precautions are taken.
Defects with a surface area of more than
10 cm2 may also result from modifications made
to the galvanized structure or from mechanical
loads generated during erection. If the defect
can be repaired without compromising the
effectiveness of the corrosion protection e.g.
by thermal spraying with zinc, there is usually
no need for the structure to be dismantled and
regalvanized. Here, an equitable solution should
be sought between the contracting parties.

15

 Architects Claude Vasconi & Jean Petit, Luxembourg

Chamber of Commerce, Luxembourg

4. Charasteristics of hot-dip
galvanizing of steel structures

Hot-dip galvanizing is a highly effective and

cost-efficient corrosion protection method for
steel structures.
The process-related specificities of hot-dip
galvanization (surface preparation by pickling
in acid, immersion of steel structures into a
metal bath at 450C, uneven heating during
immersion) result however in higher technical
requirements than with other corrosion
protection methods with respect to:

Steel quality and material characteristics

Detailing, structural design
Fabrication of the steel structures

All these points have to be taken into account

by the contributing parties. As a matter of fact,
an unfavourable combination of these aspects
can result in the formation of cracks during hotdip galvanization or during the treatment of the
steel components in the aqueous solutions like
degreasing, pickling and fluxing. The state-ofthe-art considers today the zinc bath as the
leading action in relation with the formation of
fissures. Consequently, special attention has to
be paid to highly reactive chemical compositions
of the zinc bath as they increase the cracking
potential.
Basically, a distinction has to be made between
the liquid metal induced embrittlement (LME)
and the hydrogen-induced cracking or expansion
of cracks (hydrogen-induced corrosion) during
the hot-dip galvanizing process.

Extensive metallographic investigations have

shown that the cracking of usual structural
steels during hot-dip galvanizing is due to LME.
Hydrogen-induced cracking of structural steel
structures during hot-dip galvanizing is much
less likely to occur [7].
In order to fulfil the quality requirements of zinc
coatings according to EN ISO 1461, a close
collaboration between the steel manufacturer,
the fabricator and the galvanizer is absolutely
necessary, especially when dealing with steel
constructions with a high degree of welding.

2. Hydrogen-induced cracking
On principle, the absorption of hydrogen into
the metals occurs in the presence of a sufficient
amount of hydrogen, e.g. during the steel
production (blast furnace process, pickling), steel
processing (welding) or during the pretreatment
of the steel surface like degreasing, pickling, etc.

Architects Atlante Architectes - Photo P. Rogeaux Carlier

1. Preliminaries

According to ISO 4964, the risk of hydrogeninduced cracking mainly exists with a local tensile
strength >1200 N/mm2, a hardness >34 HRC or
a surface hardness >340 HV. Notches, present
in the microstructure of the surface, or material
inhomogeneities increase the risk of damage.
Usual steel grades are typically not subjected
to embrittlement through hydrogen absorption
during pickling, even if hydrogen remains in the
steel. In this case, the hydrogen escapes during
the immersion process in the molten zinc.

17

4. Charasteristics of hot-dip galvanizing of steel structures

3. Liquid metal-induced
embrittlement (LME)

Tensile stresses in the steel can no longer be

transferred if:

Preconditions for LME to arise are:

sufficient static or dynamic tensile,

bending or torsional stresses (load
induced/ residual stresses)

corrosive acting liquid metal

solid metal vulnerable to LME

critical temperature range

mutual solubility of the involved metals

good wettability of the solid metal by

the molten metal
formation of low melting intermetallic
phases/compounds.

Given the above-mentioned conditions during

the hot-dip galvanizing of steel structures, the
characteristics of steel can be unfavourably
affected by wetting grain boundaries close to
the surface respectively surfaces in notches or
cracks with a corrosive acting liquid metal, zinc
and/or alloys of the zinc bath (for example lead
(Pb), tin (Sn) or bismuth (Bi)).

the deformation capacity (ductility)

is impaired, see also Figure 6,
the resistance against crack
propagation is reduced.

When exceeding a critical stress level, the

development of inter-crystalline fissures in
the steel, ramified and branched out into the
material, results in the cracking of the remaining
section. The fissure tips are usually filled
with zinc; in the case of alloyed zinc baths,
additional concentrations of alloying elements
may be present.
The order of magnitude of the critical stress,
above which steel is vulnerable to cracking
through LME in a zinc bath, is widely unknown
at present. On the one hand this is due to the
difficulty for defining and assessing the existing
and acting stresses in the structural element
and on the other hand it is due to the fact that
stresses are generated through technological
parameters during the galvanizing process,
above all the dipping speed of the building
components and the heat transfer from the zinc
bath to the steel. Literature generally indicates
that the susceptibility to LME increases with
increasing hardness and resistance of the
structural steels. Observations in this regard
suggest that steel grades S275 and lower run a
very low LME-risk, whereas those above S460
are clearly more at risk.

Today, there is a general believe that the

potential risk of crack formation due to LME
is substantially influenced by the chemical
composition of the zinc bath, in particular the
contents of lead (Pb), tin (Sn) and bismuth (Bi).
Typical requirements on the maximum content
of these 3 elements are given in chapter 8.

5. Requirements for materials

19

5. Requirements for materials

1. Chemical composition
The structural steels of ArcelorMittals long
products are produced in accordance with part
2 or 4 of EN 10025:2004 and the option of
the suitability for hot-dip zinc-coating can be
agreed upon for all the steel grades up to a yield
strength of 460 MPa. It is clear here that this
option merely applies to the influence of the
chemical composition of the steels regarding the
silicon (Si) and phosphorous (P) content on the
thickness and appearance of the zinc coating.
The performance of the steels during hot-dip
galvanizing with regard to LME is not addressed
in the European standards.

Architects Claude Vasconi & Jean Petit, Luxembourg

In Japan, extensive tests have been conducted

on the subject and a relation, similar to the
carbon equivalent as an indication for the
weldability, is proposed between the chemical
composition of some Japanese steels and their
LME risk potential,. [9] reports on this matter
in the context of a contribution to the current
state of knowledge regarding LME. Inquiries
about the causes of cracks in steel structures
in Europe, however, have lead to the conclusion
that optimal chemical compositions of the steels
alone according to the Japanese experience can
not prevent LME when other factors favouring
LME provoke a sufficiently critical state. On a
general basis, it can nethertheless be stated that
a low carbon equivalent tends to counteract
LME.

Chamber of Commerce, Luxembourg

Figure 5 Typical stress - strain diagram for various steels

Stress [N/mm2]
800

750
HISTAR 460/S 460
600

HISTAR 355/S 355

450
S 235
300

150

0
6

12

18

24

30

36

Elongation [%]

2. Mechanical properties of steel

The knowledge of the steel characteristics
is essential when designing the steel building
components suitable for hot-dip galvanizing.
The design for quasi-static loads is usually
based on the yield stress Re, This characteristic
is determined with the tensile strength Rm,
the Youngs modulus of elasticity E, the total
elongation at fracture A, the uniform elongation
Ag and the reduction of area Z, in a monoaxial
tensile test at ambient temperature at a gradual
loading rate.

Ductility however can vary considerably

between steel grades, as shown in Figure 5.
Also, it is important to note that the deformation
capacity of the steel is reduced during the hotdip galvanizing process (Figure 6).
Heating steel lowers its yield stress, modulus of
elasticity as well as its tensile strength.

Figure 6 Schematic stress strain diagram for structural

steel S355 comparison of the characteristics of S355
at room temperature (RT), at 460C in the air, and during
immersion in the zinc bath at 460C

Stress

The stress-temperature diagram in Figure 7

shows the typical reduction in yield stress for
the 3 usual steel grades S 235, HISTAR 355 /
S 355 and HISTAR 460 / S 460.

S355 RT

S355 460 C / air

The stress-strain diagram, obtained from this

tensile test, shows that substantial deformation
occurs beyond the yield stress before rupture
occurs. This means that fracture of building
components is an indication that a large amount
of deformation has taken place. This ductility
has a major influence on the assessment of
stress resistance, on the choice of the calculation
method and statical system, as well as the
application of the safety coefficients in steel
structures. In order to avoid brittle fracture, steel
needs to be sufficiently ductile.
The plastic deformation also reduces stress
concentrations at notches or where residual
stresses are present. For example, residual
stresses (from welding or rolling processes) are
either completely or partially disregarded when
designing steel structures.

Hardness is another criterion used to assess

strength. The hardness value is used, for
example, for checking the uniformity of the
strength of semi-finished products, and can
be used for the approximate non-destructive
determination of the tensile strength.

S355 460 C / Zinc bath

Elongation

The advantages of steel grades with high

elongation have already been mentioned.
In addition to total elongation A, uniform
elongation Ag, and reduction of area Z, the notch
impact energy Kv is an important criterion when
assessing the toughness of a steel.

The toughness values may not be used as such

for structural design purposes, they rather
enable a qualitative comparison of various steels
with regard to their toughness. Combined with
the experience gained with steels whose stress
resistance and toughness have already been
Building components made from a ductile
determined, they enable an assessment of the
material may also be used for plastic design,
which means that elongation of the steel beyond risk of brittle fracture occurring in certain stress
conditions (i.e. plane, three-dimensional or
its yield stress is allowed.
residual stresses, loads), at certain temperatures
or in particular loading modes (slow or fast).

Figure 7 Typical yield stress - temperature diagram for

various steels

Yield stress [N/mm2]

500

HISTAR 460/S 460

400

HISTAR 355/S 355

300
S 235

200

100

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

Temperature [C]

21

5. Requirements for materials

The toughness of hot-rolled sections is

measured in longitudinal rolling direction.
Without any special measures, toughness
values can be lower in transverse direction and
perpendicular to the surface of the section. The
reason for this deterioration is the presence of
non-metallic deformable inclusions positioned
parallel to the surface during the rolling process.
Stresses occurring perpendicular to the surface
(mainly in welded structures) combined with
insufficient toughness can then lead to a loss
of cohesion in the material similar to lamellar
tearing. These inclusions can be modified or even
eliminated using special steel making techniques.
Thus, Z-quality steel is characterised by
superior deformation properties in a plane
perpendicular to the surface.
The limited possibilities for using the toughness
values in the assessment of crack potential is
due to the fact that the state of stress (plane or
three-dimensional, residual) and the deformation
conditions of the structure are widely unknown.
It is mainly high stress levels at the end of
a surface or internal imperfections, residual
stresses from fabrication, the temperature and
the loading rate that influence the resistance to
brittle fracture.
In order to better assess, from a quantitative
point of view, the susceptibility of a steel
to brittle fracture, fracture resistance is
determined on the basis of the theory of
fracture mechanics and special tests made on
samples pre-notched by fatigue. Their condition
is similar to the one of building components

Grenoble Ice Rink, France

affected by fissures. A critical temperature is

thus obtained at specified stress levels. Below
this critical temperature, a crack propagates
rapidly resulting in the sudden fracture of the
entire sample.
Specific steel production processes (e.g. the
way of killing during casting) influence the
toughness and susceptibility to lamellar tearing;
the designation of the notch toughness shows
different levels (for structural steels e.g. JR, J0,
J2, M, ML, etc.).
A fine grain microstructure, such as the one of
high strength fine grained structural steels, also
enables susceptibility to brittle fracture to be
reduced and weldability to be improved. The
fine microstructure of these steels increases
their yield strength without compromising their
toughness.

3. Weldability
Structural steels are typically expected to
possess a good weldability, which is usually the
case. This means that the welding technique
and filler materials must be selected in such a
way that there is no deterioration in either the
strength or the toughness in the heat affected
zone and in the weld.
During the production process of the steels, the
weldability can be improved by an increase of
the purity level, through an improved control
of the alloying elements as well as specific
processes, like the controlled thermomechanical
rolling and the quenching and self-tempering.

5. Requirements for materials

Figure 5 shows that the various steel qualities

have very high elongation capability. For design
purposes, only a small part of this potential is
used. The elongation capability of steel may
be reduced due to material embrittlement,
or generally due to local restrictions of
deformability as a result of two or three
dimensional (residual) stress states or through
the presence of micro structural impurities in
the steel. Exceeding the ductility limit obviously
results in brittle fracture in the building
component. Experience shows that several
influences can occur simultaneously.
These are very complex phenomena and
experimental results for the estimation of the
toughness. Respectively the tendency for brittle
fracture are subject to very large variations.
Also, brittle fracture is greatly influenced by
the fabrication processes (e.g. changes in the
microstructure in a welded area if excessively
cooled), the structural design (e.g. residual
stresses) and the way in which the structure
is used (e.g. the rate at which heavy loads are
applied).
Obviously, welded building parts may be
particularly affected by brittle fracture.

The presence of hydrogen in the weld or in the

heat-affected zone, combined with residual
stresses from welding, affects the susceptibility
of steel to hot and cold cracking. Besides hot
cracks during welding, cold cracks are to be
expected if hydrogen from welding is present
in the weld or heat-affected zone and when
residual stresses from shrinking take effect.
Here, hydrogen causes a reduction of the
deformation capacity.
Taking into account these considerations is
of outmost importance for the structural
design process of steel structures foreseen for
galvanization, as additional stresses during hotdip galvanizing and simultaneously reduced yield
stress and deformation capacities of the steels
can lead to LME or hydrogen induced crack
formation.
This type of brittle fracture during galvanizing
can occur in any type of steel. As already
indicated, susceptibility to fracture is especially
influenced by tensile stresses (mainly residual
stresses) in the building component.

5. Improving structural steels

Developments in structural steels are aimed at
increasing their yield strength and weldability
while keeping or even improving their toughness.
These improvements are achieved by eliminating
inclusions, by improving the microstructure
through the choice of alloying elements
favouring finer grains, the replacement of
ingot casting with continuous casting and the
adoption of refined rolling processes like the
thermomechanical rolling and the quenching and
self-tempering.

Architects Chemetov - Huidobro - Photos O. Wogenscki

4. Information on materials for

fabricating building components

23

6. Requirements of structures suitable

for hot-dip galvanizing
1. General
The principles of the design of structures to be
galvanized are similar to those for other steel
structures provided that the specific demands
for the hot-dip galvanizing process are taken
into consideration.
Hot-dip galvanizing is a hot-immersion process
whose stages from surface preparation
(degreasing, pickling, rinsing, and fluxing) to
the galvanization process itself take place in
an industrial-sized installation (e.g. tanks and
kettles) respectively in the zinc bath (440
460C). All the following specific demands
of this procedure have to be taken into
consideration at the design stage:

2. Technical requirements
associated with the process
2.1 Geometry of building components
The dimensions of building components that are
to be galvanized shall be chosen in such a way
that they can be immersed in a single operation.

Technical demands associated

with the process

First immersion

It is therefore important for the designer to

determine in advance the maximum dimensions
of the available galvanizing tanks.
In the case of steel structures, the economically
viable dimensions of tanks are as follows:

Figure 8 Example of double immersion

Length: 7.00 16.50 m

Width: 1.30 2.00 m
Depth: 2.20 3.50 m

Second immersion

For building components that can not be

galvanized in one operation, (Figure 8 shows
an example for double immersion), special
measures have to be taken since the differential
Requirements imposed on the materials,
design, and fabrication of building components heating of the building component increases
the risk of deformation and/or cracking (see
to prevent deformations and cracks
also paragraph 6.2.4). In this situation, prior
Basic information on this subject can be found in discussions should be held with the galvanizer.
ISO 1461 and in EN ISO 14713.

Safety requirements

In addition, the shape of steel structures and

their design as regards corrosion protection
have a decisive influence on the effectiveness
(protection period) and maintenance
(accessibility) of the corrosion protection.

Architects Hans Luz und Partner

In this respect, the basic rules for the design of

structures to be corrosion protected according
to EN ISO 12944-3 are also applicable to
galvanized structures.

Killesberg Tower, Stuttgart, Germany

25

6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing

Air pockets and air inclusions lead to uncoated

areas; constructional measures must therefore
be employed to prevent their formation.
This does not only apply to structures made
from hollow sections and tanks, but also to
structures comprising stiffeners, partition plates
and endplates, etc. in which air pockets may
form during immersion if appropriate vent holes
are not incorporated.

The run-off openings for the connection of

girders, base plates, corners of portal frames,
etc. must have a diameter between 10 mm and
approx. 35 mm. Examples can be found in
Figure 10.

Figure 9 Examples of vent holes

l1

Figure 9 shows examples of vent holes,

Figure 10 examples of run-off openings. In the
case of sections up to 300 mm high, l1 must be
20 mm, in the case of sections over 300 mm
high, l1 must be 30 mm. In order to achieve
the ideal immersion velocity for LME-critical
steel constructions, it is necessary to coordinate
the design of the vent holes with the fabricator
and the galvanizer.

l1
l1

In order to ensure that the surface is correctly

pre-treated and high quality galvanization
is achieved, building components must be
designed in such a way that the pre-treatment
liquids and especially the molten zinc are in
contact with all the surfaces, and that they can
freely run off when the part is removed from
the bath.

The sizes of the run-off openings and vent holes

depend on the quantity of zinc that must flow
through. The immersion velocity is an important
parameter for reducing the risk potential of
steel constructions with regard to LME. Further
details will be discussed in chapter 8. It has
been experimentally determined that the
susceptibility to LME decreases with an increase
in immersion velocity. An ideal immersion
velocity would be approximately 5 m/min [11].

l1

2.2 Vent holes, run-off openings,

ventilation openings

Bevel cut

Circular cut

Figure 10 Examples of run-off openings

Girder assembly

Base plate

Node of portal frame

D
D
D

6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing

2.3 Safety issues associated

with the process
At the temperature of molten zinc (440
460C) the moisture contained in air pockets
(hollow parts, overlapping areas closed by
welds) generates pressurized water vapour
creating an explosion risk. Liquids from the pretreatment process can also seep into overlapping
surfaces if these are not perfectly sealed, and
evaporate explosively when immersed in the
zinc bath.

Table 4 Recommended maximum sizes of overlapping surfaces

Maximum overlapping surfaces

Measures

Up to 100 cm2 (for product thicknesses < 12mm)

Seal weld circumference

Up to 400 cm2 (for product thicknesses 12mm)

Seal weld circumference

Overlapping surfaces should be avoided not

only for safety reasons, but also for corrosion
protection purposes. Table 4 provides some
suggestions, should overlapping surfaces be
unavoidable.
The drilling of holes in large overlapping surfaces
definitely reduces the danger of explosion during
galvanization but it also reduces the efficiency
of the corrosion protection of the structure.
Indeed, infiltrated pre-treatment solutions do
not completely evaporate, leaving traces of salt
in gaps. In many cases, the zinc coat will not
completely cover the gaps after evaporation
of the liquids, resulting in corrosion occurring in
these parts of the structure.

27

6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing

2.4 Information on detailing

suitable for galvanization
The design and detailing of steel building
components must satisfy the basic principles
for the design of structures requiring corrosion
protection, and in particular, of hot-dip
galvanization. This is the only way in which
adequate corrosion protection comprising
satisfactory thickness of zinc layers can be
ensured, along with the elimination of the
potential risk of structural deformation, cracks or
any other damage to the building components.
Consultation with the galvanizer must be sought
as early as possible in the design process for
galvanized steel components.

Potential problems during hot-dip galvanization

of steel components may be solved by
implementation of the following constructional
and technological measures:

Already at the planning stage, the fabricator

must try to minimise residual stresses
generated during fabrication, particularly from
welding. Here, appropriate welding procedures
are helpful. With increasing thicknesses of
building components, the risk of threedimensional stresses, faster cooling rates
and hence the risk of cracking increases.
Strict compliance with requirements as
regards the design of structures intended
for hot-dip galvanization, especially when
using high strength steels with a low notch
toughness. The amount of vent holes and
drainage holes must be minimised. Also,
inappropriate fabrication will increase the
risk of cracking. It is recommended to
seek agreement with the galvanizer.

The ratio of plate thicknesses welded directly

together should not exceed a factor of 2.5.
With increasing thicknesses of the steel
parts and for elements with a high degree of
welding, the ratio should even be smaller.
The use of highly restrained building
components susceptible of generating
internal stresses during the galvanizing
process should be avoided.
The actual characteristics and the
chemical composition of the material to
be galvanized must be identified prior
to galvanization. The galvanizer must be
advised about the nature of the steels
used for the sections to be galvanized.
Multiple immersions must be avoided.

The following table shows a selection of

structural details which have to be considered
as critical with regard to LME during hot-dip
galvanization.

Table 5 Structural details and fabrication recommendations

Nr

Structural detail

Description
Welding of half end plates induces a concentration of residual stresses in the area indicated.

Recommendation: arrange the end plate over the full height of the section or use a bolted
connection.

Welding of the plate induces a concentration of residual stresses in the area indicated.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the areas indicated, and/or round off.

Welding induces concentrations of residual stresses at the four corners of the hollow section.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the areas indicated.

6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing

Nr

Structural detail

Description

Welding induces concentrations of residual stresses at the four corners of the connection plate.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the areas indicated.

Welding induces concentrations of residual stresses at the ends of the plate.

Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the areas indicated.

The differences in stiffness between the section, the thick base plate, and welds induce
concentrations of residual stresses.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds .

The differences in stiffness between the section and the endplate and welds induce concentrations of residual straining. Hardening at the edges of the bolt holes may also occur.
Recommendations: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds, carefully
drill bolt holes.
The differences in stiffness between the section and the endplate and welds induce
residual stresses.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds.

10

The welding of stiffeners between the anges of the section induces residual stresses.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds.

The system is internally highly restrained. The inevitable differences in temperature to which
building components are heated lead to high residual stresses.
Recommendation: bolt the diagonals to the chords after galvanization.

11

Inappropriate execution of the rounded areas may result in hardening and the creation
of notches.
Recommendation: round-off carefully, perform stress relief annealing in the fabricated areas.

12

Inappropriate execution of openings may result in hardening and the creation of notches.
Recommendation: round-off carefully, perform stress relief annealing in the fabricated area.

29

Architects SRA, Anthony Belluschi, OWP&P

Shopping Center 4 temps, Paris, France

7. Requirements for the fabrication

of steel structures
1. Residual stresses in
building components
Cracks from hot-dip galvanizing of steel
constructions are often generated in places with
high residual stresses (tensile stresses), notches
and/or hardness increases due to fabrication
processes such as

welding
oxygen cutting
grinding
drilling
punching
cold forming (ageing)
straightening

Residual stresses are also created in restrained

components in the zinc bath. The heat during
galvanization (450C) modifies both the
state of internal stresses and the mechanical
characteristics of the steel (reduction of yield
stress and modulus of elasticity), thereby
reducing the resistance of the building
components to elastic deformation. Stresses,
mainly localised, can decrease but also increase
and deformations may occur.

into account the dimensions of the building

component and the application temperature
(see prEN 1993-1-10). With components that
are to be hot-dip galvanized, special care must
be taken to minimise residual stresses. This is
usually achieved using constructional measures,
in order to avoid any subsequent stress relieving
before galvanizing.
Fabrication also allows to prevent high residual
stresses and hardness increases by

using multi-layer fillet welds, which

could be welded in a single run with the
current state of welding techniques

establishing a welding procedure

avoiding long and thick welds

avoiding cold deformation or reducing

the created residual stresses through
heat treatment (keeping in mind
however that not all the effects of
cold forming can be cancelled out)

removing notches or restricting their presence

especially in thin building parts of welded
constructions and areas subject to changes
in microstructure from cold forming, welding,
oxygen cutting, drilling, punching, etc.

2. Surface condition of
rolled long products
Unless otherwise specified in the order,
the surfaces of hot rolled sections for hotdip galvanization shall normally conform
to the basic requirements of EN 101633:1991, class C, subsection 1.
The surfaces to be galvanized must
be de-greased and any discontinuities
that could compromise the corrosion
protection properties of the zinc coat
must be removed before galvanization.

The plastic deformation capabilities of structural

steels generally allow to disregard the accurate
determination of residual stresses as they are
mostly localised and tend to disappear through
plastification when superposed with stresses
from exterior loads. It is of course of outmost
importance here that the appropriate steel
is chosen with respect to toughness, taking

Architects Markus Ott - Photo Atelier Kinold

The difficulty lies, however, in determining the

magnitude of residual stresses, which in practice
can only be roughly estimated. The many
factors, influenced by fabrication and detailing,
cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy
either qualitatively or quantitatively. Structural
engineers are usually unaware of the real amount
of residual stresses in the structure.

31

Courtesy of Vollack Management GmbH, Germany

Rheda Wiederbrck Car Park, Germany

8. Requirements for hot-dip Galvanizing

As seen in paragraph 4.3, the presence of a
corrosive acting liquid metal in contact with a
solid metal prone to liquid metal embrittlement
is the precondition for crack formation in steels
due to LME. This prerequisite is inevitably
given for hot-dip galvanizing (liquid metal =
zinc bath, solid metal = steel), as this is the
only way that the zinc coat can be produced.
Similar to the requirements for the steel
production, for the structural design and for the
fabrication of steel structures (in particular for
minimising residual stresses), specific measures
have to be taken in the hot-dip galvanizing
process to keep the risk of hydrogen-induced
cracking and LME as low as possible.
Extensive investigations [9, 12, 13] have
shown that during hot-dip galvanizing, the
temperature gradient resulting from the
immersion of structural elements into the
zinc bath and its time-related variation during
dipping is an important process parameter in
view of LME. Here, the risk potential for LME
is small for a low temperature gradient [14].

The temperature gradient can be reduced by

optimizing the chemical composition

of the zinc bath, especially with
respect to Sn, Pb and Bi,
increasing the immersion velocity
(approx. 5 m/min)
increasing the dipping angle
increasing the salt concentration
in the flux (approx 500 g/l)
adjusting the drying temperature after
fluxing to 100C, to ensure a high
temperature of the building components
prior to dipping in the zinc bath

keeping the temperature of the zinc bath as

low as possible to minimise the temperature
difference between the building part and the
zinc bath.

Recent research results define a new sateof-the-art. Nowadays, it can be assumed

that contents of tin up to 0.1% and/or
bismuth up to 0.1% do not detrimentally
influence LME. Herewith, the content
of lead should be limited to 0.8%.
It must however be noted here that both
the classical zinc bath and the one modified
as described above can be LME-critical,
especially if the LME-critical requirements for
the quality of material, design and fabrication
(see paragraphs 5 to 7) are not met.

Based on the above mentioned findings,

investigations were conducted in order to lower
the temperature gradient by modifying process
parameters of hot-dip galvanizing [11].

Architects Claude Vasconi & Jean Petit, Luxembourg

The heat transfer coefficient and the

wetting ability of zinc baths increase with
high concentrations of alloys, especially
tin (Sn), lead (Pb) and bismuth (Bi)
thereby reducing the heating time and
consequently increasing the risk of LME.

Chamber of Commerce, Luxembourg

33

Bavarian Model Housing Estate, Ingolstadt, Germany

9. Duplex systems
Many architects use hot-dip galvanized steel
structures because of their aesthetic qualities.
In addition, the use of liquid or powder paints on
top of the zinc coat, the well-known duplexsystem, has become very popular over the last
few years.
Duplex systems have advantages when the
following aspects are important:

long protection period

Duplex systems have a service life 1.2 to 1.5
times higher than the combined protection
periods of the hot-dip galvanization and paint
coats (synergy effect).
large choice of colours
need for signalling / identification /
camouflage
no or reduced release of zinc into the
environment

At least the first coat of the paint system

should be applied in the workshop, if possible
immediately after hot-dip galvanization thereby
rendering expensive surface preparation
on the construction site unnecessary.
High quality duplex systems require
optimal compatibility between the
galvanizing coat and the paint.

The choice of suitable coating materials is of

particular importance. Only coating systems with
proven compatibility with batch galvanization
in accordance with EN ISO 1461 shall be used.
The requirements for surface preparation /
pre-treatment depend on the nature of the
coating material.

jet pressure at the nozzle: 2.5 3.0 bars

jet angle : <30 (take the geometry of
the building component into account)

Detailed information on duplex systems

involving liquid and powder coatings
can be found in reference [16].

Zinc surfaces designed to be powder-coated

must be sweeped, phosphated or chromated
immediately prior to coating.
In the case of liquid paints, current technology
only requires the surface of the zinc coat
to be sweeped when large amounts of zinc
corrosion products (white rust) on the surface
compromise adhesion, or in function of the
corrosion exposure categories as per the
specifications of the coat manufacturer.
The purpose of sweep blasting is simply to clean
and rough the surface of the coats. Sweeping
exerts great mechanical stress on zinc coatings
and may, if poorly executed, damage them
(i.e. cause cracks, flaking).
The optimal parameters for sweeping are [15]:

abrasive: non-metallic slags, aluminous

abrasive, or glass beads
particle size of the abrasive grit: 0.25 0.50 mm

35

Architects SRA, Anthony Belluschi, OWP&P

Shopping Center 4 temps, Paris, France

10. Cost effectiveness

Hot-dip galvanization of structural steel
components exposed to atmospheric conditions
constitutes a highly effective durable corrosion
protection method. In many applications,
the corrosion protection lasts as long as the
structure itself. Zinc coatings require no or
almost no maintenance. Hot-dip galvanizing,
in terms of lifetime of the structures, including
maintenance and repair costs, is by far the
most cost-efficient corrosion protection
system available for steel structures.
Contrary to the prevailing view that hot-dip
galvanization only becomes cost-effective over
time, it now offers substantial cost savings
when compared to other protection systems on
many types of structures, right from the very
beginning. Studies have shown that, beyond a
specific surface area of 15 to 20 m2/t, the initial
costs of hot-dip galvanizing are lower than those
of a three-coat paint system [17].
Architects and designers should more than ever
be aware of this fact when selecting a corrosion
protection system.
Where hot-dip galvanizing cannot meet more
stringent appearance requirements, a simple
duplex system e.g. a coat of zinc and one coat
of paint that does not need sweeping, is worth
considering.
In any case, it is useful to perform a costcomparison of the various options before
selecting the appropriate corrosion protection
system.

37

Architects Romain Hoffmann Architectes et Urbanistes

Bouillon Car Park, Luxembourg

References
1.

Bibliography

[1] Dr.-Ing. D. Knotkova

Aktuelle Erkenntnisse zum
Korrosionsverhalten von Zink und
Zinkberzgen
Vortrag 4. Deutscher Verzinkertag
1995 Kln
[2] Dr.-Ing. Knotkova und F. Porter
Longer life of galvanized steel in the
atmosphere due to reduced SO2-pollution
in Europe
Proc. of Intergalva 1994, Paris
[3] F. von Assche
Atmospheric conditions and hot dip
galvanizing performance
Proc. Intergalva 1997, Birmingham,
EGGA UK
[4] Katzung, W. und Mitarb.
Zum Einfluss von Si und P auf das
Verzinkungsverhalten von Bausthlen
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech.
28, 575 587 (1997)
[5] Katzung, W. und Mitarbeiter; FuE-Bericht
Institut fr Stahlbau Leipzig GmbH,
Arno-Nitzsche-Str. 45, D-04277 Leipzig
(unverffentlicht)
[6] Katzung, W.; Rittig, R.; Schubert, P. und
Schulz, W. D.
Zum Einfluss von Abkhlverlauf und
Tauchdauer auf die Haftfestigkeit und das
Bruchverhalten von Zinkberzgen nach
DIN EN ISO 1461
Mat.-wiss. und Werkstofftechnik 32,
483-492 (2001)

[7] Katzung, W. und Schulz, W. D.

On hot-dip galvanizing of steel
constructions Causes and solution
proposals referring to cracking
[8] Pargeter, R.
Liquid metal penetration during hot-dip
galvanizing
Published: TWI Website
[9] Kinstler, Thomas J.
Current Knowledge of the Cracking of
Steels During Galvanizing
GalvaScience LLC, PO Box 501, Springville,
AL 35146
[10] Kikuchi, M.
Liquid Metal Embrittlement of Steels
during Hot Dip Galvanizing
Tetsu to Hagane, Iron and Steel, Volume
68, Number 14, 1982,
Pages 1870-1879
[11] Pankert, R., Dhaussey, D., Beguin, P., Gilles, M.
Three Years Experience with the
Galveco Alloy
Proceedings Twentieth International
Galvanizing Conference
Amsterdam, 2003, European General
Galvanizers Association
[12] Interpretation zinc assisted cracking on
big scale steel structures and preventive
methods. 2001, referiert in ILZRO
Project ZC 21 2.

[13] Poag, G., Zervoudis, J.

Influence of various parameters on steel
cracking.
AGA Tech Forum, Oct. 8. 2003. Kansas
City, Missouri.
[14] Pinger, T.
Avoidance of liquid metal induced
embrittlement of galvanized steel
constructions
[15] Schulz, W. D.; Schubert, P.; Katzung, W.;
Rittig, R.
Correct sweeping of hot-dip galvanized
parts according to DIN EN ISO 1461),
Der Maler- und Lackierer-meister 7/99
[16] Verbnde-Richtlinie Korrosions-schutz von
Stahlbauten Duplex-Systeme
Herausgegeben von Bundesverband
Korrosionsschutz e.V., Kln
Deutscher Stahlbauverband e. V.,
Dsseldorf
Industrieverband Feuerverzinken e. V.,
Dsseldorf
Verband der Lackindustrie e. V., Frankfurt
[17] Dipl.-Ing. P. Kleingarn
Cost-effective and reliable corrosion
protection using hot-dip galvanizing),
Feuer-verzinken (28 th year) n 3,
September 1999

39

References

2.

Standards and further reading

EN ISO 1461 : 1999

Hot-dip galvanized coatings on fabricated
iron and steel articles
Katzung, W. und Marberg, D.
Beuth-Kommentare
Korrosionsschutz durch Feuerverzinken auf
Stahl aufgebrachte Zinkberzge
(Stckverzinken), Kommentar zu
DIN EN ISO 1461 (2002)

EN ISO 14713: 1999

Protection against corrosion of iron and
steel in structures Zinc and aluminium
coatings - Guidelines
EN ISO 12944-1-8 : 1998
Corrosion protection of steel structures by
protective paint systems
DIN 267, PART 10
Mechanical assembly components Technical delivery conditions
Galvanized parts
EN 10025 : 2004
Hot rolled products from structural steels
EN 1993-1-10
Design of steel structures Selection of
materials
DASt Guideline 009
Selection of steel grades for welded steel
structures

Korrosionsschutz durch Feuerverzinken

(Stckverzinken)
Corrosion protection by hot-dip
galvanizing batch galvanizing
Institut Feuerverzinken GmbH,
Sohnstrae 70, D-40237 Dsseldorf
Maa, P. und Peiker, P.
Hot-dip galvanization manual
Deutscher Verlag fr Grundstoffindustrie
Leipzig, Stuttgart 1993
Arbeitsbltter Feuerverzinken
Technical sheets for hot-dip galvanizing
Institut Feuerverzinken GmbH, Sohnstrae
70, D-40237 Dsseldorf

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