Seelmaking

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Steel mill with two arc furnaces.

Steelmaking is the process for producing steel from iron and ferrous scrap. In steelmaking, impurities such
as nitrogen,silicon, phosphorus, and excess carbon are removed from the raw iron, and alloying elements such
as manganese,nickel, chromium and vanadium are added to produce different grades of steel. Limiting
dissolved gases such as nitrogenand oxygen, and entrained impurities (termed "inclusions") in the steel is also
important to ensure the quality of the products cast from the liquid steel. [1] There are two major processes for
making steel, namely basic oxygen steelmakingwhich has liquid pig-iron from the blast furnace and scrap steel
as the main feed materials, and electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking which uses scrap steel or direct
reduced iron (DRI) as the main feed materials. Oxygen steelmaking is fuelled predominantly by the exothermic
nature of the reactions inside the vessel where as in EAF steelmaking, electrical energy is used to melt the
solid scrap and/or DRI materials. In recent times, EAF steelmaking technology has evolved closer to oxygen
steelmaking as more chemical energy is introduced into the process. [2]

Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its 2003 closure.

Steelmaking has played a crucial role in the development of modern technological societies. Cast iron is a hard
brittle material that is difficult to work, whereas steel is malleable, relatively easily formed and a versatile
material. For much of human history, steel has only been able to be made in small quantities but since the
invention of the Bessemer process in the 19th century and subsequent technological developments in injection
technology and process control, mass production of steel has become an integral part of the world's economy
and a key indicator of technological development.[3] The earliest means of producing steel was in a bloomery.
Early modern methods of producing steel were often labour-intensive and highly skilled arts. See:

finery forge, in which the German finery process could be managed to produce steel.

blister steel and crucible steel.

An important aspect of the industrial revolution was the development of large-scale methods of producing
forgeable metal (bar iron or steel). The puddling furnace was initially a means of producing wrought iron, but
was later applied to steel production.
The real revolution in steelmaking only began at the end of the 1850s when the Bessemer process became the
first successful method of steelmaking in quantity, followed by the open-hearth furnace.

Modern processes[edit]
Modern steelmaking processes can be broken into two categories: primary and secondary steelmaking.
Primary steelmaking involves converting liquid iron from a blast furnace and steel scrap into steel via basic
oxygen steelmaking or melting scrap steel and/or direct reduced iron (DRI) in an electric arc furnace.
Secondary steelmaking involves refining of the crude steel before casting and the various operations are
normally carried out in ladles. In secondary metallurgy, alloying agents are added, dissolved gases in the steel
are lowered, inclusions are removed or altered chemically to ensure that high-quality steel is produced after
casting.[4]

Primary steelmaking[edit]
Main article: Basic oxygen steelmaking
Basic oxygen steelmaking is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into
steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of thealloy and changes it into steel.
The process is known as basic due to the chemical nature of the refractoriescalcium oxide and magnesium
oxidethat line the vessel to withstand the high temperature and corrosive nature of the molten metal
and slag in the vessel. The slag chemistry of the process is also controlled to ensure that impurities such as
silicon and phosphorus are removed from the metal.
The process was developed in 1948 by Robert Durrer and commercialized in 195253 by Austrian VOEST and
AMG. The LD converter, named after the Austrian towns of Linz and Donawitz (a district of Leoben) is a
refined version of the Bessemer converter where blowing of air is replaced with blowing oxygen. It reduced
capital cost of the plants, time of smelting, and increased labor productivity. Between 1920 and 2000, labor
requirements in the industry decreased by a factor of 1,000, from more than 3 worker-hours per tonne to just
0.003. The vast majority of steel manufactured in the world is produced using the basic oxygen furnace; in
2011, it accounted for 70% of global steel output. Modern furnaces will take a charge of iron of up to 350 tons
and convert it into steel in less than 40 minutes, compared to 1012 hours in an open hearth furnace.[5]
Electric arc furnace steelmaking is predominantly used for producing steel from scrap and involves melting
scrap or direct reduced iron using electric arcs (either in AC or DC mode). It is common to start the melt with a
"hot heel" (molten steel from a previous heat) and use gas burners to assist with the melt down of the scrap pile
in the furnace. As in basic oxygen steelmaking, fluxes are also added to protect the lining of the vessel and
help improve the removal of impurities. Electric arc furnace steelmaking typically involves furnaces of capacity
around 100 tonnes that produce steel every 40 to 50 minutes for further processing. [6]
By-product gases from the steel making process can be used to generate electricity through the use of
reciprocating gas engines.[7]

Secondary steelmaking[edit]
Secondary steelmaking is most commonly performed in ladles and often referred to as ladle (metallurgy). Some
of the operations performed in ladles include de-oxidation (or "killing"), vacuum degassing, alloy addition,
inclusion removal, inclusion chemistry modification, de-sulphurisation and homogenisation. It is now common to
perform ladle metallurgical operations in gas stirred ladles with electric arc heating in the lid of the furnace.
Tight control of ladle metallurgy is associated with producing high grades of steel in which the tolerances in
chemistry and consistency are narrow.[8]

HIsarna steelmaking[edit]
Main article: HIsarna steelmaking process
The HIsarna steelmaking process is a process for primary steelmaking in which iron ore is processed almost
directly into steel. The process is based around a new type of blast furnace called aCyclone Converter
Furnace, which makes it possible to skip the process of manufacturing pig iron pellets that is necessary for
the basic oxygen steelmaking process. Without the necessity for this preparatory step the HIsarna process is
more energy-efficient and has a lower carbon footprint than traditional steelmaking processes.

Steelmaking

Electroslag remelting (ESR), also known as electro-flux remelting, is a process of remelting

and refining steel and other alloys formission-critical applications in aircraft, thermal power
stations, nuclear power plants, military technology, et al.[1]
The electroslag remelting (ESR) process is used to remelt and refine steels and various super-

alloys, resulting in high-quality ingots. This process can be started up through vacuum induction
melting. The ESR process uses the as-cast alloy as a consumable electrode. Electric current
(generally AC) is passed between the electrode and the new ingot, which is formed in the bottom
of a water-cooled copper mold. The new ingot is covered in an engineered slag that is
superheated by the electric current. The electrode tip is slowly melted from contact with the slag.
These metal droplets travel through the slag to the bottom of the water-cooled mold and slowly
freeze as the ingot is directionally solidified upwards from the bottom of the mold. The slag pool
floats above the refined alloy, continuously floating upwards as the alloy solidifies. The molten
metal is cleaned of impurities that chemically react with the slag or otherwise float to the top of
the molten pool as the molten droplets pass through the slag. [2]
Electroslag remelting uses highly reactive slags (calcium fluoride, lime, alumina, or other oxides
are usually the main components) to reduce the amount of type-A sulfide present
in biometal alloys. It is a common practice in European industries. ESR reduces other types
of inclusions as well, and is seen as an alternative to the vacuum arc remelting method that is
prevalent in US industries.

Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) is a secondary melting process for production of metal ingots with elevated
chemical and mechanical homogeneity for highly demanding applications.[1] The VAR process has

revolutionized the specialty traditional metallurgical techniques industry, and has made possible incredibly
controlled materials used in the biomedical, aviation, and aerospace fields.
Contents
[hide]

VAR is used most frequently in high value applications. Essentially it is an additional processing step to
improve the quality of metal. Because it is both time consuming and expensive, a majority of
commercial alloys do not employ the process. Nickel, titanium,[2] and specialty steels are materials most
often processed with this method. The conventional path for production of titanium alloys includes single,
double or even triple VAR processing.[3] Use of this technique over traditional methods presents several
advantages:

The solidification rate of molten material can be tightly controlled. This allows a high degree of
control over the microstructure as well as the ability to minimize segregation

The gases dissolved in liquid metal during melting metals in open furnaces, such
as nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen are considered to be detrimental to the majority of steels and
alloys. Under vacuum conditions these gases escape from liquid metal to the vacuum chamber.

Elements with high vapor pressure such as carbon, sulfur, and magnesium (frequently
contaminants) are lowered in concentration.

Centerline porosity and segregation are eliminated.

Certain metals and alloys, such as Ti, cannot be melted in open air furnaces

Process description[edit]
The alloy to undergo VAR is formed into a cylinder typically by vacuum induction melting (VIM) or ladle
refining (airmelt). This cylinder, referred to as an electrode is then put into a large cylindrical
enclosed crucible and brought to a metallurgical vacuum (0.0010.1 mmHg [ 0.1313.33 Pa ]). At the
bottom of the crucible is a small amount of the alloy to be remelted, which the top electrode is brought
close to prior to starting the melt. Several kiloamperes of DC current are used to start an arc between the
two pieces, and from there, a continuous melt is derived. The crucible (typically made of copper) is
surrounded by a water jacket used to cool the melt and control the solidification rate. To
prevent arcing between the electrode and the crucible side walls, the diameter of the crucible is larger
than that of the electrode. As a result, electrode must be lowered as the melt consumes it. Control of the
current, cooling water, and electrode gap is essential to effective control of the process, and production of
defect free material.
Ideally, the melt rate stays constant throughout the process cycle, but control of the process is not simple.
[4]
This is because there is very complex heat transfer going on involving conduction, radiation, convection
(within the liquid metal), and advection (caused by the Lorentz Force). Ensuring the consistency of the
melt process in terms of pool geometry, and melt rate is pivotal in ensuring the best possible properties
from the alloy.

Materials and applications[edit]

The VAR process is used on many different materials, however certain applications almost always use a
material that has been VAR treated. A list of materials that may be VAR treated include:
Note that pure titanium and most titanium alloys are double or triple VAR processed. Nickel-based super
alloys for aerospace applications are usually VAR processed. Zirconium and niobium alloys used in the
nuclear industry are routinely VAR processed. Pure platinum, tantalum, and rhodium may be VAR
processed.

Argon oxygen decarburization

Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) is a process primarily used in stainless steel making and other high
grade alloys with oxidizable elements such as chromium and aluminum. After initial melting the metal is then
transferred to an AOD vessel where it will be subjected to three steps of refining;decarburization, reduction,
and desulphurization. AOD was invented in 1954 by the Lind Division of The Union Carbide
Corporation [1] (which became known as Praxair in 1992).[2]

Process[edit]
Decarburization[edit]
Prior to the decarburization step, one more step should be taken into consideration: de-siliconization, which is a
very important factor for refractory lining and further refinement.
The decarburization step is controlled by ratios of oxygen to argon or nitrogen to remove the carbon from the
metal bath. The ratios can be done in any number of phases to facilitate the reaction. The gases are usually
blown through a top lance (oxygen only) and tuyeres in the sides/bottom (oxygen with an inert gas shroud). The
stages of blowing remove carbon by the combination of oxygen and carbon forming CO gas.
4 Cr(bath) + 3 O2 2 Cr2O3(slag)
Cr2O3(slag) + 3 C(bath) 3 CO(gas) + 2 Cr(bath)
To drive the reaction to the forming of CO, the partial pressure of CO is
lowered using argon or nitrogen. Since the AOD vessel isn't externally
heated, the blowing stages are also used for temperature control. The
burning of carbon increases the bath temperature.
By the end of this process around 97% of Cr is retained in the steel.

Reduction[edit]

After a desired carbon and temperature level have been reached the
process moves to reduction. Reduction recovers the oxidized
elements such as chromium from the slag. To achieve this, alloy
additions are made with elements that have a higher affinity for oxygen
than chromium, using either a silicon alloy or aluminum. The reduction
mix also includes lime (CaO) and fluorspar (CaF2). The addition of lime
and fluorspar help with driving the reduction of Cr2O3 and managing
the slag, keeping the slag fluid and volume small.

Desulphurization[edit]
Desulphurization is achieved by having a high lime concentration in
the slag and a low oxygen activity in the metal bath.
S(bath) + CaO(slag) CaS(slag) + O(bath)
So, additions of lime are added to dilute sulfur in the metal bath.
Also, aluminum or silicon may be added to remove oxygen. Other
trimming alloy additions might be added at the end of the step.
After sulfur levels have been achieved the slag is removed from
the AOD vessel and the metal bath is ready for tapping. The
tapped bath is then either sent to a stir station for further
chemistry trimming or to a caster for casting.

Argon oxygen decarburization

Refining of a 9.5%CrMoWVNbN steel in an argon, oxygen decarburisation (AOD) vessel

Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) is a process primarily used in stainless steel making and other high
grade alloys with oxidizable elements such as chromium and aluminum. After initial melting the metal is then
transferred to an AOD vessel where it will be subjected to three steps of refining;decarburization, reduction,
and desulphurization. AOD was invented in 1954 by the Lind Division of The Union Carbide
Corporation [1] (which became known as Praxair in 1992).[2]

Process[edit]
Decarburization[edit]

Prior to the decarburization step, one more step should be taken into consideration: de-siliconization, which is a
very important factor for refractory lining and further refinement.
The decarburization step is controlled by ratios of oxygen to argon or nitrogen to remove the carbon from the
metal bath. The ratios can be done in any number of phases to facilitate the reaction. The gases are usually
blown through a top lance (oxygen only) and tuyeres in the sides/bottom (oxygen with an inert gas shroud). The
stages of blowing remove carbon by the combination of oxygen and carbon forming CO gas.
4 Cr(bath) + 3 O2 2 Cr2O3(slag)
Cr2O3(slag) + 3 C(bath) 3 CO(gas) + 2 Cr(bath)
To drive the reaction to the forming of CO, the partial pressure of CO is
lowered using argon or nitrogen. Since the AOD vessel isn't externally
heated, the blowing stages are also used for temperature control. The
burning of carbon increases the bath temperature.
By the end of this process around 97% of Cr is retained in the steel.

Reduction[edit]
After a desired carbon and temperature level have been reached the
process moves to reduction. Reduction recovers the oxidized
elements such as chromium from the slag. To achieve this, alloy
additions are made with elements that have a higher affinity for oxygen
than chromium, using either a silicon alloy or aluminum. The reduction
mix also includes lime (CaO) and fluorspar (CaF2). The addition of lime
and fluorspar help with driving the reduction of Cr2O3 and managing
the slag, keeping the slag fluid and volume small.

Desulphurization[edit]
Desulphurization is achieved by having a high lime concentration in
the slag and a low oxygen activity in the metal bath.
S(bath) + CaO(slag) CaS(slag) + O(bath)
So, additions of lime are added to dilute sulfur in the metal bath.
Also, aluminum or silicon may be added to remove oxygen. Other
trimming alloy additions might be added at the end of the step.
After sulfur levels have been achieved the slag is removed from
the AOD vessel and the metal bath is ready for tapping. The
tapped bath is then either sent to a stir station for further
chemistry trimming or to a caster for casting.

1. .