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3.3. Metals:

Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the planet.
Metals have useful properties including strength, ductility, high melting points and toughness. From
the periodic table, it can be seen that a large number of the elements are classified as metal. A few of
the common metals and their typical uses are presented below:

3.4. Common Metallic Materials:

Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical applications.

Aluminum - Aluminum and its alloys are used because they are easy to form, readily available,
inexpensive, and recyclable.

Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties that make them useful, including
high electrical and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and good corrosion resistance.

Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher temperature (~1000° F), when component
weight is a concern, or when good corrosion resistance is required.

Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures (~1500-2000° F) or when good corrosion
resistance is required.

3.5. Refractory Materials:

These materials are used for the highest temperature (> 2000 °F) applications. The main feature that
distinguishes metals from non-metals is their bonding. Metallic materials have free electrons that
are free to move easily from one atom to the next.

The free electrons have a number of profound consequences for the properties of metallic materials.
It is known that metallic materials tend to be good electrical conductors because the free electrons
can move around within the metal so freely.

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4. Steel Production:

Steel is an alloy of iron usually containing less than 1.5% carbon. Steel can be cast into bars,
strips, sheets, nails, spikes, wire, rods or pipes as needed by the intended user. Steel production at
an integrated steel plant involves three basic steps. First, the heat source used to melt iron ore is
produced. Next the iron ore is melted in a furnace. Finally, the molten iron is processed to produce
steel. The fuel source is often purchased from off-site producers.

Steel is made by the Bessemer, Siemens Open Hearth, Basic Oxygen Furnace, Electric Arc, Electric
High-frequency and Crucible processes. In the former processes, molten pig iron is refined by
blowing air through it in an egg-shaped vessel, known as a converter.

In the Siemens process, both acid and basic, the necessary heat for melting and working the charge
is supplied by oil or gas.

Coke is a solid carbon fuel and carbon source used to melt and reduce iron ore. Coke production
begins with pulverized, bituminous coal, produced in batch processes, with multiple coke ovens
operating simultaneously.

Heat is frequently transferred from one oven to another to reduce energy requirements. After the
coke is finished, it is moved to a quenching tower where it is cooled with water spray. Once cooled,
the coke is moved directly to an iron melting furnace or into storage for future use.

During iron making, iron ore, coke, heated air and limestone or other fluxes are fed into a
blast furnace. The heated air causes the coke combustion, which provides the heat and carbon
sources for iron production.

Limestone or other fluxes may be added to react with and remove the acidic impurities, called slag,
from the molten iron. The limestone-impurities mixtures float to the top of the molten iron and are
skimmed off, after melting is complete.

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Sintering products may also be added to the furnace. Sintering is a process in which solid wastes are
combined into a porous mass that can then be added to the blast furnace. These wastes include iron
ore fines, pollution control dust, coke breeze, water treatment plant sludge, and flux.

Sintering plants help reduce solid waste by combusting waste products and capturing trace iron
present in the mixture. Sintering plants are not used at all steel production facilities.

Molten iron from the blast furnace is sent to a basic oxide furnace, which is used for the final
refinement of the iron into steel. High purity oxygen is blown into the furnace and combusts carbon
and silicon in the molten iron. The basic oxide furnace is fed with fluxes to remove any final impurities
and alloy materials may be added to enhance the characteristics of the steel.

The resulting steel is most often cast into slabs, beams or billets. Further shaping of the metal
may be done at steel foundries, which re-melt the steel and pour it into molds, or at rolling facilities,
depending on the desired final shape.

Coke production is one of the major pollution sources from steel production. Air emissions such as
coke oven gas, naphthalene, ammonium compounds, crude light oil, sulfur and coke dust are released
from coke ovens.

Cokeless iron making procedures are currently being studied and, in some places, implemented.
One such procedure is the Japanese Direct Iron Ore Smelting (DIOS) process. The DIOS process
produces molten iron from coal and previously melted ores. In this process, coal and other ores can
produce enough heat to melt ore, replacing coke completely.

A final coke less iron melting process is the Corex or Cipcor Process. This process also manipulates
coke to produce the heat required to melt iron. A Corex plant is operational in South Africa. Korea has
a Corex plant operating at 70% capacity in 1996, expected to continue in progress.

The process integrates coal desulfurization, has flexible coal-type requirements, and generates
excess electricity that can be sold to power grids. Further testing is being conducted in the U.S to
determine commercial feasibility.

Iron carbide production plants are an alternative to the Basic Oxide Furnace. These plants use iron
carbide, an iron ore that contains 6% carbon rather than 1.5-1.8% of regular iron ore. The additional
carbon ignites in the presence of oxygen and contributes heat to the iron melting process, reducing
energy requirements.

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Steelmaking from scrap metals involves melting scrap metal, removing impurities and casting it
into the desired shapes. Electric arc furnaces (EAF) are often used. The EAF´s melt scrap metal in the
presence of electric energy and oxygen.

The process does not require the three step refinement as needed to produce steel from ore.
Production of steel from scrap can also be economical on a much smaller scale. Frequently mills
producing steel with EAF technology are called mini-mills.

EOF was developed to replace the electric arc and other steelmaking furnaces. The Electric Oxygen
Furnace (EOF) is an oxygen steelmaking process. Carbon and oxygen react to preheat scrap metal,
hot metal and/or pig iron.

These furnaces reduce capital and conversion costs, energy consumption and environmental
pollution, while increasing input flexibility.

After the molten metal is released from the BOF, EAF or EOV, it must be formed into its final shape
and finished to prevent corrosion. Traditionally, steel was poured into convenient shapes called ingots
and stored until further shaping was needed.

Current practices are continuous in casting methods, where the steel is poured directly into semi-
finished shapes. Continuous casting saves time by reducing the steps required to produce the
desired shape.

After the steel has cooled in its mold, continued shaping is done with hot or cold forming. Hot
forming is used to make slabs, strips, bars or plates from the steel. Heated steel is passed between
two rollers until it reaches the desired thickness.

4.1 Metal Forming:

Cold forming is used to produce wires, tubes, sheets and strips. In this process the steel is
passed between two rollers, without being heated, to reduce the thickness. The steel is then heated in
an annealing furnace to improve the ductile properties.

Cold rolling is more time consuming, but the products have better mechanical properties, better
machinability, and can be more easily manipulated into special sizes and thinner gauges.

After rolling is completed, the steel pieces are finished to prevent corrosion and improve
properties of the metal.

4.2. Sheet Metal:

Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms
used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Thicknesses can
vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker
than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.

Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or as a coiled strip. The coils are formed by running a
continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter. The thickness of the sheet metal is called
its gauge.

Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauges to about 8 gauges. The larger the
gauge number, the thinner the metal.

Sheet metal also has applications in car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings
(architectural) and many other things.

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Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated
steel cores has applications in transformers and electric machines. Below there is a simple
representation of metal transformation.

4.3. Steel Pipes Manufacturing:

Steel pipes, tubes or ducts are manufactured from mild steel strips are cut from Hot Rolled Low
Carbon Steel coils, as shown below:

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The strip passes through a series of drive forming and fin rolls and takes the required circular
shape and is welded continuously by passage of an electric current of high frequency, i.e., 50,000
cycles/second across the abutting edges.

The steel pipes tubes thus formed and welded pass through the sizing sections where dimensional
deviations if any are corrected before the tubes are cut into required length by automatic cutting
machines. The tubes are then end deburred and pressure tested.

Thereafter protective surface finishing operations such as Hot Dip Galvanizing or varnishing is done as
per specific requirement. The tubes are offered as plain, beveled, threaded ends or with flanges.

4.4. Foundry:

A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them
into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal
has solidified as it cools.

The most common metals processed are aluminum and

cast iron. Other metals, such as bronze, steel,
magnesium, copper, tin and zinc are also used to
produce castings in foundries.

Melting is performed in a furnace mixing virgin

material, external scrap, internal scrap, and alloying
elements to charge the furnace. Virgin material refers to
commercially pure forms of the primary metal used to
form a particular alloy.

Alloying elements are either pure forms of an alloying element, like electrolytic nickel or alloys of
limited composition, such as ferroalloys or master alloys. External scrap is material from other
forming processes such as punching, forging, or machining. Internal scrap consists of
the gates, risers, or defective castings.

The process includes melting the charge, refining the melt, adjusting the melt chemistry and tapping
into a transport vessel. Refining is done to remove deleterious gases and elements from the molten
metal to avoid casting defects.

4.4.1. Furnace:

Several specialized furnaces are used to melt the metal. Modern furnace types include Electric Arc
Furnaces (EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberators, and crucible furnaces. Furnaces are
refractory lined vessels that contain the material to be melted and provide the energy to melt it.

Furnace choice is dependent on the alloy system and quantities produced. Reverberators and crucible
furnaces are common for producing aluminum castings. In the case of aluminium alloys, a degassing
step is usually necessary to reduce the amount of hydrogen in the liquid metal.

If the hydrogen concentration in the melt is too high, the resulting casting will contain gas porosity
that will deteriorate its mechanical properties. For low temperature melting point alloys, such as zinc
or tin, melting furnaces may reach around 327° Celsius. Electricity, propane, or natural gas is
usually used for these temperatures.

For high melting point alloys such as steel or nickel based alloys, the furnace must be designed for
temperatures over 1600° Celsius. The fuel used to high temperatures can be electricity or coke.

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4.4.2. Mold Making:

In the casting process a pattern is made in the shape of the desired part. This pattern is made out
of wax, wood, plastic or metal. Simple designs can be made in a single piece or solid pattern. More
complex designs are made in two parts, called split patterns.

A split pattern has a top or upper section, called a cope, and a bottom or lower section called a drag.
Both solid and split patterns can have cores inserted to complete the final part shape.

These mold processes include:

Sand casting — Green or resin bonded sand mold.

Lost-foam casting — Polystyrene pattern with a mixture of ceramic and sand mold.
Investment casting — Wax or similar sacrificial pattern with a ceramic mold.
Ceramic mold casting — Plaster mold.
V-process casting — Vacuum is used in conjunction with thermoformed plastic to form sand
molds. No moisture, clay or resin is needed for sand to retain shape.
Die casting — Metal pattern.
Billet (ingot) casting — Simple mold for producing ingots of metal normally for use in other
foundries.

4.4.3. Pouring:

In a foundry, molten metal is poured into molds. Pouring can be

accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or
pressurized gas.

Many modern foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines for

pouring molten metal. Traditionally, molds were poured by hand
using ladles.

4.4.4. Finishing:

The final step in the process usually involves grinding, sanding, or machining the component in
order to achieve the desired dimensional accuracies, physical shape and surface finish.

Removing the remaining gate material, called a gate stub, is usually done using a grinder or sanding.
These processes are used because their material removal rates are slow enough to control the
amount of material. These steps are done prior to any final machining.

After grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional control are machined. Many castings
are machined in CNC milling centers. The reason for this is that these processes have better
dimensional capability and repeatability than many casting processes.

Painting components to prevent corrosion and improve visual appeal is common. Some foundries will
assemble their castings into complete machines or sub-assemblies. Other foundries weld multiple
castings or wrought metals together to form a finished product.

4.5. Forging:

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive
forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature: "cold", "warm", or "hot" forging.

Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580 metric tons. Forged parts usually
require further processing to achieve a finished part.

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