Introduction to Non-Traditional

Machining
 20ME21 - MODERN MACHINING
PROCESSES

PREREQUISITES: Machine Tools and Metrology

COURSE EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The main objective of this course is
to familiarize with unconventional machining processes and rapid prototyping.
COURSE OUTCOMES: After completion of the course student will be able to
CO 1: Assort appropriate unconventional machining processes for machining
materials and to develop relevant industrial solutions for machining materials.
(Understanding - L2)
CO 2: Understand the principles of Electro Chemical Machining Process for
machining of materials. (Understanding - L2)
CO 3: Comprehend Electrical Discharge Machining principles for machining
intricate components. (Understanding - L2)
CO 4: Differentiate the basic principles and applications of thermal machining
processes like EBM, LBM and PAM. (Understanding - L2)
CO 5: Identify the appropriate Rapid Prototyping Processes for manufacturing
various components. (Understanding - L2)
 UNIT - I

INTRODUCTION: Need for unconventional machining methods-Classification

of unconventional machining processes – considerations in process selection.

MECHANICAL PROCESSES: Basic principle, equipment, process variable

and applications of ultrasonic machining, abrasive jet machining and water jet
machining.
 UNIT - II

ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSES: Introduction, principles, equipment and material

removal rate in electrochemical machining, electrochemical grinding, electrochemical
deburring and electrochemical honing-Chemical machining: principle, maskants, etchants,
advantages and applications.
 Unit-iii

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING: Introduction, Principle of Electrical

Discharge Machining– Power circuits for EDM, Advantages, Limitations, and
applications.
PROCESS PARAMETERS OF EDM: Mechanics of metal removal in EDM,
Process parameters, selection of tool electrode and dielectric fluids, Electric
discharge wire cutting principle and applications.
 Unit-iv

ELECTRON BEAM, LASER BEAM AND PLASMA ARC MACHINING:

Introduction, Principle, equipment and applications of electron beam
machining, laser beam machining, plasma arc machining and hot machining.
 Unit-v

RAPID PROTOTYPING: Introduction, Prototype fundamentals, historical

development, fundamentals of Rapid Prototyping, Advantages of Rapid
Prototyping, classification of Rapid prototyping. Rapid Prototyping process
chain, types of RP: Liquid based Rapid Prototyping, Stereo Lithography
Apparatus (SLA), Solid Ground Curing (SGC), Solid based Rapid Prototyping,
Powder based Rapid Prototyping: Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Applications
of Rapid Prototyping
 TEXT BOOKS:

1. Pandey P.C. and Shah H.S, Modern Machining Process / TMH.

2. Chua C.K, Leong K.F and Lim C.S, Rapid Prototyping principles and
applications, second edition, world scientific publishers. 2003.

REFERENCES
3. M.K.Singh, Unconventional Manufacturing Processes / New age
international.
4. VK Jain, Advanced Machining Processes/ / Allied publishers.
5. N.Hopkinson, R.J.M Haque & P.M.Dickens Rapid Manufacturing, John
Wiley & Sons, 2006.
Machining processes
 Non-Traditional Machining
• Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials
using tools that are harder than the materials themselves.
• New and novel materials because of their greatly improved
chemical, mechanical and thermal properties are sometimes
impossible to machine using traditional machining processes.
• Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in
machining hard materials like ceramics and composites
or machining under very tight tolerances as in
micromachined components.
• The need to a avoid surface damage that often accompanies
the stresses created by conventional machining.
Example: aerospace and electronics industries.
• They are classified under the domain of non traditional
processes.
Classification of Non-Traditional Machining
These can be classified according to the source of energy used to generate
such a machining action: mechanical, thermal, chemical and
electrochemical.

Mechanical: Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of

abrasives or fluids (or both)

Thermal: The thermal energy is applied to a very small portion of the work
surface, causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization of
the material. The thermal energy is generated by conversion of electrical
energy.

Electrochemical: Mechanism is reverse of electroplating.

Chemical: Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical

attack by certain acids or other etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals
selectively remove material from portions of the workpart, while other
portions of the surface are protected by a mask.
Classification of Non-Traditional Machining
 Mechanical Machining
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Waterjet Machining (WJM) are typical
examples of single action, mechanical non traditional machining processes.
• The machining medium is solid grains suspended in an abrasive slurry in the
former, while a fluid is employed in the WJM process.
• The introduction of abrasives to the fluid jet enhances the machining
efficiency and is known as abrasive water jet machining. Similar case
happens when ice particles are introduced as in Ice Jet Machining.
Thermal Machining

 Thermal machining
removes materials by
melting or vaporizing the
work piece material.
 Many secondary
phenomena occur during
machining such as
microcracking, formation of
heat affected zones,
striations etc.
 The source of heat could
be plasma as during EDM
and PBM or photons as
during LBM, electrons in
EBM, ions in IBM etc.
Chemical and Electrochemical Machining

• Chemical milling and

photochemical machining or
photochemical blanking all use a
chemical dissolution action to
remove the machining allowance
through ions in an etchant.
• Electrochemical machining uses
the electrochemical dissolution
phase to remove the machining
allowance using ion transfer in an
electrolytic cell.
 Water Jet Cutting (WJC)
• Also known as hydrodynamic machining.
• Uses a fine, high-pressure, high-velocity of water directed at
the work surface to cause cutting of the work.

• Nozzle diameter: 0.1 to 0.4 mm

• Pressure: up to 400 MPa
• Velocity: up to 900 m/s
• Fluid is pressurized by a hydraulic pump

Important process parameters

 Standoff distance: small to avoid dispersion
of the fluid stream (3.2 mm)
 Nozzle opening diameter: affects precision
 Water pressure: high for thicker materials
 Cutting feed rate: the velocity at which the
WJC nozzle is traversed along the cutting path
 Water jet machining
The key element in water jet machining (WJM) is a water jet, which travels at velocities as
high as 900 m/s (approximately Mach 3). When the stream strikes a workpiece surface, the
erosive force of water removes the material rapidly. The water, in this case, acts like a saw
and cuts a narrow groove in the workpiece material.
 Introduction to Abrasive Jet
Machining (AJM)
• In AJM, the material removal takes place due to
impingement of the fine abrasive particles.
• The abrasive particles are typically of 0.025mm diameter
and the air discharges at a pressure of several
atmosphere.
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
 Mechanics of AJM
• Abrasive particle impinges on the work
surface at a high velocity and this impact
causes a tiny brittle fracture and the following
air or gas carries away the dislodged small
work piece particle.

Fracture of work surface Formation of cavity

 Mechanics of AJM
• The process is more suitable when the work
material is brittle and fragile.
• A model for the material removal rate (MRR) is
available from Sarkar and Pandey, 1980.
The MRR (Q) is given as
 Process Parameters
 The process characteristics can be evaluated by judging

(1) the MRR,

(2) the geometry of the cut,

(3) the roughness of the surface produced, and

(4) the rate of nozzle wear.

 The major parameters which control these quantities are:

1. The abrasive (composition, strength, size and mass flow rate).

2. The gas (composition, pressure and velocity).

3. The nozzle (geometry, material, distance from and inclination to

the work surface).
 The Abrasive
 Mainly two types of abrasives are used (1) Aluminum oxide and (2) Silicon
carbide. (Grains with a diameter 10-50 microns are readily available)
 For good wear action on the surfaces, the abrasive grains should have
sharp edges.
 A reuse of the abrasive powder is normally not recommended because of
a decrease of cutting capacity and clogging of the nozzle orifices due to
contamination.
 The mass flow rate of the abrasive particles depends on the pressure and
the flow rate of the gas.

 There is an optimum mixing ratio

(mass fraction of the abrasive in
the jet) for which the metal
removal rate is the highest.

 When the mass flow rate of the

abrasive increases the material
removal rate also increases.
 The Gas
 The AJM unit normally operates at a pressure of 0.2-1.0 N/mm2 .
 The composition of gas and a high velocity has a significant impact on the
MRR even if the mixing ratio is not changed.

The Nozzle
 The nozzle is one of the most vital elements controlling the process
characteristics.
 The nozzle material should be hard to avoid any significant wear due to the
flowing abrasive. [Normally WC (avg. life: 12-30 hrs.) or Sapphire (Appr. =
300 hrs.) are used]
 For a normal operation the cross-sectional area of the orifice can be either
circular or rectangular and between 0.05- 0.2mm2 .
Nozzle to Tip Distance (Stand off distance)
 The nozzle tip distance (NTD) or the stand off distance is a critical
parameter in AJM.
 The NTD not only affects the MRR from the work surface but also the
shape and size of the cavity produced.
 As shown in the figure below, when the NTD increases, the velocity of the
abrasive particles impinging on the work surface increases due to their
acceleration after they leave the nozzle. This increases the MRR.
 With a further increase in the NTD, the velocity reduces due to the drag of
the atmosphere which initially checks the increase in MRR and then
decreases it.
Photographs of the Actual Machined
Cavity Profile at Different NTD

Profile of the machined

cavity at different stand
off distances

(a) 2mm (b) 6mm

(c) 10mm (d) 14mm
(e) 16mm (f) 20mm
 Abrasive Jet Machines

 The gas propulsion system supplies clean and dry gas (air, nitrogen, or CO2) to
propel the abrasive particles.
 The gas may be supplied either by a cylinder or a compressor.
 In case of a compressor a filter or a dryer may be used to avoid water or oil
contamination to the abrasive powder.
 The gas should be non toxic, cheap and easily available and should not
excessively spread when discharged from nozzle into atmosphere.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Process
• The basic USM process involves a tool (made of a ductile and tough
material) vibrating with a low amplitude and very high frequency and
a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the small gap between the
tool and the work piece.
• The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
• The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and brittle
work surface, resulting in the removal of the work material in the
form of small wear particles.
• The tool material being tough and ductile wears out at a much
slower rate.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Process
 Mechanics of USM
The reasons for material removal in an USM process are believed to
be:

1. The hammering of the abrasive particles on the work surface

by the tool.
2. The impact of free abrasive particles on the work surface.
3. The erosion due to cavitation.
4. The chemical action associated with the fluid used.

Many researchers have tried to develop the theories to predict the

characteristics of ultrasonic machining. The model proposed by M.C.
Shaw is generally well accepted and explains the material removal
process well.
M.C. Shaw’s Model of USM Mechanics
In this model the direct impact of the tool on the grains in contact
with the work piece is taken into consideration. Also, the
assumptions made are:

1. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the

volume of the work material per impact.
2. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the no.
of particles making impact per cycle.
3. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the
frequency (no. of cycles per unit time).
4. All impacts are identical.
5. All abrasive grains are identical and spherical in
shape.
 USM process

Thus, volume of work material removal rate (Q)

Qα

VZν
where, V = volume of the work material removal
per impact
Z = number of particles making impact
per cycle
ν = frequency
 Mechanics of USM
Various Tool Position
during a USM cycle.

• The position ‘A’ indicates the instant the tool face touches the abrasive grain.
• The period of movement from ‘A’ to ‘B’ represents the impact.
• The indentations, caused by the grain on the tool and the work surface at the
extreme bottom position of the tool from the position ‘A’ to position ‘B’ is ‘h’
(the total indentation). Tool

Indentations on tool and work surface Abrasive grain

at bottom position of the tool
Work
Plot Between MRR and Feed Force

MRR increases with increasing feed force but after a certain critical
feed force it decreases because the abrasive grains get crushed
under heavy load.
 Process Parameters
The important parameters which affect the process are the:
1. Frequency,
2. Amplitude,
3. Static loading (feed force),
4. Hardness ratio of the tool and the workpiece,
5. Grain size,
6. Concentration of the abrasive in the slurry.

(a) (b)

 With an increase in frequency of the tool head the MRR should increase
proportionally. However, there is a slight variation in the MRR with frequency.
 When the amplitude of the vibration increases the MRR is expected to increase.
The actual nature of the variation is shown in Fig. (b). There is some
discrepancy in the actual values again. This arises from the fact that we
calculate the duration of penetration Δt by considering average velocity.
 Process Parameters
 We already said that with an increase in static loading, the MRR tends to increase.
However, at higher force values of the tool head due to grain crushing the MRR
decreases.

 The ratio of workpiece hardness and tool hardness affects the MRR quite
significantly, and the characteristics is shown below.
 Apart from the hardness the brittleness of the work material plays a very
dominant role. The table below shows the relative MRR for different work
materials. As can be seen the more brittle material is machined more rapidly.
Relative material removal rates (frequency = 16.3 kHz,
amplitude = 12.5 um grain size = 100 mesh)

Work material Relative MRR

Glass 100.0
Brass 6.6
Tungsten 4.8
Titanium 4.0
Steel 3.9
Chrome steel 1.4
 Process Parameters

 MRR should also rise proportionately with the mean grain diameter ‘d’.
When ‘d’ becomes too large, the crushing tendency increases.
 Concentration of the abrasives directly controls the number of grains
producing
impact per cycle. MRR is proportional to C1/4 so after C rises to 30% MRR
increase is not very fast.
 Apart from the process parameters some
physical properties (e.g. viscosity) of the fluid
used for the slurry also affects the MRR.
Experiments show that MRR drops as viscosity
increases.
 Although the MRR is a very important
consideration for judging the USM but so is
the surface finish.
Dependence of Surface Finish on Grain Size

 The figure shows that the surface finish is more sensitive to

grain size in case of glass which is softer than tungsten carbide.

 This is because in case of a harder material the size of the

fragments dislodged through a brittle fracture does not depend
much on the size of the impacting particles.
 Ultrasonic Machining Unit
The main units of an Ultrasonic
Machining unit are shown in
the figure below. It consists of
the following machine
components:

(1) The acoustic head.

(2) The feeding unit.
(3) The tool.
(4) The abrasive slurry and
pump unit.
(5) The body with work
table.
 Acoustic Head
1. The Acoustic head’s function is to
produce a vibration in the tool.
2. It consists of a generator for supplying a
high frequency electric current, a
transducer to convert this into a
mechanical motion (in form of a high
frequency vibration).
3. A holder to hold the head.
4. A concentrator to mechanically
amplify the vibration while
transmitting it to the tool.
Types of concentrators
 Abrasive Slurry
 The most common abrasives are Boron Carbide (B4C),
Silicon Carbide (SiC), Corrundum (Al2O3), Diamond and
Boron silicarbide.

 B4C is the best and most efficient among the rest but it is
expensive.

 SiC is used on glass, germanium and most ceramics.

 Cutting time with SiC is about 20-40% more than that with
B4C.

 Diamond dust is used only for cutting daimond and

rubies.

 Water is the most commonly used fluid although other

liquids such as benzene, glycerol and oils are also used.
 Summary
Mechanics of material Brittle fracture caused by impact of abreasive grains due to
removal tool vibrating at high frequency
Medium Slurry
Abrasives B4C, SiC, Al2O3, diamond
100-800 grit size
Vibration
Frequency 15-30 kHz
Amplitude 25-100 µm
Tool
Material Soft steel
MRR/Tool wear rate 1.5 for WC workpiece, 100 for glass workpiece
Gap 25-40 µm
Critical parameters Frequency, amplitude, tool material, grit size, abrasive
material, feed force, slurry concentration, slurry viscosity
Materials application Metals and alloys (particularly hard and brittle),
semiconductors, nonmetals, e.g., glass and ceramics
Shape application Round and irregular holes, impressions
Limitations Very low MRR, tool wear, depth of holes and cavities small
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
 Electrochemical machining is one of the most unconventional machining
processes.
 The process is actually the reverse of electroplating with
some modifications.
 It is based on the principle of electrolysis.
In a metal, electricity is conducted by free electrons but in a solution the
conduction of electricity is achieved through the movement of ions.
 Thus the flow of current through an electrolyte is always accompanied
by the movement of matter.
 In the ECM process the work-piece is connected to a positive
electrode and the tool to the negative terminal for metal removal.
 Electrochemical Machining

 The dissolution rate is more where the gap is less and vice versa.

 This is because the current density is inversely proportional to the gap.

Now, if the tool is given a downward motion, the work surface tends to
take the same shape as that of the tool, and at a steady state the gap is
uniform.

 Thus the shape of the tool is represented in the job.

 Electrochemical Machining
 In an electrochemical machining process, the electrolyte is pumped at a
high pressure through the tool and the small gap between the tool and
the work-piece.

 The electrolyte is so chosen that the anode is dissolved but there is

no deposition on the cathode.

 The order of the current and voltage are a few 1000 amps and 8-
20 volts. The gap is of the order of 0.1-0.2mm .

 The metal removal rate is typically 1600 mm3/sec for each 1000
Amp.

 Approximately 3 KW-hr. are needed to remove 16000 mm3 of metal

which is almost 30 times the energy required in a conventional
process.
 Electrochemical Machining
• With ECM the rate of metal
removal is independent of
the work-piece hardness.

 ECM becomes
advantageous when either
the work material possesses
a very low machinability or
the shape to be machined is
complex.

Unlike most other conventional and unconventional processes, here there is

practically no tool wear.

 Though it appears that, since machining is done electrochemically, the tool

experiences no force, the fact is that the tool and work is subjected to large
forces exerted by the high pressure fluid in the gap.
 Electrochemistry of ECM process
The electrolysis process is governed by the following two laws proposed by
Faraday.
(1) The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current, that is,
the amount of any material dissolved or deposited, is proportional to
the quantity of electricity passed.
(2) The amounts of different substances dissolved or deposited by the same
quantity of electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent
weights.
Material Removal in ECM Process
Material Removal in ECM Process
Material Removal in ECM Process
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
EDM: How Sparking Takes Place?
EDM: Machine Elements
 MRR in EDM
The molten crater can be assumed to be
hemispherical in nature with a radius r which
forms due to a single pulse or spark. Hence,
material removal in a single spark can be
expressed as

The energy content of a single spark is given as

Thus the energy available as heat at the

workpiece is given by

Now, it can be logically assumed that material removal in a single spark would
be proportional to the spark energy. Thus,

Now, material removal rate is the ratio of material removed in a single spark to
cycle time. Thus,
Precision wire EDM Taper 3D cutting using traveling wire EDM
 Advantages of EDM
 Any materials that are electrically conductive can be
machined by EDM.
 Materials, regardless of their hardness, strength, toughness
and microstructure can be easily machined/cut by EDM
process.
 The tool (electrode) and workpiece are free from cutting
forces.
 Edge machining and sharp corners are possible in EDM
process.
 The tool making is easier as it can be made from softer and
easily formable materials like copper, brass and graphite.
 Advantages of EDM
 The process produces good surface finish, accuracy and
repeatability.
 Hardened workpieces can also be machined since the
deformation caused by it does not affect the final dimensions.
 EDM is a burr free process.
 Hard die materials with complicated shapes can be easily
finished with good surface finish and accuracy through EDM
process.
 Due to the presence of dielectric fluid, there is very little
heating of the bulk material.
 Limitations of EDM
 Material removal rates are low, making the process
economical only for very hard and difficult to machine
materials.
 Re-cast layers and micro-cracks are inherent features of the
EDM process, thereby making the surface quality poor.
 The EDM process is not suitable for non-conductors.
 Rapid electrode wear makes the process more costly.
 The surfaces produced by EDM generally have a matt type
appearance, requiring further polishing to attain a glossy
finish.
Surface Finish in EDM
Tapercut and Overcut in EDM
 Applications of EDM
 Hardened steel dies, stamping tools, wire drawing and
extrusion dies, header dies, forging dies, intricate mould
cavities and such parts are made by the EDM process.
 The process is widely used for machining of exotic materials
that are used in aerospace and automotive industries.
 EDM being a non-contact type of machining process, it is
very well suited for making fragile parts that cannot take the
stress of machining.
Ex: washing machine agitators, electronic components, printer
parts and difficult to machine features such as the honeycomb
shapes.
 Deep cavities, slots and ribs can be easily made by EDM.
 Micro-EDM process can successfully produce micro-pins,
micro-nozzles and micro-cavities.