DEPARTMENT OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1
UNCONVENTIONAL
MACHINING

2
 UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Unconventional machining Process Need classification
Brief overview.

UNIT II MECHANICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

Abrasive Jet Machining Water Jet Machining Abrasive
Water Jet Machining Ultrasonic Machining.(AJM, WJM,
AWJM and USM). Working Principles equipment used
Process parameters MRR- Applications.

UNIT III ELECTRICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)- working Principle-
equipments-Process Parameters-Surface Finish and MRR-
electrode / Tool Power and control Circuits Tool Wear
Dielectric Flushing Wire cut EDM Applications.

UNIT IV CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO-CHEMICAL

ENERGY BASED PROCESSES
Chemical machining and Electro-Chemical machining (CHM
and ECM)-Etchants Maskant - techniques of applying
maskants - Process Parameters Surface finish and MRR-
Applications. Principles of ECM- equipments-Surface
Roughness and MRR Electrical circuit-Process Parameters-
ECG and ECH - Applications.

UNIT V THERMAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

Laser Beam machining and drilling (LBM), plasma Arc
machining (PAM) and Electron Beam Machining (EBM).
Principles Equipment Types - Beam control techniques
Applications.

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 Unit 1
Introduction

Machining
It is the process of removing the material from the work
piece to obtain the desired shape and size. The machining
process is classified in to two types.
1. Conventional Machining
2. Non conventional (or) Un conventional machining

Conventional Machining Process

It is the machining in which the metal is removed by
making direct contact b/w tool and work piece by the use of
mechanical energy. Metal removal process due to shear.

Eg: Turnings, milling, grinding, lapping

The difficulties in conventional machines are

(1) In many processes material removal rate mainly depends
upon the hardness of the works piece. The high hardness
material such as alloy steel, carbide, diamond and ceramics
are unable to machining by conventional machining
process.
(2) Machining of intricate and complicated shapes cant be
obtained in conventional machining.
(3) Machining of thin and fragile components cannot be
produced by conventional machining.

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(4) The high accuracy cannot be obtained in conventional
machining.

The above difficulties are overcome by the

development of unconventional machining. (Eg: USM, PAM,
EDM.). To overcome the above difficulties, as a result of
research and development for the last forty years, several new
methods of machining have emerged which can be grouped
under the name of

Unconventional machining methods (or)

Non traditional machining methods (or)
Physical machining processes (or)
Newer machining process (or)
Modern machining methods

All these new machining processes have one common

characteristic V12 these processes involve physical phenomena
in metal removal where as in conventional machining methods
the metal removal by mechanical means i.e by using a sharp
edged tool harder thus.

The following are the characteristic features of non

traditional machining processes when compared with
traditional machining processes.
1. Material is removed from w/p without mechanical
contact (with w/p)
2. In many processes material removal rate is independent
of the hardness of work piece.
3. Cutting forces are independent of the hardness of the
w/p.

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 4. Tool material need not harder that the work material (In
many cases softer material can be used as the tool
material.)
5. Generally tool wear is negligible; hence tool wear is not
a problem.
6. No burn is left o the w/p
7. In most cases entire contour (or) design shape can be
obtained in one stage (or) in one setting. This is
possible source the material removal takes place
uniformly over the entire surface area simultaneous.
8. Intricate shaped contours and fine machining of
precision holes are possible.
9. For improved productivity modern Machining methods
can be easily integrated with help of CNC.

Need for the process

From above introduction, the unconventional
machining processes are needed for.
(i) To Maching the very hand, high strength material
which are being extensively used in aerospace and
nuclear industries.
(ii) To maintain high accuracy and surface finishing
(iii) For machining of intricate and complicated shapes
(iv) For machining of very thin components and fragile
components.
(v) To improve the productivity by means of
automation.
Classification & energy employed in unconventional
machining process
The basic principle of machining by these methods is to
apply some form of energy to the work piece directly without
almost any physical contact b/w the tool and w/p and have the

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desired shape (or) contour by material removal from the w/p.
Different forms of energy applied to the work piece are
(1) Mechanical energy
(2) Electrical (or) Electro chemical energy
(3) Thermal energy
(4) Chemical energy
Classification of new machining methods is done on the
basis of the type of energy used in the working zone for
material removal actor.

Mechanical Energy
Ultrasonic machining USM
Ultrasonic Assisted machining UAM
Rotary ultrasonically Assisted Machining RUM
Abrasive Jet machining AFM
Abrasive flow machining AFM
Orbital grinding OG
Water Jet Machining WJM

Electrical Energy
Electro chemical machining ECM
Electro chemical Grinding ECG
Electro chemical discharge grinding ECDG
Electro chemical deburring ECD
Electro chemical Honing ECH
Shaped tube Electrolytic machining STEM
Electro stream drilling ESD
Electro Jet drilling EHD
Thermal Energy
Electro discharge machining EDM
Electric beam machining EBM
Laser Beam machining LBM
Electro Discharge wire cutting EDNC
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 Electro Discharge Grinding EDG
Plasma ARS Machining PAM
Plasma assisted machining PAM
Thermal Deburring TD
Ion Beam machining TBM

Chemical Energy
Chemical milling - CHM
Chemical Blanking - CHB
Chemical Engraving - CHE
Electro polishing - ELP
Photo chemical machining - PCM
Thermo chemical machining - TCM

In the above all the modern machining process, only a

few of the NTM have been accepted by the industries and the
manufactures. Those are

(1) EDM (2) USM (3) LBM (4) ECM

Brief overview of all UCM

8
LIMITATIONS
All modern machining methods are generally costly
Specific power consumption is quite high
Work piece and tool must be electrically conductive
eg.EDM, ECM
The depth of cut is limited eg LBM and etc.

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 Unit -2
MACHANICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESS

Abrasive jet machining

Fig 2.1 Abrasive jet machining

This process consists of directing a stream of fine

abrasive grains mixed with compressed air (or) some other gas
at high pressure, through a nozzle on to the surface of the work
piece to be machined. These particles impinge on the work
surface at high speed and the erosion caused by their impact
enables the removal of metal.

This process is mainly employed for such machining

works which otherwise difficult, such as this sectors of hard
metals and alloys, cutting of material which are sensitive to
heat damage, producing intricate holes, deburring, etching,
polishing etc.

Note:
Sand blasting is enters differ from AJM. AJM is process
meant for metal removal with the use of small abrasive
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particles. Sand blasting is a surface cleaning. Process which
does not involve any metal cutting.

A typical set up for AJM. The abrasive particle are

contained in a suitable holding device, linked a hopper an deed
into the mixing chamber. Fine grained abrasive powder is filled
in a vibrating chamber called mixing chamber. The gas (or) at
high pressure is forced into this chamber, the pressure or gas
varying. From 2 kg/cm2 to 8.5 kg/cm2. A regulator is
incorporated in the line to control the flow of abrasive
particles.

Compressed air (or) high pressure gas is supplied to the

mixing chamber through a pipeline. This pipe line carries a
pressure gauge and a regulator to control the gas flow and its
pressure.

The mixing chamber carrying the abrasive particle is

vibrated and the amplitude of these vibrators controls the flow
of abrasive particles. These particles mix in the gas stream,
traveled further through hose and finally pass through the
nozzle at a considerably high speed. This outgoing high speed
stream of the mixture of gas and abrasive particles is known on
abrasive jet.

The carries gas used in this process should be nontoxic

easily available, cheap and the one that dries quickly. The
gases commonly used are air, nitrogen (or) Co2.

As nozzles are typically made of either tungsten carbide

(on) sapphire. Tungsten carbide nozzles with either round (or)
rectangular helps are available. Round nozzles are available
with dia ranging form 0.12 to 1.24 mm with 0.5mm being most
11
common. Rectangular nozzles range from 0.07 X 0.5mm to
0.17 x 3.8mm.

As nozzles wear, the jet stream tends to diffuse faster,

resulting in material damage outside the intended line of cut.
This is known as stray cutting ion over spray. Rect. Nozzles
create less overspray compared with round ones.

Operating principles (or) Process parameters

The variables that affect the cutting phenomena are
1) Abrasive: Composites, strength, shape, size and mass
flow rate.
2) Carrier gas: Composites, pressure and velocity.
3) Nozzle: Geometry, composites, Nozzle tip distance
(Standoff distance and its orientation) The most
common abrasives are Al203 and SIC available in
10,27,50 micron nominal diameters [1 micron =
0.001mm)

Recommended Use Of Abrasives

Abrasives Grain size Operation

Al2O3 10, 27, 50 Cutting Grooving

SIC 10, 27, 50 Cutting Grooving

Sodium
27 Light Polising
Bicarbonate
Etching and
Dolomite 66
Polishing
Light Polishing and
Glass Beads 0.635 to 1.27 mm
Fine deburring

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 Surface finish achieved by the process is dependent on
the abrasive particle size.

Abrasive Surface Roughness

Material Size
Hardness (H.V) (Microns)

Glass Al2O3 10 150 200

1800 28 360 510
50 970 1400

Velocity of fluid
The velocity of the carrier gas transporting the abrasive
particles changes considerably with the change of abrasive
particle density as shown in fig.

Fig 2.2 Velocity of fluid

The exit velocity of the gas can be increased to critical

velocity when the internal gas pressure is nearly twice the
13
pressure at the exit of the nozzle for an abrasive particle
density is zero.

If the density of the abrasive particles is gradually

increased, the exit velocity will go on decreasing for the same
pressure condition. It is due to the fact that the K.E of the gas
is utilized for transporting the abrasive particles.

From the above analysis, it is clear that the increased

mass flow rate of abrasive will result in a decreased velocity of
gas and will thereby cause a decrease in the available energy
for erosion and ultimately the material removal rate.

Mixing Ratio

Mixing ration is defined as follows

Mass flow rate of abrasive
MR = --------------------------------------
Mass flow rate of gas

The effect of mixing ratio on material removal rate is

shown

Fig 2.3 Mixing Ratio

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Abrasive Flow Rate
The material removal rate can be improved by
increasing the abrasive flow rate, provided (MRR) can be kept
constant as shown in fig.

Fig 2.4
Note
The mixing ratio can be kept constant only by
simultaneous increase of both gas and abrasive mass flow rate.
The abrasive mass flow can be increased by increasing the
mass flow rate of carrier gas; this is only possible by
increasing internal gas pressure as shown in fig.

Fig 2.5
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Effect of abrasive flow rate on MRR
A high efficiency region for MRR can be obtained in
the case of AJM process as shown in Fig.

Fig 2.6

Fig 2.7 (a)

Influence of standoff distance on MRR
The MRR increases with the increase of nozzle MRR
tip distance (stand mg/min off distance) up to certain limit after
which it remains unchanged for a certain tip distance and then
falls gradually. The nozzle tip distance also has direct effect on
the dia of cut due to the outward flowing of abrasive jet after a
short distance.

16
 Fig 2.7 (b)
Note
Divergence angle for an abrasive jet is 7.

NTD
The distance of nozzle tip from the work surface at the
base of machining is known stand off distance (or) nozzle tip
distance. Which is usually varies from 0.7 to 1.0mm.

Effect Of Abrassive Size On MRR

Larger particle size removes the material fastest. The
optimum flow rate for all powders was approximately 10g/min.

Fig 2.8

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METAL REMOVAL RATE
The material is removed from the w/p due to impact
erosion of high velocity particles. The K.E of the particle is
utilized to cause the micro indentation in the work material and
the material removal is a measure of the indentation.

Fig 2.9

The analysis is based on the following assumption.

The abrasive particles are considered to rigid and
spherical bodies of dia equal to avg grit size. In case of ductile
work material, the material removed is equal to the volume of
indentation and in case of brittle work material; the volume of
material removed is hemispherical whose dia is equal to the
chord length of the indentation.

Fig 2.10
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The relation b/w abrasive particle sized indentations depth of
and half of chord length r
r2 = 2RS = ds
Volume of material removed per particle impact (v)
Brittle material hemispherical brittle fracture.
V = 2/3 r3 = 2/3 (Ds)3/2
For ductile material (material removed is equal to the
indentation volume)
V = Zs2 [(d/2) (/3)]
V=Zds2 / 2 [neglecting s3 forms)
So if there are N numbers of particle impacts per unit.

(MRP) brittle = 2/3 (dg)3/2N -A

(MRP) ductile [zds2/2] n -B

The unknown factors are s and N. The estimation of S

can be derived from energy balance eqn. K.E = W.D in the
indentation of work K.E. = mu2
Particle mass m= /6 d3 [ =m/s]
K.E = Z/6 d3 u2 = Z/12 d3 u2
v Velocity of abrasive particle
The energy impact will introduce a force p on the to
cause an indentation depth in work material of hardness H. So
w.d in the indentation = p. =1/2 (Zr2.H)
K.E = W.D
Z/2 d3 u2 = (ZdfH).
Z/12 d3 u2 = Zdh 2
2
= /6 [(du)2/h] - (1)
The number of particles N striking the target can be estimated
from the known value of abrasive mass flow rate (M).
N = M/mass of each particle =6M / zd3 -(2)
By sub (1) and (2) in eqn (A) & (B)
(MRR) brittle =1.04 MV3/2 / 1/4. H -I
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(MRR) ductile = 0.5 MV2 / H - II
The equation shows that the velocity effects are more
predominant than mass flow rate on material removal rate.

Fig 2.11

Under lower velocity conditions ductile material MRR

show lower material removal rate than brittle materials.
But at certain velocity Ux both -u
Material may exhibit similar property for impact
erosion rate and above this velocity ductile material may erode
very fast.

Applications
1. This is used for abrading and frosting glass more
economically as compared to etching or grinding.
2. Cleaning of metallic smears on ceramics, oxides on
metals, resistive coatings etc.
3. Cutting and machining of fragile material like
germanium, silicon etc.
4. Machining of semiconductors

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 5. Fine drilling and micro welding
6. Aperture drilling for electronic microscopes.

WATER JET MACHINING

Process
A fine, high pressure (1500 4000 MN/cm2) high
velocity (up to twice speed of sound) Jet of water, which when
bombarded on the w/p erodes the material.

A high velocity water jet when directed at a target in

such way that its velocity in virtually reduced to Zero on
striking the surface. When the lucid fluid pressure exceeds
strength of target material it make hole in the material.

Fig 2.12 Schematic diagram of WJM

It consists of 15-37 Electric Motors that drive an oil

pump. In operator, oil is drawn from a reservoir and pumped
to a device known as intensifier. An intensifier uses the
relatively low pressure oil to generate extremely high
pressure water.

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Working of intensifier
Oil pressure is applied on one side of the large piston in
the centre of intensifier, causing a displacement of the small
pistons. During this motion, one small piston compresses the
water its cylinder as the other small piston sucks water into its
cylinder.

When the piston reaches at the end of stroke, a valve

reverses the direction of oil of intensifier is connected to
direction control valve, and there function of two small pistons
are exchanged, thus allowing pumping action during both
directors of the store.

Fig 2.13 WJM High pressure oil intensifier oil construction

The intensifier, acting as a very high pressure pump,

increase the pressure ratio b/w the low pressure oil and the
high pressure water by up to 40 times. The magnitude of this
pressure ratio increase is determined by the relationship b/w oil
piston area. The resulting water pressure open the small area
of the water piston is high to balance the oil pressure acting on
the large area of the oil piston.
i.e Po x Ao / Aw = Pw

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Pw is a function of the oil pressure (po) areas of the oil piston
Ao and Area of the water piston Aw.

To produce uniform water flow a high pressure

accumulator is incorporated into system. The accumulation is
simply a pressure vessel that stores high pressure water and
assures that the final o/p flow is smooth.

WJM system water mixed with polymers such as

polyethylene oxide to reduce fluid flow friction and to give the
water more cohesive properties. But this can avoided by
designing the nozzle properly.

The nozzle hole dia typically range from 0.07 to 0.5mm

and sometimes may be large as 1.mm Material used for Nozzle
is synthetic sapphire because it is easily machinable and it
resistant to wear. The most common mechanism for failure of
nozzle is either chipping from dirt particles in the water (or)
mineral deposits nozzle life time of 250-500 hr. The life time
of nozzle can be increased by allowing water treatment.

Applications
WJM is used to cut many non metallic materials like
keplar, glass epoxy, graphite, boron, corrugated board, leather,
and many other brittle materials. It is used in shoe industry,
steel plant industry and aircraft industry.

ULTRA SONIC MACHINING (USM)

Ultra sonic machining is a mechanical material removal

process used to erode holes and cavities in hard (or) brittle
work piece by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical
motor used as a abrasive slurry.
23
Note:
The term ultrasonic is used to describe a vibratory
wave of a frequency above that of the upper frequency limit of
human ear ie it produce the frequency range of 20000 to
25,000 Hz, the available threshold frequency is approximately
15,000 Hz.

Principle & Process of Ultrasonic Machining

Principle
In this machining method, slurry of small abrasive
particle is forced against to w/p by means of vibrating tool,
removing the w/p material in the form of extremely small
chips. The vibrating frequency used for the tool of the order of
over 20,000 oscillations per second. Such a high frequency,
which is more than the upper limit of audible frequency for
human ear, makes the process in audible (silent).
An electro mechanical transducer is used for producing
this high frequency of vibrations. The tool is made of relatively
soft metal. It is applied to the work piece surface and the slurry
is applied either manually (or) through a pump. This process is
suitable only for hard and brittle materials like carbides glass,
ceramics, silicon, germanium, titanium, tungsten, tool steel.

Working
In this operation, a high frequency electric current is
sent by the ultrasonic oscillator to the ultrasonic transducer.
The function of transducer is to convert this electrical energy
into mechanical vibrations. The vibrations so generated are of
the order of 20KH2 to 30KH2, although the available
amplitude usually varies from 0.01mm to 0.1mm. These
vibrations are then transmitted to the cutting tool via the
intermediate connecting parts such as transducer cone (or)
horn, connecting body and tool holder. This makes the tool
24
vibrate in a longitudinal direction. The intermediate parts
together form what is known as the Focusing Unit and the
cutter tool is fastened at its end. The shape of the cutting tool is
the same as that of cavity to be produced in it.

The main elements are

1. Work material
2. Tool cone and tool tip
3. Abrasive slurry
4. Ultrasonic Machine

Work material
It is used for machining any type of material both
ductile and brittle material which includes harder material.

Fig 2.14 Schematic diagram of USM

25
Tool cone and tool tip
The tool cone (also called horn) amplifies and focuses
the mechanical energy produced by the transducer and imparts
this to the w/p in such a way that energy utilization is optimum.
Practically low gain horn gives low amplitude with a high force
capability and conversely, a high gain horn has a high
amplitude and low force capability. To operate efficiently, the
horn must be tuned to within a few KH2/S of required
frequency. Titanium is a good material for the tool cone.

Tool Tip
The tool tip is attached to the base of the cone by silver
brazing, soft soldering (or) by means of screws. The area of the
tool should not exceed the area of small sector of the cone by
more than 10-15%.

Note:
An 11.98mm dia tool tip may produce a 12.00 mm hole.
Tool material is tungsten carbide but the cost of such tool will
be high tough malleable materials such as alloy sled and Steel
are also used.

Abrasive slurry
When the tool vibrates with a sp. Frequency, as
abrasive slurry [usually a mixture of abrasive grains and water
of definite proportion] is made to flow through the tool w/p
interface. The impact force due to vibrator of the tool end and
the flow of slurry through the tool-work interface actually
causes thousand of microscopic abrasive grains to remove the
work material by abrasion.)
Abrasive slurry is nothing but abrasive mixed with
water in a proper concentrator usually its concentration is 50%
by weight, however this can vary from 30 to 60%, and this
26
slurry is stored in a reservoir at the USM M/C and pumped to
the tool w/p interface by recirculating pumps at the rates up to
26.5L/min. some of the abrasives are.
1. Boron carbide
2. Alumina (Aluminium oxide)
3. Silicon carbide
4. Diamond dust

Boron is the most expensive abrasive material but is

best suited for cutting tungsten carbide, tool steel and precious
stones. Silicon finds maximum applications. Alumina is best
for cutting glass, germanium and ceramics. Diamond and
rubies are nearly at by using diamond powder.
The size of abrasives varies b/w 200 and 2000 grit,
1000 grit are used for finishing. The extremely fine grades of
1200 to 2000 grit are used for a finishing pass over 20bs of
extreme accuracy.
230 grit - 0.5 surface roughness
800 grit - 0.2 surface roughness

The main purpose of using slurry is

1. To carry abrasive to the machining
2. To take away the wear particles
3. To cool the tool and w/p

ULTRASONIC MACHINE
The main important parts are
1. Acoustic head
2. Concentrator
3. Feed Mechanism
4. Abrasive feed system
5. Ultrasonic oscillator

27
 Acoustic Head
Major working parts of this machine are the acoustic
head. The main function of this is to produce and propagate
vibration in the tool. Energy is being drawn from the generator
in electrical form and is converted in to mechanical form by
means of transducer.

TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one
form to another. In the case of USM, transducer, electrical
energy is converted to mechanical motor. Two types of
transducers used for ultrasonic machining based on two
different principles of operation. Piezoelectric and
magnetostrictive

Note
There are some materials which exhibit change in
dimension when they are magnetized. This properly is known
as magnetostriction (or) piezomagnetism. The change can be
positive (or) negative in a direction to magnetic field and also
independent of the direction of magnetic field.

Magnetostrictive transducers
Magnetostriction can be explained in terms of domain
theory. Domains are very small elements of material in the
order of 10-8 10-9 CM3 called as Dipoles.
Under sufficient magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles
(domains) align themselves in the direction of magnetic field.
This causes either to expand (or) contract until the magnetic
domains are parallel to magnetic field.
When the material expands on the application of
magnetic field irrespective of its direction is called as positive.
Magnetostriction and similarly for negative magnetostriction
28
when it contracts.
Thus the strain produce (+Ve or Ve) ie J/J is very
small of the order of 10-6 to 10-5. The magnetostrictive curves
for few commonly used materials.

Fig 2.15

It is observed that most of material exhibits positive

striction but for nickel it is negative. Some materials like iron
and cast cobalt exhibit dual characters ie below about 350
oersted of field intensity they behave positive and above that
then properties are reverse.

Note
Magnetostrictive transducers are usually constructed
from a laminated stack of nickel (or) nickel alloy steel which,
when influenced by a strong magnetic field, will change length.
29
Magnetostrictive transducers have electro mechanical
conversion efficiencies ranging from only 20 to 35%. Due to its
low Conversion efficiency results in need to water cool
magnetostrictive devices to remove waste heat.
Magnetostrictive transducers are available with power
capabilities up to 2400w.

Piezoelectric transducers
Piezoelectric transducers used for USM generate
Mechanical motor through piezoelectric effect by which certain
materials. Such as quartz (or) lead and titanate. When electric
current is applied to one of these materials, the material
increases minutely in size, when the current is removed the
material instantly turns to its original shape.

Piezoelectric transducers exhibit as extremely high

electro mechanical conversion efficiency up to 96% due to its
high conversion off which eliminates the need for water
cooling of the transducer. These transducers are available with
power capabilities up to 900w.

If it is required to use these type transducers it needs two

importance parameters
1. Large radiating surface
2. Operate at low frequency

If we need large radiating surface, large number of crystal

units to used. If need second case, according to large radiating
surface used, radiation impedance become high, due to that
operating frequency high, will not match with generator (or)
ultrasonic oscillator. Both the above difficulties are overcome
by using sandwich transducers.

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Sandwich Transducers
It consists of piece (or) pieces of transducer material are
oriented between two plates of non-piezoelectric materials.
Uses of several piece of transducer materials side by side the
radiating surface can also to increased, by use of this
construction which is operates at low frequency that will match
with generator.

Note:
However this type of transducer is preferred for low
power applications of ultrasonic machining and good quality
factors are not achievable by this type of transducer. For high
power applications the performance is not satisfactory. For
very high power (about 500 Watts) the cost also becomes very
high. For better quality and cheaper transducer
magnetostrictive types are preferred.

Concentrator
Whatever type of transducers may be used. The losses
in then are kept to minimum when the amplitude of vibrations
are limited not to exceed 3-5 microns.

Concentrator is a device which is used to amplify the

transducer vibrations because the required level of vibration at
the tool end is more. It is also called as Resonator (or)
Mechanical amplifier.

The concentrator provides the link b/w the transducer

and the tool and its main function is to amplify the vibrations
as per requirements. This is also achieved through the principle
of resonance.

W : Natural frequency
31
 W0 : Excitation frequency (Which is developed to the
transducers)
X0 : Amplitude at frequency Wo
X : Allowable frequency to vibrate

Resonance principle states that, if a proper length of

any material whose natural frequency to matches with the
excitation frequency Wo with the amplitude Xo, then at
resonance ie w/w0 = 1 the ratio x/xo increases.

Fig 2.16

If we use straight rod b/w transducer and tool

preferably of a ductile material of length equal to its half
wavelength of sound.
If it is allowed to resonate the free ends will vibrate
with as amplitude X>X0. The nodal point will lie at the centre
of the rod ie at 0. But then the end which will be connected to
the transducer, will suffer from amplitude mismatch which
does not allow the system to work smoothly.

32
 Fig 2.17
Note
Transducer vibration 3 5 but vibration at the tool end
>5 to 75 due to the function of mechanical amplifier.

Fig 2.18
33
 If a taper rod is chosen in place then the nodal point
will shift from point 0 to 0 because change of centre of mass
shifted towards the larger end. This provides the smaller end to
vibrate at higher amplitude x while the larger end is at X0 to
match comfortably with the transducer. Thus a gain in
amplification is achieved for amplitude of vibration and for this
reason the concentrator some times is called as a mechanical
amplifier (or) resonator and because of its taper shape and
amplification commonly known as a Horn.

Nodal point clamping

Method of fixing the vibratory system ie consisting of
transducer, horn and tool to form the acoustic head is very
importance.
It should be done in such a a way that it makes a rigid
system without enough loss in the mounting, so it has to be
damped at the nodal points. Otherwise, closer are increased and
fatigue failure is inhabitable.
The damping at nodal point at the transducer is not
permitted because of electrical supplies are hence clamped
other nodal points are maintained as shown in figure.

FEED MECHANISM
The feed mechanism of USM must perform the
following functions.
1. Bring the tool very slowly close to the w/p
2. Provide adequate cutting force and sustain this
during cutting
3. Decrease the force at a specified depth.
4. Return the tool
Feed system is to apply the static load b/w tool and w/p
during machining operation. The precision and sensitivity are
of high importance.
34
Note
Feed may either be given to the acoustic head (or) to
the work piece as per the designers choice, but in general; the
feed motion is given the acoustic feed so as to permit x-y
positioning facility to the work piece.

The following fig shows different types of feed

system

Fig 2.19 (a,b,c,d)

In the fig (a) and (b) for gravity feed devices where
counter weights are used to apply the load to the feed through a
pulley and lever device respectively.
In (c) a spring loaded system is shown, for high feed
rate conditions either pneumatic (or) hydraulic system as
shown (d) may be preferred.

35
Abrasive feed system
The abrasive slurry can be supplied by hand in a small
m/c but for m/cs of higher power, a pump (usually centrifuged
type) is used to supply the slurry through a nozzle.

Generator
The main requirements of a generator are reliability,
efficiency simplicity in design and less cost. Vacuum tube
generators are employed usually. Small generator usually
consists of master oscillator, a buffer amplifier and an o/p
stage. The master oscillator is often of the RC type, buffer
amplifier employs transistors and the o/p stage employs
vacuum tubes.

Analysis of MRR
Two types of approach are used to analysis the metal
removal rate.
1. Empirical Approach
2. Analytic Approach

Empirical Approach
In this approach, let us consider the following
parameters that influence MRR.

1. Abrasive grit (R)

2. Packing density () ie how closely the abrasives are
packed in slurry.
3. Amplitude of vibrator (o) of the tool
4. Frequency of vibration (f) (or) angular frequency () of
the tool = 2 TT f
5. Stress (T) developed in the tool
6. Hardness (H) of the work material

36
By considering the above factor, MRR ( ) can be expressed as
MRR = (say), (R, , go, f,,H)

An analytical approach [cooks model]

This model is analyzed based on brittle fracture of work
materials we consider the following assumptions.

1. The abrasive grits are spherical in nature.

2. Material Removal is based on hemispherical fracture
mechanism due to the indentation.
3. Tool and abrasive are rigid.

Fig 2.20

R Radius of the abrasive grit

r radius of circular indentation
H Hardness of work material.
Volume of material recovered pen impact.
V = (4/3 r3)

37
 V = 2/3 r3
Here MRP / grit = V.F = 2/3 r3f
Where f- frequency of operation.

Fig 2.21

If there are N number of grits per unit area then total

MRR = 2/3 (2RS) 3/2

Difficulties in this method using for actual case.

1. The abrasives are not of same size to create actual
indentation depth
2. Number of abrasive particles per unit area in
predictable (N) MRP 2/3 (@ RS) 3/2 N.F (A)

If N, values are very difficult to find, therefore MRR

calculation becomes so difficult. To eliminate these two terms,
force analysis to be done which involves forces on both tool
and work.

The following fig shows how indentation will very with

movement.

38
 Fig 2.22

Fig 2.23

1. Biggest Grit
2. Avg. Grit
3. Smallest Grit

39
Process parameters
The major USM process variables affecting removal
rate, accuracy and surface finish are
(1) Power (2) Amplitude (3) Abrasive size (4) Frequency

Power
Primarily determines the mass of tool tool holder
combination. The power requirement can be reduced when we
use hollow tool rather than by using a solid tool.

Amplitude
The amplitude of the tool motion affects the removal
rate and determines the maximum size of the abrasive particles
that can be used. The MRR is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.

Abrasive size
The abrasive particle size strongly influences the MRR.
As particle size is increased, the MRR increases proportionally.
However when the tool amplitude, a max removal rate is
reached. Larger size will only result in rapidly diminishing
removal rates.

Frequency: The higher the resonance frequency, the higher the

rate of material removal.

Applications
1. Tool and die making, especially wire drawing and
extrusion dies.
2. Several machining operations like turning, threading,
grinding, milling etc
3. Machining of hard and brittle materials.
4. Producing holes of round on such other shapes which can
40
 be provided to the cutting tool.
5. Dentistry work to drill fine holes of desired shape in
teeth.
Effect of amplitude and frequency of vibration on MRR
Different researches have different prediction on the
effect of amplitude on MRR

Rozenberg found that for a given material, the MRR is

proportional to the square of the amplitude.

Fig 2.24 Effect of different parameter on MRR

Miller has shown that the cutting rate bears a linear

relationship with amplitude. According to him the MRR
increases linearly with an increase in amplitude and frequency.
Millers model has shown much scatter of values. Shaw
showed that MRR to proportional to amplitude3/4. He also
predicted that the MRR is directly proportional to the first
power of frequency for a fixed amplitude.

41
Effect of particle velocity
Markov has shown that the MRR is directly roportional
to the particle velocity so as a linear relationship, ie. As the
particle velocity increases the number of particles impinging
per unit time and the impact force with which the particles hit
the work piece increases which is the reason for the linear trend
of the curve.

Fig 2.25 Effect of MRR

Effect of static loading or feed force

The increases with an increase in the feed force. But it
tends to decrease beyond a critical value of the force. Since the
magnitude of the force crushes the abrasive grains thus
decrease its cutting ability and the MRR. However as the feed
force is more, the surface finish is good, because the grains are
crushed to smaller size.

Effect of grain size

According to equation obtained for the volume of
material removal rate, as the grain size increases, the MRR
should also increase proportionally. However, as the grain size
increases the MRR also increases till the grain size equals the
amp due to the effect of crushing of abrasive grains.
42
 Unit 3
ELECTRIC ENERGY BASED PROCESS

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM) OR

SPARK EROSION MACHINING (SEM)

It is basically a thermal metal removal processes i.e. in

these process, material is removed by melting (or) vaporizing
small areas at the surface of the work piece.

The first spark erosion machine was constructed in the

year of 1943 by Lazarentia; he is a Soviet scientist who found
that by the use of electrical discharge we can produce
controlled method of metal machining.

Fig 3.1 Schematic diagram of EDM

43
The tool electrode is connected to the ve terminal and the
work piece is connected to the +ve terminal of a dc supply
source.

The tool electrode and the work piece are separated by a

dielectric (Dietetic means non-conducting) liquid. As soon as
suitable voltage is applied across the electrodes, the potential
intensity of the electric field b/w them builds up, until at some
predetermined value, the individual electrons break loose from
the surface of the cathode axis are impelled towards anode
under the influence of field forces.

Fig 3.2 (a)

While moving in the inter electrode space, the

electrons collide with the neutral molecules of the dielectric
detaching electrode from them and causing ionization

44
(ionization of the dielectric, that is splitting up of its molecules
into ions and electrons).

Fig 3.2 (b)

At some time (or) the other, the ionization becomes

such that a narrow channel of continuous conductivity is
formed. (The electrons flow towards anodes and ions flow
towards cathode, electric discharge takes place through the
dielectric fluid.)

When this happens, there is a considerable flow of

electrons along the channel to the anode, resulting in a
momentary current impulse (or) discharge. The liberators of
energy accompanying the discharge leads to generation of
extremely high temp b/w 3000 and 12,0000c causing fusion
(or) partial vaporization of the metal and the dielectric fluid at
the point of discharge.

The above process occurs in a few microseconds. Due

to the impact of electrons on the anode the shock waves are
created at a pressure of about 1000 kgf/mm2 and minute
particles of metal (or) chips in the form of hollow spheres are
removed by melting and vaporization and are flushed away
from the gap b/w tool and work.
45
 A servo system advances the tool electrodes according
to the machining process. The feed control has to prevent.

1. Too large gaps

2. Short circuits which will damage both tool and the
work piece.

The feed control system works by maintaining a

constant gap voltage between the tool electrode and the work
piece. The system may work hydraulically (or) electro
mechanically. Usually servo system is used for this purpose.
EDM is generally done with the work piece submerged in a
dielectric tank.

Operating principles
The EDM process involves finite discrete periods
spares the tool electrons and conductive work electrode
separated by a think film of liquid dielectric that causes the
removal of work material. The mechanism of material removal
is discussed under three different theories namely.

1. High pressure theory.

2. Static field theory
3. High temp theory.

HIGH PRESSURE THEORY

Due to sudden stoppage of electro dynamic shock
waves by work piece (or) due to the impact of electrons on the
anodes the pressure. of electrical discharge reported might be
as high as 1000 kgf/m2 was predicted, due to this high pressure
the expected plastic deformation was not found on the surface.

46
 If we see the energy distributed by discharge spectrum
the pressure in the arc column remain b/w to and 100 kgf/mm2
which is less than the reported pr (1000 kgf/mm2) because the
acting area of discharge pressure is though to be wider than the
crater area (the area to which material is removed)

To conclude, the discharge Pr. alone would not be

sufficient to erode the material but, with some other factor such
as heat, the Dr. might blow out molten metal from the electrode
surface.

Static field theory

(Tensile rupture theory) Coulombs law states that
when two charged electrodes kept very nearer it experiences
electrostatic force. The force b/w the electrodes produce stress
on the electrodes, when the gap is very small stress on the
electrodes cross the ultimate limit and resulting in tensile
rupture.

If the discharge durations less than 2/ sec during initial

intervals the tensile rupture will be more. The force involved
in the tensile rupture reaches the tensile strength of material
cause tensile fracture occurs. On the w/p ie during initial
interval period, the material removed from the work piece by
mean of tensile rupture.

For discharge durations greater than a few

microseconds it is found that the tensile rupture theory does not
explain. However this field theory is found to be incorrect
because forces into work piece for removing material due to
colliding of electrons which is created by static field. To
conclude thermal actor as the primary factor in anode erosion
in metals.
47
Note
When a suitable voltage is applied across the two
electrodes separated by a dielectric field, the latter breaks
down. The electrons so liberated are accelerated in presence of
the electric field collides with dielectric molecules causing the
dielectric molecules causing the latter to be rubbed off their
one (or) two electrons each and immunize.

The process grows and multiplies with secondary

emission followed by an avalanche of electrons and ions. The
resistance of the dielectric layer drops as it is ionized results
into ultimate break down.

The electric energy is discharged into the gap and multi

furious actions take place electro dynamic waves set in and
travel at high speed causing shock impact and height rise to at
the electrode surfaces. The instantaneous temperature reached
may be as high as 10000c causing vaporization of the w/p.

High temp theory

According to this theory, due to the bombardment of
high energetic electrons on the electrode surface, the spot
attains high temp (about 10,0000c) especially with material of
low thermal conductivity.

All this high temp material at the spot instantaneously

melts and vaporizes leaving a crater on the surface. The
relation b/w energy expended at the anode and the total
discharged energy are related by the following relation.

Wa 8 d m Fc Fa
l b
Wt 3 mg Vc
48
Where,

Wa = Energy given to anode per unit area

Wt = Whole discharge energy
d = Gap b/w electrodes
= cathode full area
b = l/
m = Mass of electron
mg = Mass of gas molecule
Fa, Fc = anode and cathode work function
Vc = Cathode fail

From the above equation increasing the ratio Wa/Wo,

erosion rate is increased while electrode wear is decreased.
However as per this theory, the high temp is not generated by
electron bombardments alone but also it depends upon the high
density current is also contributed. It is also reported 50-50
share remain between electron bombardment and Joule heating
(by high density current) in causing high temperature.

CONCLUSION
Among the above three theories the thermal theory is
quite acceptable which can take care to explain the major
portion of the stock removal phenomenas due to vaporization
during sparking.

Dielectric Fluid
Dielectric fluid is used in b/w the anode and cathode. If
the gap is in air (or) gas the work piece particle will adhere to
the tool electrode but use of liquid dielectric prevents this
adhesion. Quantity of metal eroded with liquid dielectric is
greater than 10 times the metal eroded with gap filled with our
(or) gas.
49
 The process of removal of materials depends on thermal
evaporation and melting the presence of oxygen in the aim
surrounding the spark would lead to formulates of metal oxides
which adversely affect generation (or) continuation of
repetitive sparks (must of metal oxides are bad conductor).

Hence it is pertinent to use a dielectric fluid which

contains no oxygen for liberation during the process, to help
ionization without disturbing the process.

The function of dielectric fluid are

1. To provide a path for the discharge of electric current.
2. To remove metal particles produced from the gap.
3. To cool the tool and work piece.
These functions are achieved by forcing the liquid through
the gap by using a pump.

The common dielectric fluids are

1. Hydrocarbon
2. Transformer oil
3. Paraffin oil
4. Kerosene
5. Lubricating oil.

Recently distilled water has also been used in place of

electric fluid and this has been found to permit very high metal
removal rates.

BREAK DOWN MECHANISM

The failure of dielectrics under electric stress termed as
breakdown i.e failure non conducting characteristic of
dielectric fluid dust to the under electrical stress is known as
50
breakdown. In general, the main basic mechanisms of dielectric
breakdown in the three states of matter are (1) Intrinsic (2)
Thermal (3) Discharge (or) available.

Breakdown in liquids have assumed that it occurs by

ionization of the atoms which is induced by the electrons
accelerators from the cathode source. Actually the cathode
electrode is assumed to be source of these electrons for the
ionization process which are emitted by field effect con by
Sctottkey effect.

The breakdown mechanism involves the following steps.

(i) The electron liberated from cathode by means of
field effect (or) by scottly effect and it gains more
energy from the applied field.
(ii) The electrons when it collide with molecules of
dielectric fluid, which it loses its energy (Electrons)
Due to vibrations collisions.
(iii) Lawis analytically showed the vibration collisions is
main factor for the major energy joss in the
hydrocarbons in dielectric plus.
(iv) These electrons are accelerated until they gain
sufficient energy to ionize the liquid molecules and
initiate an electron avalanche.

According to low is electron avalanche initiation is given as

e E = chr
e = electron change
E = Applied field
= Mear free path of electron charge
C = Velocity of light
hr = Ionization quantum for the liquid
modern
51
Electrode material
Tool electrode in EDM process is the means of
providing electrical energy to the work material. The basic
desirable characters of the tool material are
(i) High electrical conductivity
(ii) High thermal conductivity
(iii) High melting temp
(iv) Cheapness
(v) Easier manufacturability

In general, tool (or) electrode materials can be

classified into four groups.

Metallic electrodes Electrolyte Cupper

Tellurium (or) chromium copper
Copper tungsten
Brass
Aluminium
Aluminium Alloy (Silanin)
Tungsten
Silver Tungsten
Steel

Non Metallic Graphite

Combined metallic and non metallic

- Copper graphite

Metallic coatings as insulators

- Copper on molded plastic and copper
on ceramic

52
METALLIC ELECTRODES

1. Copper Electrodes
It is one of the oldest and commonly preferred as tool
material. It is mainly used because of abundant availability.
Copper being difficult to cast for tool material since its molten
state it tends to absorb oxygen from oxides.

1. Melting point 1083, Density 8.99/cm

In general it is available in difference forms
2. It contains silicon (or) other hardness and small
percentage of arsenic (0.4)% these affect to reduce the
conductivity of copper seriously.

Oxygen free copper is about 99.9% pure and exhibits

extremely high conductivity.

Note
Phosporized copper contains resides phosphorous and
exhibits lower conductivity Copper is most often used when
higher surface finish in work material is required.

Tellurium copper 99.5% Cu and 0.5% Tellurium

Leaded cupper 99% Cu and 0.1% lead
Selerium copper 99.4% Cu and 0.6% selesic
These three cuppers are utilized for mot EDM ing
applications

2. Copper Tungsten Electrodes

Cu: W varies b/w 50:50 and 20:50 it has high density
(15-18 gm/cm3) high strength, good thermal and dialectical
conductivity. It is commonly recommended for EDM ing of

53
dies with fine contoured, TV make small holes, for making
slots.

3. Brass Electrodes
Free machined brass is often used as dielectric material.
Due to presence of Zn alloy element, it has high wear rate due
to that it is not preferred for generation of 3-D surfaces. It is
one of the best tool materials for machining titanium alloys of
low material removal rate conditions.

4. Silver Turgesten
1) It has very similar characteristic of Cu-W electrode
2) To make very small corner radius which is better than Cu-
W
3) It contains very high percentage of tungsten and hence
extremely costly.

5. Tungsten
1) It has high melting point and extremely low erosion rate
2) Due to its high cost only restrict it for use in producing fine
holes (or) wire cutting operations where high order
accuracy is required.
3) To reduce the cost, tungsten coated electrodes are being
developed for use.
4) Wire electrode of tungsten of less than 0.1mm is available
for use.

6. Aluminum
In spite of high thermal and electrical conduction and
low density it has not found a suitable place in EDM ing tool
because of its low melting temp and higher tarnishing property.
When machining large 3D cavities which do not require higher

54
surface finish, we can are aluminum alloy known as silumin as
tool material.

Composition
Al: 85% si:11% mg: 0.4 to 0.6%
Zn:1% Ti:1% Mo,Fe and ae :1%

7. Steel
Steel some time is used as electrode even if it has lower
efficiency as compared to cupper (or) graphite.

NON METALLIC ELECTRODE

Under that graphite has become most important
electrode material.
Graphite is made from petroleum coke, a prime raw
material. The coke is subjected to very high temp to remove
impurities. It is then crushed and mixed with coal tar pitch
and various other additives.

This mixture is then compressed and shaped by

molding or extruding into rods (or) plates. The carbon is then
converted into graphite by heat treatment at 27600c. Moreover,
graphite is easily machinable by turning milling and ever
grinding. It can be broadly classified into three categories
based on it density varies from 1.6 and 1.85 g/cm3

Low (or) coarse density 1.6% to 1.7 gm/cm3 used for

forging dies medium density 1.7 to 1.8 gm/cm3 Production
applicast high (or) fine density 1.8 to 1.85gm/cm3 for moulds
and dies.

Course density graphites are an isotropic where as high

density graphites are isotropic, which seriously affects the
55
electrode wear rate course graphite Used for large volume
EDMing operation.
High density graphite Machining tungsten carbides.

Advantages
1. It is not affected by thermal schools.
2. It does not distort because of high melting point and
chemically does not react.
3. Easily machinable over conventional method
4. Low cost of operation.

Disadvantages
1. It being a brittle material special cares must be taken at
sharp corners.
2. It is an abrasive, material. So precaution must be taken
the protect slides of M/C tools from graphite dust.
3. Machining in graphite produce by of carbon to pollute the
atmosphere.
4. High porosity allows the dielectric to saturate the tool
which produces internal stress when fluids inside
evaporates.
5. High porosity also allows moisture entrapped inside the
tool which affects the machining performance if care is
not taken.

COMBINED METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC

ELECTRODE
The graphite tools are highly fluent for EDM operations
with fewer drawbacks. These can be easily eliminated
by taking the advantage of its capability of being impregnated
by cupper, tin etc to make it less porous and brittle. If
impregnated with copper to form cupper graphite under to form

56
a less brittle material it possessor high electrical resistant and
density b/w 2.4 and 3.2g/cm3.

METALLIC COATED ELECTRODES

By producing combined metallic and non metallic
electrodes, producing of coated electrodes is more inexpressive
i.e when compared copper graphite tools are more
inexpressive. The coating is generally manufactured by Electro
forming process.

(Electro formed electrodes assignment page 101 in P.K.

Mishra)

TOOL WEAR
During spark erosion process both the w/p as well as
the electrode get eroded. Erosion of electrodes (Tool) is called
as tool wear. Or electrode wear.The accuracy of the machined
part obtained depends on the electrodes wear.The hg shows the
characteristics of electrodes wear. So the electrodes wear
fastest at sharp corners and edges. The Tool wear is measured
by a number known as wear ratio.

Wear Ratio
The ratio is a comparison b/w the volume of work piece
material removed versus the volume of electrodes material
worn.
Wear ratio is mainly depends upon the physical and
chemical properties of both the electrodes and work piece
material and environmental conditions.

For low wear conditions wear ratio = 100:1

High electrodes wear ratio = 0.05:1

57
 The melting point of the tool electrodes material has
been found to affect its wear rate and has been found to follow
the law.
Rt= 10.15 x 103 Mt 2.28
Rt Avg. metal removal rate form electrode (tool )
(m3/amp min x104)
M7 - < melting point of the tool material
Also it has been shown that
WR - = 2.25 Mr 2.3
WR Wear ratio (work/tool)
Mr Melting point ratio (work/tool)

Apart from the melting point ratio, other factors which

also influence the wear ratio are Metal removed rate
Generally the wear ratio increases with cutting rate.

Cross sectional area of the electrode Wear ratio is reduced

with increase in cross sectional area.

Work piece material: Hard-metals induce considerably high

wear ratio.

Configuration of the electrodes

A form with slender projections will exhibit a higher
tool wear than one of a similar cross section which is more
compact. Eg. Star section will show more wear than a circular
section.

Depth
Deep cavities or ling trough form will provide a higher
electrodes tool wear than shallow ones.

58
Reason
1. Increased difficulty in metal removed
2. Improper coverage of dielectric fluid in the operating
zone.

POWER GENERATOR CIRCUITS

Power generator is one of the most important part of an
EDM System. Its primary function is to convert an alternating
current (AC) into pulsed direct current (DC) required to
produce the unidirectional spark discharges b/w the gaps of a
tool and work serving as the electrode.

It has two important parts

1. Rectifier To convert AC to DC
2. Pulsar To generate DC pulses (or) unipolar pulses.

Pulse generator (Basic concept)

The circuit is simplified with a DC source which is
intermittently chopped, schematically represented by a switch
to supply the DC pulses at regular interval to the m/c.

Fig 3.3

This pulsing unit in practices is of four different types.

1. Rotary impulse Generator
2. Relax has Generator
59
 3. Pulse Generator
4. Hybrid Generator

1. Rotary impulse Generator

This type of Generator has two types circuit.
(1) Impulse generator with DC generator principle.
(2) Impulse generator with half wave rectification
principle.

(1) DC Generator Principle

Fig 3.4

It supplies the voltage waveform based on the

principles as in the case of DC Generators.
ZN P
E x
60 A
Where is the flux per pole
Z is the total number of armature conductors
N is Armature rotation (rpm)
P is number of poles
A is number of parallel paths.

The frequency of operation is limited by N and P and

cannot be increased much because of the limitation in N:
moreover, the wave form is near sinusoidal; this leads to
60
sparking or arcing, if the wave form is not in sinusoidal form
the poles are asymmetrically staggered to provide off toxin for
deionization.

(2) Half wave rectification principle

Fig 3.5

The circuit is modified using a half wave rectified AC

o/p from AC generator where the frequency operator is denoted
by
PN
f H2
120
where P Total number of magnetic poles
N Rotational speed of rotor in rpm.

In half wave rectification the frequency remains same

but the pulse off time is half of the cycle time controlled by N
and P. however the voltage wave form remains as before
sinusoidal.

Demerits
This type of generator supplies very high voltage in
excess of 110v, sparking is frequent. Since the voltage

61
waveform is uncontrollable, so the tool wear rate is extremely
high, we have more than 100% MRR.

This type of generators is still in some Russian and

Japanese countries. The use is being restricted since us
economical, high inaccuracy in machining process and high
surface danger.

RELAXATION TYPE GENERATOR

These types of generators are quite common because of
its simplicity and lower cost. It uses resistance and a condenser
to generate a nearly a saw tooth voltage waveform.

Fig 3.6

The condenser gets charged form no voltage to a

required voltage when it is connected to a DC source. The
charged condenser is connected to a m/c to discharge its charge
to the spark gap is the m/c and so relaxed to zero voltage. The
next discharge will not occur unless the condenser is charged
again.

The switch is replaced by the resistance which varies

the charging current. This helps in controlling the idle period
(charging time) discharge period and the pulse energy.

62
R-C type Generator

Fig 3.7

MECHANISM OF RELAXATION GENERATOR

Let us consider the charging circuit
Rc = Charging or Ballast resistance
lC = Value of charging current at any instant of
time, amp
VC = Condenser voltage achieved at the zero time
the volt
C = Condenser value, Farad
Rc = Charging resistance, Ohm

Fig 3.8

63
 In the above fig. C stores the charge during the idle
period i.e. when there is no distance in the spark gap and
delivers it to spark gap when a voltage to produce the spark is
reacted from the circuit theory,
Vo Vc dV
lc C c
Rc dt
dVc 1
.dt
Vo Vc CRc
Vc = 0, Vc=Vc , t = 0, t = tc
Integrate
Vc c t
1 1
o Vo Vc .dVc o CRc .dt
log( Vo Vc)( 1)Vco 1
.t o
tc

CRc

log( Vo Vc)Vco 1
t tco
CRc
Vo Vc 1
log .tc
Vo CRc
Vo Vc
1
.tc
e CRc
Vo
1
Vo Vc .tc
e CRc
Vo Vo
1
Vc .tc
1 e CRc
Vo

64
 tc

VC Vo 1 e CRc


1

tc

Vo Vo 1 e CRc
Vo Vc
ic
Rc Rc
tc
V
ic o e CRc 2
Rc
The equation 1 shows that exponential rise of condenser
voltage and equations 2 shows that exponential decaying of
charging current.

Fig 3.9

65
 Let us consider the discharging circuit,

Fig 3.10

Let us assure the load (M/C) is pure a resistive load and

the condenser charted to voltage Vc = Vco which is sufficient to
beaked tube dielectric to create a discharge.

Fig 3.11

If Vd is the value of condenser voltage at any instant of

b me t and R the load Resistance
Vd dv
l d C. d
R dt
66
 dVd 1
dt
Vd CR
Integrate Vd = Vco, td = 0
Vd = Vd, t = td

Vd t
dv d 1
V Vd CR o dt
co

td

LogV t
Vd
d Vco
CR o
V t
log d
Vco CR
td

Vd V e CR
3
Vd
jd
R
td
V
l d co e CR 4
R

Eqn 3 shows the exponential decaying of condenser

current and voltage.
Eqn 4 shows as expential decaying of discharge current.

In actual case if the condenser are charged will not

recharge and the voltage will oscillate b/w Vco and -Vco.

67
 Hence the vibration has to arrest effectively, it prevent
the tool wear which allows continuous charging and
discharging of condenser. This means the introduction of R in
the circuit is a primary requirement and the more the value of
R, it is bettor in reducing tool wear.

R = R1+R5
R1 line resistance R5 = spark resistance.
Hence the spark resistance cannot be charged but the
line resistance can be increased to reduce the tool wear. When
Relaxation generator are used for high power generation i.e. for
high MRR the tool wear rate becomes very high, so that they
are not prescribable for high production rate though they are
simple and less costly at the initial stage.

Note
For this reason the electronic pulse generators have
come into the market for its higher eroding capacity with less
tool wear. However no one can eliminate the relaxation
generator for its simplicity and is seen in most M/cs.

CONDITIONOFR MAX POWER GENERATORS IN

RELAXATION GENERATOR
We know
Vo = supply voltage or DC source voltage
Vc = condenser voltage achieved at the same time t
Relation ship derived as
tc

Vc Vo 1 e c
R .C

jc = charging current

68
 tc
V R .C
jc o e c
Rc
We know pulse energy Ep = C.Vc2
2
1
tc


E p C Vo 1 e Rc .C

2

In the above eqn, Let t1 = charging time of condenser

upto breakdown voltage at the break down of delivered flurd
occur.
Power delivered in time t1
2
t
c
1

E Rc .C
P 1 1 Vo 1 e
t 2t

To obtain maximum power delivery through the circuit
dp t1
0 x
dx RC
by diff we get x = 1.26
by the substitution for x Vc - Vb

tc

Vb = Vo 1 e Rc .C

Vb/Vo = 0.72

Note:
It is seen that for mark power delivery through the gap,
the breakdown and supply voltage should follow above
relationship. If the above condition is used for maximization of
power transfer the nature of pulses is to be charged from saw
tooth shape to the rectangular one. It is difficult to achieve
69
hence the adoption of electronic pulse generate becomes more
important.

Electronic pulse generator

The Relaxation generator with its simplicity could not
meet the demand for higher production which reflected in high
amount of tool wear. So restricted only for low removed rate
machining system.

To use for higher production with lower tool wear we

go for electronic pulse generator which available in two forms.

1. Electronic amplifiers

Fig 3.12 (a)

In the above case the load current is taken care by the

amplifier since the operation on linear mode operators of the
amplifier. So the m/c power has to be taken care by the
amplifier itself i.e. if it is required to have a 1kw machine the
amplifier should be designed to handle 1kw at least. Then the
cost of amplifier type generator gets increased.

70
 Fig 3.12 (b)

2. Rectangular pulse generator

To avoid the above difficulty designer thought of
switching the operation not form linear mode but switching in a
saturation mode by the use of solid state devices.

Fig 3.13 (a)

Fig 3.13 (b)

71
 In this configuration involves, electronic switches
which can be operated at high frequency to give rectangular
pulses swinging b/w zero and supply voltage E.

Hybrid generator
It is also works in switching the operation from
saturation mode by means of switching valve or a solid state
device.

Fig 3.14

This type of generator uses a trapezoidal wave form in

place of a square wave form one of the great advantage is
instead of sudden rise of voltage as in case of Rectangular
pulse generator which it has a square wave form, it has a slope
(Triangular wave form) produced that it matches with the
Ionization characters of dielectric fluid. So that we can easily
predict the performance of an EDM M/C.

Metal Removal rate

Material removal rate depends on discharge current,
pulse duration and pulse frequency MRR of 300mm3/min on
sintered carbide, 500mm3/min on hardened steel and
2500mm3/min on low density strength materials such as
aluminum are easily realized.
72
 Metal is removed from the work in the form of crater
and can be estimated for single pulse and rate at which it is
given in fig.

Fig 3.15

Considering the value of a crater as part of sphere, the crater

parameter can be estimated as measure of energy.
hc = K1 . Wpn
Dc = K2 Wpn
n
Where Wp = pulse energy, joule
hc = Height of crater mm
Dc = Diameter of crater mm

K1, K2 constants depending on electrodes material

and dielectric.
N constant depending on work tool combinatory
So the volume of order Vc form simple geometry
Vc = 3/6 (3/4 Dc2 + hc2) .hc mm3 (Wp = 1 scale)
Vc = 3/6 (3/4 K22 + K22) mm3 (Wp = 1 scale)

73
 So, K1, K2 and n values are to be determined from
experiment s and M.R.R can be written in the form

M.R.R = Vc f.
Where f- frequency of operator
- Efficiency of the M/C at any setting.
If we consider the relaxation circuit MRR I proportional
to the product of frequency of charging (f) and energy
delivered per spark (E)
MRR f.E
MRR f. C.Vb2
or
metal removal rate = K1.f (1/2 CVb2)
K1 is the constant of proportionality
The frequency of charging
F = 1/t1

Where t1, the time of charging the condenser

1
t1 = R.C logc
1 Vb Vd
K 1 2
MRR = 1 x x1 / 2C.Vb
RC 1
log
1 Vb Vd
From the above equation
MRR 1/R
Where R = Resistance

74
 Fig 3.16

From the graph, MRR will increase with decreasing R

However R cannot be made very low because in the case
arcing will occur instead of sparking and such situation is
detriment to the work surface finish. The minimum value of the
resistance that will pervert arcing is known a orbed resistance.

Process parameters
It involves
1. Effect of increasing current
2. Effect of increasing spark frequency.
3. Surface finish
4. Tool wear rate
5. Metal removal rate

75
1. Effect of increasing current

Fig 3.17

As the current is increased, each individual spark

removes a larger crater of metal form the w/p. the net effect is
an increase in material removal rates, when holding all other
parameters constant it also increases surface roughness. The
same effect is also observed when spark voltage is raised.

EDN is available is able to operate b/w 0.5 and 400 amp and
with voltage ranging from 40 to 400v DC.

3. Effect of increasing spark frequency

Increasing spark frequency and maintaining all other
parameter construct as shown in fig.

Fig 3.18

76
 Increasing spark frequency results in decrease in
surface roughness. This is because the energy available for
material removal during given period shared by a large number
of sparks because the corresponding crater size is reduced.

EDM M/C ranges from a low of 180 Hz when

performing roughing cuts, to high several hundred KHz when
generating the fine finishes required for finishing cuts (when
frequency increase M.R.R gel decreased, so they can used for
fine finishing cuts).

3. Surface Finish
The quality of the m/c surface mainly depends on the
energy of the pulse and frequency of operation. The roughness
is generally observed as
Hm hc
1/f
Hm = K4. hc/f = K1 K4 Wpn/f

4. Tool Wear Rate

Refer tool wear

5. Metal Removal Rate

Refer MRR

The above described method is a experimental

approach, but in Analytical method, metal removal rate is
obtained by the application of conduction heat transfer
analysis.
EDM process is based on two dimensional transient
heat conduction in a body of the w/p subjected to the conform
heat flux over a small circular porter on its upper surface.

77
 Fig 3.19

The governing equation

T 1 s
C p T k.r ST S S k. ST
t r r r z z z

By applying the boundary conditions, we can obtain the

solution and we can predict material removal and as well as
structural damage or changes i.e. the advantage of analytical
method.

Note:
The gap b/w the electrode and w/p is determined by the
spark voltage and current. The gap ranges from 0.012 to
0.050mm. The smaller, the gap, the closes the accuracy with a

78
better finish and slower material removal rate. As the gap
decreases efficient flushing becomes difficult to achieve.
Increasing the pulse duration of the sparks has the
effect of increasing the material removed rate, increasing
surface roughness and decreasing the electrode wear. The
values of pulse duration range from a few microseconds to
several milliseconds.

Wire cut EDM or Electrical Discharge wire cutting (EDM)

OR traveling wire EDM (Tw EDM)

EDMC more commonly known as wire EDM spark

erosion process used to produce complex two and three
dimensional spaces through hole application through
electrically conductive work pieces.
Or
A thermal material removal process which utilizes a
constantly moving controlled wire to generate omni directional
cuts by means of spark erosion.

Fig 3.20 Schamatic Wirecut EDM

79
 It is very similar to EDM process in this also the w/p is
connected to positive terminal and tool electrode is connected
to negative terminal and both are separated by the dielectric
fluid.

It uses wire electrode, typically 0.25mm diameter, is

taken from a supply spool having sufficient wire for 24 hours
continuous operation at a velocity of 0.1 to 8m/min.

For highly accurate work, the wire is drawn through a

spring die and reduced in die by 0.015mm. After it is annealed
for remove stresses caused by the pulling of wire and passed
through sapphire gruels to a device which stabilities the tension
at 0.5 1.0kg.

The power supply is about 55 to 60 volts and 1 to 32

amps at pulse durations 1 to 100s.

Typical wire materials are molybdenum, tungsten,

copper and brass. In operation, de ionized water is used as the
dielectric. Displacement of slides in the x and y axis are
controlled by CNC.

The process is suitable for electrically conduction beat-

treated metals, sintered or connected and poly crystal
diamonds.

Application
1. For machining dies for forging, blanking extrusion etc.
2. For drilling fine deep holes like in find injecting
nozzles.
3. Hydraulic value spools can be machined.

80
 4. It is possible to manufacture fragile components which
are difficult to machined by converted methods because
of high tool forces.
(Advantage, Disadvantage. Self studies)
(OHP steel Ref Addition page 33-37 page 24 and 25)

Recent Trends on EDM process

Now days it mainly used in
1. Aerospace industry To drill a large number small
holes 0.1 0.5mm dia To obtain a three diameter
contour.
2. Die and mould industry production plastic moulds
and dies
3. Machining of complex ceramics materials.
Normally to machining a ceramics material by diamond
grinding by the EDM process shows considerable cost
savings, in addition to that fewer machining set ups and
operations required with EDM process.

The future developments that could be expected in the

EDM processes.

EDM flushing techniques

Regardless of the fluid being used, three functions are
performed by the di-electric fluid. It acts as an insulator
between the electrode and work piece, as a coolant to draw
away the small amount of heat generated by the sparks, and as
a flushing medium to remove the metal by-products from the
cutting gap.

Of the three dielectric fluid functions, flushing is by far

the most critical for optimum process efficiency. Poor flushing
results in stagnation of the dielectric fluid and buildup of tiny
81
machining residue particles in the gap. Stagnation usually
result in low material removal rates or short circuits.

As shown in fig, several methods are available for

flushing the dielectric fluid through the cutting zone. Either
pressure or suction can be used with equally good results.
Fluid flow through a hole down the centre of the electrode is
often the easiest method, but when machining cavities and
holes that do not penetrate all the way through the work piece,
a protruding bump will be generated in the bottom of the
machined form. For example, the use of a piece of thin-walled
metal tubing to drill a flat-bottom hole result in a hole with a
spike projection from the bottom. To avoid this problem,
solid electrodes may be used or jet flushing may be
incorporated.

The use of nozzles directed at the cutting gap(jet

flushing) is the least desirable flushing method because of a
reduction in flushing effectiveness and a corresponding
reduction in material removal rat. Jet flushing should only be
used if all other flushing methods are precluded by electrode or
work piece configurations.

Any of these flushing techniques can be preferred

exactly as illustrated in fig or with the work piece submerged
on a tank of dielectric fluid. Whenever flammable di-electric
liquids are being used, submersion of the work piece is
recommended to reduce the chances of accidental dielectric
fluid fires.

Because it is more cost effective to reuse the dielectric,

it is usually cleaned, recycled, and returned to the cutting gap.
Pumps and disposable filters perform this function.
82
 Fig 3.21

Adaptive control of EDM machines

To monitor the work material removal and associated
tool wear, by the use of this method machining time and cost
by 50%. The adaptive control can be effectively used to
optimize EDM process.

2. Application of EDM for the machining for large components

such as motor body-dies.

3. Application of EDM for the machining of very small

mechanical parts for the production of integral circuits and
precision instruments.

4. Development of traveling wire EDM process. It has a high

production rates such as 2000 components/hr to close
tolerances can be achieve. It is mainly used in to produce large
number of small holes in high temp metals.

83
 Unit 4
CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO CHEMICAL ENERGY
BASED PROCESS

Chemical Machining
Chemical machining [CHM] process involves using
reactive chemical solution to selectively dissolve and remove
the work piece material. Today chemical machining is
characterized as a process that used acidic (or) alkaline solution
to dissolve material in a controlled manner for the purpose of
milling (or) blanking parts. It is a very popular process for the
production of complex configuration in thin material and the
production of delicate parts that could be easily damaged by
the forces (or) conventional cutting tools. In some application,
chemical machining can be economical method for mass
material removal because material is removed simultaneously
from all surface of the part.

Chemical machining involves the following common

processing steps

1. Preparing :Pre cleaning.

2. Masking :Application of chemically resistant
material(if selective etching is desired).
3. Etch :Dip(or) spray exposure to the etching.
4. Removing : Strip remaining mask and clean.
5. Finish : Inspection and post processing.

Note
Maskings (or) chemically resistant coating are used to
protect the surfaces that are not to be machined.

84
1. Pre Cleaning

To assure that the proper adhesion of the masking material

to the work piece depending upon the type of masks material,
the required depth of cut and the work piece material. The
cleaning techniques may very from a simple solvent to more
through process such as flash etching, vapour de-greasing (or)
alkaline etching.

2. Masking

For parts requiring selective etching, a chemically resistant

masking is applied to the part after masking, the parts are
exposed to chemical etchant.

3. Etching

When the parts are exposed to chemical etchant that

uniformly removes material from all exposed surfaces. To
ensure uniform material removal, the etchant is either
continuously sprayed on to the part (or) the part is submerged
in a tank of agitated etchant.

Note
These above said methods prevent eching by constantly
circulating fresh etchant over the parts surfaces. However too
much agitation of the etchant can create areas of cavitation or
stagnation that will result in ridges, waviness or grooves in the
etched surface

85
 The etchants must be refreshed periodically by the
addition of chemicals because the work piece material is
dissolved and carried away in solution.
During the etching process, the material erosion
progresses both inward and laterally from the exposed surface.

Fig 4.1

Depth of cut
The distance etched in to or through the part is know as
of cut.

Undercut
The distance etched laterally under the mark is referred
to as the undercut

86
 The amount of undercut that occurs in a particular
application is a function of many factors including
1. Depth of cut
2. Type & strength of etchant
3. Work piece material

Note
1. The ratio between under cut to the depth of cut is know as
etch factor
Etch factor = under cut/ depth of cut.

2. During etching process, gases are released as bubbles, if

they become trapped, these bubbles can insulate the work
piece from the etchant and consequently result in non-
uniform material removal. Therefore to avoid the
problem, workspaces are usually tilted or oriented to
encourage the bubbles to escape.

4. Remove Mask
After etching the mask is removed by mechanical (or)
chemical stripping technique
1. Mechanical technique used for the etcher more durable
masks.
2. Chemical technique used for thinner mask (or) for thin,
delicate part that could be easily damaged.

5. Inspection
Final CHM process step is either inspection or further
processing by other techniques.

87
PROCESS PARAMETER
The process parameter for chemical machining includes
the composition and temperature of the etchant, the method of
circulating the etchant, the type of maskant, and the method of
applying the maskant.

The following factor involves in the mask selection

Three major categories of chemically resistant masks
are available for use in chemical machining. The selection of
the proper maskant for a particular application is accomplished
by evaluating the job with respect to the six factors defined in
table.

MASKANT APPLYING TECHNIQUES

i) Cut and Peel
Cut and peel masks involves the use of relatively thick
material which is scribed and removed to create a selective
exposure to the etchant. The maskant material, which is
commonly a neoprene, butyl, or vinyl-based material, is
usually applied by either dip, spray, or flow coating. These
coatings are applied in thicknesses that range from 0,0025 to
0.13 mm. because the coating are so thick, they can withstand
exposure to the etchant for extended periods so that work
piece can be etched as deep as 13mm.

The most common method used for the selective

removal of this maskant is hand scribing using a template as a
guide. After scribing, the unwanted maskant is manually
peeled away, exposing the areas to be etched.

Factor
1. Chemical resistance
2. Part Configuration
88
 3. Quantity of parts
4. Cost
5. Ease of removal
6. Accuracy

Cut and peel masks are the only type of mask that can
be easily rescribed to produce step etching. In general, the
parts best suited for the cut and peel technique are those that
are large, requires multi step depths, or are contoured on their
surface. Typical application include large components for the
missile, aircraft, and chemical industries.

ii) Screen printing

Screen printing is a mask application technique that
draws on conventional silk-screen printing technology. A fine
mesh silk or stainless steel screen, which has areas blocked-off
to allow selective passage of the maskant is used. The screen
is pressed against the surface of the work piece and the
maskant is rolled on. When the screen is removed, the maskant
remains on the art in the desired pattern. The maskant is ready
for etching after it has been dried by baking.

Screen printing is a fast, economical masking method

used for high-volume production when high accuracy is not
required. Because the mask thickness is typically less than
0.005mm. its life in the etchant is relatively short, limiting the
etching depth to 1.5mm. the screen printing technique is
desirable if bas is less than 1.2X1.2m, surfaces are flat or with
only moderate contour, etch depth does not exceed1.5mm
preside, or when a high degree of accuracy is not required.

89
iii) Photo Resist Masks
Photo resist masking is so versatile and in such
widespread use that it has almost become a separate
nontraditional process. Commonly known as photo chemical
machining (PCM), it is used to produce intricate and precise
shapes by using a photographic image to selectively cure the
photo resist mask on a work piece

The artwork is photographed and reduced to produce a

highly accurate, photographic master transparency. If the
application requires that many identical parts are to be blanked
out of one sheet of material, a precision step and repeat camera
will be used to provide many work pieces is desirable and
possible for the particular application, a mirror image duplicate
photo master is made for the back side of the work piece.

After the photo master is created, the part must be

prepared by a through cleaning to remove all dirt and oxides.
After cleaning, the parts is coated with a thin layer of a light
activated, etchant resistant material and baked ultraviolet light,
the photo resist can be accidentally cured by exposure to sun
light or standard fluorescent lights.

After the work piece has been prepared, a strong

ultraviolet light source is used to selectively expose the photo
resist while the photo master and work piece are held together
in intimate contact. Specifically, the steps for PCM involved in
this technique are shown in fig.

90
 Fig 4.2 PCM Process

After exposure, the photo resist is developed to remove

the coating from all areas where etching is desired.

To prevent small parts from prematurely dropping out

of the sheet from which they are being blanked, small
attachment tabs may be incorporated in the design to remain
after etching to secure the parts for easy handling. This
practical is known as tabbing. After all the PCM operations
have been completed, the parts are cut from their tabs. Part to
which PCM is applicable are less than 1.5mm thick, require
extremely fine detail, are less than 0.9 X 1.5m in size, require
high production volumes, or require tolerances better than 10%
of the material thickness.

91
Etchants
The purpose of an etchant is dissolve a material by
turning it into metallic salt, which then goes into solution many
chemicals are available as etchants,

Preffered Etch Etch

Metal
Etchant Rate Factor
Aluminium FeCl3 0.0025 1.7:1

Copper FeCl3 0.050 2.7:1

Nickel Alloy FeCl3 0.018 2.0:1

Phosphor Chromic
0.013 2.0:1
Bronze Acid
Silver FeNO3 0.020 1..5:1

Titanium HF 0.025 2.0:1

Tool Steel HNO3 0.018 1.5:1

The criteria used for selecting an etchant are shown in table.

1. Selection of etchant
2. Etchant materials

Selection of etchant involves the following factors

1. Required surface finish
2. Removal rate
3. Material type
4. Etch depth
5. Type of resist
6. Cost
92
Application
1. To make large turbine engine containment rings
2. Aluminum aircraft spares
3. Aluminum products
4. Aerospace applications.

ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING, EQUIPMENT

AND PROCESS AND PRINCIPLE

Principle
ECM is the reverse of electroplating i.e. if two
electrodes are placed in both containing a conductive liquid
and D.C potential is applied across then, metal can be de plated
from the a rode and plated on the cathode.

Fig 4.3
93
 The above technique has been used for many years for
adding metals to the surface of parts. But in ECM process,
removing the metal from the work piece, so that it is called as
reverse of electroplating.

In ECM process, the tool is made the cathode and the

work piece the cathode. An electrolyte is pulped through the
small gap which is maintained b/w the tool and work piece. In
ECM process the tool shape remains uncharged and if a close
gap (0.1 0.2mm) is maintained between tool and work. The
machined surface takes of the tool shape.

Principle of operation

ECM is described as the controlled removal of metal by

anodic dissolution of the w/p in an electrolytic cell in which the
w/p acts as an anode and the tool is a cathode.

Fig 4.4 Line diagram of ECM

94
 The tool electrode has to be suitable shaped to get the
required contour on the w/p. the electrolyte is pumped through
the gap between the work piece and tool, while direct current is
passed through the cell at a low voltage, to dissolve the metal
from the w/p. the shaping of the w/p is done by controlled
electrolysis. In ECM process, Electrolysis process plays
important role.

Fig 4.5

We consider the Nacl is the Electrolyte (Nacl+water

solu)
When current is flown through a Electrolyte the ions
are formed
i.e
Nacl Na+ + cd-
H2O H+ + (OH-)

The positive ions more towards the cathode (tool) while

negative ions move towards the anode (w/p) to react.

Cathode reaction
Na++e- = Na

95
 Na + H2O = Na (OH) + H+
2H+ + 2e- = H2O

From the above equation shown that there is no

deposition on tool but only gas is formed.

Anode reaction
By applying the electric current which causing removal
of the electrons from the atomic structure of work piece.
Fe Fe+++2e-

As on ion of iron (Fe++) leaves the w/p surface at reacts

with hydroxyl ions (OH-) that have been attracted to the anode
w/p
Fe+++2OH- Fe (OH)2

This ferrous hydroxide is a green black precipitate. It

reacts with the air of atm to form ferric hydroxide which is red-
brown in colour.

And also Fe+++2cl- Fecl2

Fig 4.6

96
 It shows metal w/p i.e. Fe goes into solution, Machining
is occurs and hence machined to produce reaction products as
ion-chloride and iron-hydroxide as a precipitate.

1. Here the salt is not being consumed and the metal is

being machined at the expense of electrical energy and
a little water.
2. The electrolyte acts only a carrier of the current.
3. Machining is the removal of an atom by as atom (Fe+)
resulting in higher finish with stress and work free
surface, and independent of the hardness of the work
material.

ECM process enables the metal to be removed from the w/p

at a rate which is independent of the hardness of the work
piece.

Fig 4.7

97
 It is suitable for machining tough, high temp materials
and alloys which finds applications in aerospace industry.

Note.
It can further be seen that in removing 1cm3 of iron
(7.8g) 6.3g of water is taken from the electrolyte and 15g of
form hydroxide is produced. This much hydroxide has a vol. Of
4cm3 when dry, but in a wet state the volume of about 300cm3
of the 6.3g of water 0.28g goes as hydrogen gas.

In other words, a current of 1000A would dissolve iron

at the rate of about 15g/min and generate hydrogen at the rate
of about 600cc/min.

Equipment

Fig 4.8

The elements of ECM are

1. Cathode tool (of a shape which is almost the mirrors
image of the cavity to be machined into the w/p).
2. Anode work piece.

98
 3. Source of DC power (of sufficient capacity so that the
high current densities can be maintained b/w the tool
and w/p).
4. Electrolyte.

Cathode tool
The accuracy of the tool shape directly affects the w/p
accuracy since configuration of tool shape is reproduced on the
w/p, similar thing, surface finish of the tool directly affect
surface finish of w/p.

Materials
Aluminum brass, bronze, copper,
Anode workpiece
1. It must be a good conductor of electricity
The fixtures for holding the work are made of some
insulating material i.e. Epoxy resins or glass fiber. They should
have good thermal stability and low moisture absorption
properties.

DC power
The processes needs low voltages of the order of 2 to
20V and rare cases up to 30v. Normal current requirements are
as high as 300amp/cm2 of the w/p area to be machined. Three
phases, 440v A.C power supply available from mains is
converted to a low voltage DC by step-down transformer and a
rectifier. For maintaining the constant o/p voltage silicon
controlled rectifier is becoming very popular because of its
light weight and compact in size if it is any lack of control
occurs, sparking may occur b/w the positive voltage and the
w/p. causing damage to both. To sense that electronic sensing
devices are available with in the electrodes gap.

99
Electrolyte
The electrolyte used in ECM performs many furthers.
1. To act as a conductor to carry current.
2. To remove the products of electrochemical reactions
from the gap.
3. Remove the heat generated by ECM process.

Electrolytes can be divided into two classes

1. Sledging electrolytes.
2. Non-sledging electrolytes.

Sledging Electrolytes
It is composed of inorganic salts that produce insoluble
by products.
Eg: Sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium nitrate
sodium chlorate.

Sodium chloride is the most commonly used electrolyte

because of low cost and because its conductivity is stable. Due
to high corrosive nature, and produces large amount of sludge
it cannot be used on tungsten carbides molybdenum is the wok
material.

Sodium nitrate is much less corrosive and is used for

machining of aluminum or copper. However it has the problem
causing passivity of the work piece formation of oxide layer
build up which affect the electrolysis process and it reduces
electrical conductivity and dues not produce surface finishes as
fine as sodium chloride.

Non-Sludging Electrolyte
It is composed of acids or alkalis that result in by
products that do go into colour.
100
E.g. sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide. In general non sludging
electrolytes produce best results.

2. Electrolyte selection mainly depends upon

1. Work piece material
2. Tool Material

Characteristics of Electrolyte
1. High electrode conductivity
2. Low graciosity and high sp heat
3. Non-corrosive and non toxic in nature
4. In expensive

Analysis of metal removal rate

The rate of metal removed or dissolution can be
analyses from Faraday, laws.

1. The first law state that the amount of chemical changes

W produced (Dissolved or Deposited) is proportional
to the amount of charge Q passed through the
electrolyte.
WQ
2. The second low proposes that the amount of change
produce in the material is proportional to its electric
chemical equivalent. (ECE)
W ECE
ECE = M/ where M atomic weight
- Valency.
By combining the Two laws
E Q.ECE
Where F Faradays Constant
F 96500 coulombs

101
 = 26.8 amp-hr.
W = 1/F. Q.ECE
Q = Charge (coulomb)
Q = I.t
Where I current (amp)
t - Dissolution period
1 M
W It
F
The above equation suitable only for metal which
contains single element material. But in actual case, ECM
process machined alloy of metals which consisting of different
elements.

The find metal removal rate or rate of dissolution, one

must consider each element separately, one must consider each
element separately and combine then for the whole alloy.

Let us consider the alloy consisting of

1 to n = Number of elements
M1.Mn = Atomic weights of individual elements
1.n = Valency of respective elements
x1.xn = % of the element present in alloy.
- Density of the alloy
Va - Volume that goes into colour in a given time
t
W1 - Wt of first element present in alloy
V . .x1
W1 = a
100
Va . .x 2
W2 =
100

102
 Va . .x n
Wn =
100
The charge
W1 .F .1 Va . .F 1 .x1
Q1 = =
M1 100 M 1
W .F .n Va . .F 2 .x2
Q1 = 2 =
M2 100 M 2
W .F .n Va . .F n .x n
Q1 = n =
Mn 100 M n

Total charge required for removing all the elements

from the alloy will be
Q = Q1 + Q2 + .+Qn

VaF X 1V1 X 2V2 X V

Q total = ........ n n
100 M 1 M2 Mn

VaF l n X jV j
Q total =
100 j 1 M j
Hence, volumetric material removal rate Vm/unit charge
Va 100 1
Vm
Qtotal F j n X V

j j

l 1 Mj
IF current I flows for time t sec

VaF l n X jV j
Q total = I.t =
100

j 1 M j

103
 Va 100 I
MRR =
t F l n X jV j
j 1 Mj
Tool material
Tool required for ECM process can be made from any
conductive material. Conductivity of tools material is important
because its affects the efficiency of the process. Low
conductivity means more heat generated in the cathode and a
greater voltage drop across the electrodes (Tool).
At the same time tool material
1. Resist the erosion effects of electrolyte plate
2. Corrosion resistant
3. Easy to manufacture
Most copper, Brass, Aluminum, Bronze, Carbon,
copper-manganese, cupro-nickel, copper tungsten, stainless
steel, Titanium 99% pure.
For close gap = 0.125mm Cu=Tungsten alloys are
desirable in order to minimize damage camel by arcing,
machining blade aero foils uses 12% chromium steel as a tool.

Insulation

Fig 4.9

104
 The first encounter with process is that drilling a
straight hole involves a bare tool. While drilling the side of the
tool also contributes to the machining process and produces
parabolic profile. Ie refer to as a work corrosion is a problem if
electrolyte impinges on adjacent finished work surfaces. This
can be avoided by ensuring that a thin protrusion of material is
left b/w adjacent operators which deflect the electrolyte from
the work ie called as a Insulation i.e. the area in which ECM
action is not required should be insulated. Lade of insulation on
the sides causes un wasted machining of the work and loss in
accuracy.

To conclude than, insulation of the tool at the side

prevents side erosion in the work piece.

The need for a thin insulation can be satisfied with the

use of synthetic rubber coating applied in liquid form or solid
pieces of insulating material also used in ECM process.

Process parameter
The chemical reactions that take place in ECM depend
upon the particular combination of w/p material and the type of
electrolyte being used.
Eg. When iron is machined with a sodium chloride, the
resulting chemical reaction takes place
By products

2Fe + 4 H2O +O2 sFe (OH)3 +H2

To assure the constant operating conditions, the sludge

(Fe(OH)3) must be removed continuously from the electrolyte.
For safety hydrogen must be verted to avoid explosion.
105
Note
Sodium chloride salt does not appear in the equation
because it is not consumed in the process.

The ECM removal rate, which is independent of

material harness, is primarily controlled by current density.
ECM actins are available that delivers current from 50 to
40,000 amp.
The m/c used for a particular application must have
sufficient current available to maintain a current density of
8.233 amp/cm2
Note
When all other variable are held constant, tool
penetration rate is directly proportional to the current density.

Current density is controlled not only by the amount of

current but also by the size of the gap b/w tool and w/p. a small
gap results in highest current density. The gap may be small as
0.025mm or as large as 0.75mm, the gap size most often used
being 0.25mm when the gap is very small, there is a danger of
sludge particles bridging the gap b/w tool and w/p and causing
a short circuit.

When the gap is too large, current density is reduced,

resulting in a poor surface finish and a decrease in material
removal rate.

The velocity of electrolyte flow through the gap is also

as important parameter affecting the surface finish and removal
rate. Under normal operation the electrolyte flow may be b/w
15 and 60m/s.

106
 If the velocity of electrolyte is too low, the heat and by
products of the reaction (hydrogen gas bubbles and sludge)
build in the gap causing non uniform material removal.

A velocity that is too high, also promoting un even

material removal. In addition increased electrolyte velocities
requires larger electrolyte pumps that add capital cost to the
system.

Note
One thumb rate for determining electrolyte flow when
using sodium chloride as the electrolyte. I.e. for every 100amp,
electrolyte flow is 0.95l/min.

ELECTRO CHEMICAL GRINDING

Electrochemical grinding is a process that combines
both electrochemical and mechanical action to remove the hard
or fragile electrically conductive materials.

The ECG, grinding wheels closely resemble their

conventional grinding wheel with the exception the ECG
wheels use an electrically conductive abrasive bonding agent.
In general wheel material are copper, brass and nickel. The
most common abrasive is aluminum oxide. In special
applications, layer of diamond particles in a nickel may be
used.

The electrolyte is introduced to the work area in the

same manner that coolant is introduced in conventional
grinding. The abrasive particles in a ECG wheel protracts
beyond the conductive bond surface. This establishes a small
gap b/w the wheel and w/p Electrolyte action begins when the

107
gap is filled with as electrolyte and the wheel is electrically
charged.

Fig 4.10 Line Diagram of ECG

The wheel is changed negatively and acts as the

cathode, w/p performs as the cathode. Material is removed
through a combination of electrochemical action and
conventional mechanical grinding.

Only a small amount of material is removed by

grinding action, ECG wheel life is typically to times danger
than the life of conventional grinding.

108
 Fig 4.11

The mechanical contact are of ECG wheel is smaller

than that of conventional grinding wheel so that the life will be
more now the contact are for ECG is less than the conventional
grinding because ECG material removal occurs in three phases
corresponding to three zones or the wheel.

Fig 4.12

Phase I
In phase I, the metal removal is completely by
electrochemical action. The result of electrolysis process
oxides form on the w/p surface at a rate faster than they can
dissolve into sodium.
109
Note.
This is in contrast to the ECM process in which it is
desirable to have oxides dissolve into solution before a build
up an occur. The formed oxides are removed by the electrolyte.

Phase II
The ECG wheel rotation acts to draw fresh electrolyte
from the delivery nozzle and move it into and through the
wheel-w/p interaction zone.

A electrolyte passes through the phase-I zone and

moves toward phase 2 zone 1 oxides evolved gases and other
by products contaminate the electrolyte and decrease its
conductivity.

As the conductivity decreases, less and less of the w/p

is depleted, causing the gap to decrease until finally the wheel
comes into contact with the w/p. at this point on the wheel
contact are, phase I material removal ends and phase 3 begins.

Phase 2 material removal begins at the point where the

abrasives in the ECG wheel are indirect contact with the w/p.
This traps the electrolyte b/w the protruding abrasive grains,
thus forming thinly electrolyte cells where the depleting
occurs.

In addition, because the electrolyte is begin forced deep

into the contact are by the rotations motion of the wheel, the
electrolyte pr in the gap increases which in turn increases the
material removed rate.

110
 The abrasive grains that are in to contact with the w/p
surface during phase II act to remove soft, non reactive oxide
layer, thus exposing fresh metal to further electrolyte action.

Note
Unlike phase I in which no mechanically formed chip is
created, phase II produces a combination of small chips and
partially dissolved metal oxides.

Phase III
In phase III material removal is again totally
electrochemical. As the contaminated electrolyte exists the rear
of the wheel, and it removes very little material but tends to
electrolytically grinding material remove any scratches or burrs
that may have formed on the w/p.

Note
Electrochemical grinding material removal rates that
are up to 10 times fastes than conventional grinding.

Advantages
The advantages of the process over conventional
grinding are
1. Increased material removal rates.
2. Reduced heating of w/p and less risk of thermal
damage.
3. Absence of burrs of the finished surface.
4. Improved surface finish with no grinding scratches.

Disadvantages
1. High capital cost
2. Not economical for soft material
3. High maintenance cost
111
Applications
1. Most excessively used for grinding of carbides
cutting tools.
2. ECG savings 75% wheel cost and above 50% in
labour costs in grinding tungsten carbide.
3. To grind fragile parts such as honey comb,
hypodermic needles, thin walled tubes and etc.

ELECTROCHEMICAL HONING
Honing
It is also an abrading process which is used for finishing
previously machined surfaces.
It is mostly used for finishing internal cylindered
surfaces as drilled or bared holes. The tool wheel called a hone,
is a bonded abrasive stone made in the form of a stick.

Electrochemical Honing
It is a modification of conventional honing techniques
where by material is removed from electrically conductive
work pieces through a combination of anodic dissolution and
mechanical abrasion.

Note
80% or more of the material removal occurs through
electrolytic action.

Similar to conventional ECM, the w/p is the anode and

a stainless steel tool is a cathode.

It is a tool consists of hollow s.s body that has

expendable, non conductive boning stores protruding
(projected) from at least three locations around the
circumference.
112
 Fig 4.13

These bonding stores stones are identical with used in

conventional boning operations except that the must resist the
corrosiveness of the electrolyte.

They are mounted in the tool body with a spring loaded

mechanism so that each of the stores exerts equal pr. Against
the work piece.

Note
Length of the stones is selected to be approximately
one-half of the length of the here being processed.

At the beginning of ECH cycle, the stones protrude

only 0.075-0.125mm or 0.003 to 0.005in from the s.s body.
Establishing the gap through which the electrolyte flows. The
electrolyte esters the tool body via a sliding in let sleeve from
which it exits into the tool w/p gap through small holes of tool
113
body, after passing through the gap, the electrolyte flows from
the work piece through the gap at the top and bottom of the
bare.

Note
The closed bores cannot effectively processed by ECH
because of electrolyte stagnation.

The mechanical motion of the tool is the same as the

conventional boning, the tool is rotated and reciprocated so that
stones abrade the entire length of the bore.

When the tool and w/p is contact through the

electrolyte, electrolysis process tarts and result of this action is
produces surface oxides which is removed by the abrasive
boning stones.

Initially the metal is removed by the electrolytic action

i.e. by means of anode w/p and cathode tool and electrolyte. If
the process produces non uniform electrolytic action or surface
oxides which is removed by boning stones.

As material is removed form the bore, the stones

expand to maintain constant contact. As the cycle progresses,
the gap b/w the work piece surface and s.s tube increases by
the amount of material removed. Some times increasing to as
much as 0.5mm. As the gap increases, the electrochemical
action slows, a proportionately larger % of material is removed
by mechanical abrasion.

Electrolyte Sodium Chloride

Sodium Nitrate

114
 Boning stones abrasives (bonded ) = Aluminum oxide
Silicon carbide or diamond grains using shellac bond to form
the honing stones.

Applications
ECM
1. To machine of aero engine turbine blades.
2. To drill deep hole for coolant in turbine blades.
3. To machining vane ends.
4. Machining of engine cashing.

ECG
1. To grinding tungsten carbide tool bits
2. Materials like cemented carbides, refractory materials,
s.s and high alloy steel can be machined by this process.

ECH
For machining inside the surfaces of the cylindrical
parts.

115
 UNIT 5
THERMAL ENERGY BASED PROCESS

Laser beam machining

If sun rays are focused by lens system. It can burn a
bundle of paper, the energy density being in the range of 100
w/cm2.When laser is focused by lens system the energy is in
the order of 1,00,000 Kw/cm2.A laser beam can melt and
vaporize even hardest material ie Diamond.

Note:
The word laser stands for Light Amplification using
stimulated Emission of Radiation. In a laboratory test when
lasers beam was focused on a piece of carbon a spot was
heated to approx 8000 K in 0.0005 second.

Laser concept is introduced from maser concept, ie in

Maser, tremendous energy release is due to certain atoms
which have higher energy level to oscillate with particular
frequency. When such atoms impinge with electromagnetic
waves having resonant frequency. The waves absorb energy
from the atoms and become highly powerful. Such waves with
increased energy are called Maser (Microwave amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation). Using this concept, laser
was invented amplifying ordinary light waves, that light waves
are useful for the release of tremendous energy.

Process principle
The principle states, if an atom (or) molecule is raised
to a high energy level, (E2) by as outside energy source (Eg
heat, Light, chemical reaction etc) and is allowed to decay back
to its ground state energy level (E1), a photon (unit of light) is
released.
116
 Fig 5.1

If that photon contacts another atom (or) molecules that

has also has raised to a high energy level, second atom (or)
second molecule will be triggered to return back to ground
state. The return to ground state causes the second atom (or)
molecule to release a second photon along with the trigger
photon. The pair of photon in the form of chain which has
identical in wave length, phase, direction and energy. This
sequence of triggering photons from stimulated atoms (or)
molecules is known as stimulated emission.

Population inversion:
Usually the number of particles in the higher energy
level E2 (ie population of the higher energy level) is less than
the population E1 (of lower energy level). For laser action the
population atoms in the higher energy state should be
increased. The process of increasing the population of higher
energy level than lower energy level ie making E 2>E1 is called
as population inversion.

117
Setup for LBM

Fig 5.2

LBM is based on the conversion of electrical energy to

light energy and then into thermal energy. It consisted of gas
filled lamp with a power source of 230W -1000 W in order to
produce as intense flash of while light (Intense: It means that
all the emitted waves are in phase (or) coherent and highly
directional.).Radiation from the lamp is directed into the laser
(Laser resonator which is works on feed back mechanism).

118
Feed back mechanism
The feed back mechanism is designed to allow a small
% of the coherent photons to exist the system in the form of
laser light. Although some of the photon are allowed to escape
the system, most will still be available to maintain the
amplification process through stimulated emission.

Fig 5.3

Note
The small % that was allowed to escape is laser light,
hence the name light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. When we supply the electrical energy is stimulate the
atom (or) molecules of lasing atoms.

In feed back mechanism, one mirror is selected to be as

close to 100% reflective as possible. While the other is
partially transparent to provide the laser o/p, depending upon
the gain of lasing medium, the o/p mirror may be selected to
have a reflectivity as low as 10% (or) as high as 98%.

With the help of feed back mechanism in resolution, the

light is amplified and emitted as a coherent (coherent it means
that all the photon (or) Light energy are in phase), highly
collimated beam of single wavelength. The narrow beam is

119
focused by an optical lens to produce a small intense spot of
light on the work surface. Optical energy is converted into heat
energy upon impact and temperature generated can be made
sufficient to melt and vaporize every known material.

Lasing Material
Solids, liquids and gases can be used as lasing materials
based on the lasing material. The lasers are classified as
1. Solid state laser
2. Gas lasers
3. Liquid state laser

Pumping
The method of achieving population inversion ie raising
the atoms from lower energy state to higher energy state is
called pumping.

Solid State Laser

Fig 5.4
120
 Solid state units have laser rods of any one of a number
of solid materials including ruby, neodymium-dipped glass and
neodymium duped yttrium-aluminum-garnet (YAG).

The laser road on tube is pumped by an energy source

may to krypton, tungsten-halogen (or) Xenon-filled flash lamp
and radiant energy known laser light is emitted from one end of
the rod (or) tube. Solid laser are pumped optically generally by
flash tube (or) flash lamp. In general two flashes (or) even
more flash tubes are maintained on the foci of an elliptical
reflecting cavity with lasing rod parallel to the central axis.

Lamp configuration can be either straight (or) helical.

Straight lamps are usually preferred because of they are less
expensive and much easier to change when they are wear out.

Note
Generally the solid state lasers offer the highest power
o/p, hence in machining solid state lasers are widely used.

Ruby laser
The most commonly used laser material for solid state
is ruby. The main reasons for its use are its working is in the
visible spectral range of (wavelength) = 0.6943 m,
operates at room temp, high efficiency, high mechanical and
thermal stability and the easy production of good ruby crystals.

Ruby consists of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) in which

small proportion (0.01 to 0.05%) of the Al3+ ions. The
aluminum and oxygen ions are inert, only the chromium ions
participate in the laser action. The ruby laser is built to utilize
the three energy level principle. By blue and green light the
chromium ions are excited to the high level 3 from the ground
121
level 1. After a short on they full back to the level 2. If enough
energy is used, more electrons to be placed in level 2 than level
1. As the electrons fall from level 2 to level 1. Light photons
are created that move through the material and stimulate the
identical transitions that results in emission of coherent beam
of monochromatic light.
A ruby laser could to pump effectively with white light
which is pumped using mercury vapour lamp (or) Xenon
lamps.

Different methods of optical pumping system:

Fig 5.5

The different methods of positioning the ruby road and Xenon

flash lamp.

1. Spiral Flash lamp (Ruby rod is kept inside)

2. Straight Flash lamp and cylindrical mirror with
elliptical cross sector.
3. circular reflection cylinder
4. Four flash lamps arranged around the ruby rod.

Note
Ruby and Nd glass laser cannot be operated
continuously because of the poor thermal properties of the rod

122
material. Only the Nd- YAG rod materials are resistant enough
to thermal shock and also ruby and Nd glass laser has slow
pulse rate ie. Two pulses per second but Nd YAG laser having
the highest available power of all the solid state lasers which
are used to perform cutting, drilling and seam welding. The
cooling arrangements are also made in solid state laser,
particularly for Ruby laser, liquid nitrogen cooling system is
used.

Liquid Laser: Lasing medium is alcohol which is used in

research and in medical applications.

Gas Laser

Fig 5.6

The construction of gas laser is very similar to that of

the solid state laser. Gas laser consists of glass tube containing
a lasing material (or) medium may be a single gas (or) mixture
of gases. The gases used commercially are He-Ne, Argon, CO2
etc which replaces the crystal (or) rod that acted as lasing
medium for the solid state laser. Instead of flash lamp, direct
electrical energy is used to provide the energy for stimulating
the lasing medium. The gases flowing through the laser are
123
after recirculated and replenished to reduce operating costs.
A typical high power Co2 laser contains three gases
namely Co2, N2 and He. Co2 gives the molecular action to
generate photons, N2 reinforces and sustain this action and He
provides intact cavity cooling.

Note
The power o/p is depended on the length of the laser
tube. Thus Co2 laser can develop about 50w for every meter
length of tube. The problem of length could be overcome by
arranging short length tubes in a zigzag fashion with a
reflecting surface at each end.

Applications (Machining)
It is mainly used for drilling, trimming, cutting, seam
welding applications.

PLASMA ARC MACHINING

When gases are heated to temp above 5500C they are
partially ionized and exist in the form of a mixture of free
electrons, positively charged ions and neutral atoms. This
mixture is termed as plasma. The high velocity stream of hot
ionized gas called plasma.

Working
Plasma arc cutting torch carries a tungsten electrode
fitted in a small chamber. This electrode is connected to the
ve of a d.c power supply source. it acts as a cathode.
Two types of plasma arc used.
1.Non-transferred arc
2.Transferred arc

124
 Fig 5.7

In non transferred arc, the arc b/w the central electrode

and nozzle body. This method is applicable for work materials
which are electrically non conductive. In transferred arc, the
arc is b/w the central electrode and the w/p. This method is
used for electrically conductive work material. The central
electrode material is generally tungsten.

Fig 5.8 (a,b)

125
 On one side of the torch is provided a passage for
supply of gas into the chamber. There is also a provision of
water circulation around the torch so that the electrode and the
nozzle both remain water cooled.

A strong arc is struck b/w the electrode and nozzle and

the gas is forced into the chamber. As the gas molecules collide
with the high velocity electrons of the arc, the former get
ionized and a very large amount of heat energy is evolved. The
flow of gas is so controlled that arc remains stable. This high
velocity stream, ie plasma is directed on the w/p to melt its
material and also blow it away.

The heating of w/p material is not due to any chemical

reaction but on account of the continuous attack of e- which
transfer that heat energy of high temp ionized gas to the work
material. The choice of particular gas for use in this process
depends on surface finish and economic consideration. The gas
(or) gas mixture should not be affect the electrode and w/p
material.

Work piece Gas (or) gas mixture

Al : Nitrogen, Nitrogen-hydrogen, argon- hydrogen

Magnesium : Nitrogen, Nitrogen-hydrogen, argon-hydrogen

Non ferrous
metal : Nitrogen, Hydrogen, argon-hydrogen

Carbon and
Alloy steals
Cast iron : Nitrogen-hydrogen, compressed air,

126
Applications
1. The plasma jets are used for welding materials like
titanium, S.S and etc
2. Plasma arc is used for depositing filler metal (or)
surface to obtain desired properties like corrosion
resistance, wear resistance, toughness (or) antifriction
properties. The process is called plasma arc surfacing
3. The plasma arc can also be used for spraying on
prepared surface of the base material with droplets of
molten metal to obtain a surface of required thickness.

Advantages
1. The main advantage of PAM is speed. For example
mild steal of 6mm thick can to cut at 3m/min.
2. Can be used to cut any metal
3. Smooth cuts, free from contaminants are obtained in
the process.
4. Can be automated.

Disadvantages:
1. Smoke and noise
2. Sharp corners are difficult to produce because of the
wide dia of plasma stream
3. Burn is often produced
4. Taper on the w/p may occur.

ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING

Electron
An electron is the lightest known partied. It is a
constituent of all atoms around whose nuclei it revolves in
orbits. The force which holds an electron in orbit is
electrostatic and it carries a negative electronic charge.
127
 Eg: Hydrogen has one electron moving around the
nucleus of the atom has the atomic No.1.An iron atom has 26
electrons and iron has the atomic No 26.

Process principle
EBM is a thermal material removal process that utilizes
a focused beam of high velocity electrons to perform
machining operation. The machining action is achieved when
high velocity electrons strike the work piece, upon impact the
K.E of the electrons is converted into the heat necessary for
rapid melting and vaporization of any material.

Fig 5.9

128
Gun Construction and Working

Electron gun
The electron beam is a stream of negatively changed
particles which are generated, accelerated and to some extent,
focuses inside a device called as electron gun.
1. It consists of a tungsten cathode which is heated by a
low voltage current on heating when this filament
reaches a temp ie incandescence about 2000oC it emits
electrons by thermionic emission.
Note: Instead of tungsten filament, tungsten filament is
also used.
2. These electron move towards the anode which is kept at
a potential difference of 30-200kv. Such a high voltage
accelerates the electrons to high velocity.
3. Bias grid around the cathode helps in further narrowing
the beam and this grid is also used for controlling the
beam current. The beam passes through central hole in
the anode.
4. A tungsten diaphragm, with a small central hole
separates this portion of the gun from the rest of it.
5. Light microscope helps in focusing the beam on the w/p
initially.
6. The magnetic lens further converges the beam into a
narrow spot on the w/p (diameter /m).

A beam deflection coil can be used to deflect the beam

further either onto a differential spot on the work piece or for
moving it along a contour. The entire set up is kept in high
vacuum ie the electron emits with its focusing coils is kept at a
vacuum of 10-4 (or) 10-5 hour.

[1 atm = 1bar = 1 kg/cm2 = 760mm Hg,

129
 Very low pr are measured in torr, 1 torr=1/760 atm]
Vacuum chamber pr = 3.45*10-7Kg/cm2]

The successful operation of EBM machine depends on

the degree of vacuum ie maintained need for a high vacuum in
EBM.

The e- beam is generated in a high vacuum for two reasons

1. If vacuum is not maintained and if there is any atm pr,
the emitter would rapidly got oxidized when it is
incandescent (at a temp of about 2000oC).
2. Electrons would lose the energy by collisions with air
molecules thus the passage of the electron beam would
be considerably retarded.

Working
The high energy beam 0f electrons which can be
focused magnetically a very small area say 0.017mm in dia.
The K.E of beam (traveling at about half the velocity of light ie
1, 60,000Km/s) is converted into heat energy upon striking the
w/p and raises its temp locally in that very small area to above
its boiling point. The electrons beam power density of 1.6
billion walts/cm2 this extremely high power density
immediately vaporizes any material on which beam impinges
and it produces very fine holes could be drilled in difficult to
machines materials such as sapphire. Electron beams can be
used both machining and welding applications.

Applications
1. For drilling synthetic jewels in the watch industry. A/S
instrument jewels can be drilled.

130
 2. Machining operations such as cutting, drilling (or)
milling on variety of materials can be carried out with
electron beams,
3. To make the perforated holes in steel metal and
polythene sheets [Eg: dia 30m on 0.2mm thick sheet
metal].
4. To make hole in Gas orifices which is used in space
crafts, nuclear reaction.
5. To drill the holes in rotor and stator blades for super
sonic air craft engines
6. To make the precise hole in the following material
i. Alumina
ii. Aluminum
iii. Molybdenum
iv. Quartz
v. Sapphire

Types of Gun
In general electron beam systems are classified in on
the basis of
1. Type of material removal
2. voltage
3. Vacuum

Type of material removal

1. Thermal type: The beam is used to heat the material upt
the point where it is selectively vaporized.
2. Non-Thermal type: In this type, utilizes the beam to
cause a chemical reaction.

Voltage: (Accelerated voltage)

Low Voltage System: Typically range b/w 15 and
30KV of accelerating voltage, lower voltage results in a
131
reduction of the equipment cost and reduction in overall
operating and maintenance express.

High Voltage System: It is capable of generating

accelerating voltages b/w 60 and 200kv. It is a most expensive
machines.

Vacuum present in the chamber:

The vacuum system comprises two subsystem
1. Pumping system
2. Vacuum chamber

All EBM system requires some form of pumping

system to generate a high vacuum in the electron gun.

1. High vacuum Electron beam system

By providing high vacuum environment in the electron
gun, it produces highest degree of add purity and cleanliness. It
has limitation of, limited the productivity of the machines
because of the required to evaluate the air from the chamber is
high dew to the high vacuum. To obtain the high vacuum
diffusion pump is used.

2. Non Vacuum Electron beam system

By considering the higher productivity to the need for
developing low vacuum environment ie refers to as a non
vacuum electron beam system. But it non vacuum also require
high vacuum in electron gun but deliver the beam to a work
piece at atm pr.
To obtain the lower vacuum (or) non vacuum in the
electron gun, roughing pumps are used which includes rotary
pumps, R/C pumps (or) roots blowers. This tech is mainly used
in automobile industry.
132
High vacuum technology
To generate this high level vacuum as fast as possible, a
roughing pump is first used to rapidly reach a partial vacuum
level, then a diffusion pump is used to remove the remaining
air molecules thus producing high vacuum.

Note:
A diffusion pump is capable of achieving vacuum levels
in excess of 1.3 x 10^-5 pa

Fig 5.10

The operation of a diffusion pump begins when a

electrical heating element (1) heats and vaporizes a quality of
special diffusion pump oil which is related in the boiler (2) The
vaporized pump oil streams up the chimneys and exit as
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diverging vapour jet (7) with super sonic velocity through the
ring-shaped nozzles (A to D).

Because of spreading of this jet, the vapour density is

very low thus enabling any air (or) gas molecules (6) that enter
from the vacuum chamber (5) to become entrained and
absorbed in the jet.
[It means that due to low density of vapour when it is
issued from the nozzle, it comes down when it comes down
automatically it produces vacuum pr in pump body. To fill up
that vacuum automatically air from the vacuum chamber is
comes down] due to the pre different in the pump and
chamber.]

As the saturated pump oil jet strikes the walls of the

pump (3) which are chilled by cooling coils (4), it condenser
into a liquid. The pump oil then returns towards the boiler,
where trapped gases come out of 50 and are carried away to a
mechanical backing (roughing) pump (8)

Note
A vacuum chamber is required for EBM system not only
to provide suitable environment to carry out the welding
operation but to also act as a shield to block the harmful x-
rays that are generated when the electric beam strikes the W/P.
The higher the acceleration voltage of the electron beam, the
stronger the X- rays.

Non Vaccum Techgniques

Refer the working principles of non vaccum pumps.
(Reciprocating & Centrifugal pumps and Blowers)

134
Note
The beam intensity in EBM is mainly depends upon the
1. Beam current
2. Beam diameter when it is focused on the w/p (namely
known as spot dia)
3. Focal distance of the magnetic lens.

Every EBM machine has provision for adjusting these three

parameters.

135