JOSf: A N T O N I O

PRIMO DE RIVERA|
S E L E C T E D WRITINGS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are grateful to Senorita Pilar Primo de
Rivera for her kind permission to quote from the
works of her late brother.

THE INTELLECTUALS AND

DICTATORSHIP
Preface b y Jose A n t o n i o to the book The Dictatorship of Primo
de Rivera as Seen from Abroad, p u b l i s h e d i n 1931.
W r i t t e n o n D e c e m b e r 8 t h , 1931

' S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , t h e r e exist w i t h i n e a c h s o c i a l class

a mass a n d a g e n u i n e m i n o r i t y . A s w e s h a l l see, t h e
p r e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e mass a n d t h e v u l g a r h e r d , e v e n
i n g r o u p s w i t h a t r a d i t i o n o f s e l e c t i v i t y , is c h a r a c t e r istic o f o u r t i m e . T h u s , i n the i n t e l l e c t u a l sphere,
w h i c h b y its n a t u r e r e q u i r e s a n d p r e s u p p o s e s a d e g r e e
o f q u a l i t a t i v e assessment, o n e observes the t r i u m p h a n t
advance
o f the
pseudo-intellectuals,
who
are
constitutionally unqualifiable a n d disqualified.'
H a d G e n e r a l P r i m o de R i v e r a ever w r i t t e n w o r d s o f s u c h
harshness i n a n y o f his notes, w h a t w o u l d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s
have said o f h i m ? F o r the w h i p l a s h c o u l d not be sharper :
i t is n o t j u s t a m a t t e r o f c e r t a i n i n f e r i o r e l e m e n t s m i n g U n g
w i t h t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s , b u t o n e o f ' o b s e r v i n g t h e triumphant
advance', ' t h e predominance o f t h e . . . u n q u a l i f i a b l e a n d
d i s q u a l i f i e d " , w i t h i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l class as s u c h . W h a t
w o u l d the c o m m e n t s have been i f G e n e r a l P r i m o de
R i v e r a h a d ever w r i t t e n s u c h w o r d s ? B u t these w o r d s a r e
n o t h i s ; t h e y a r e , as i n d e e d t h e style suggests, b y s o m e o n e
w h o o u g h t to k n o w t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s : b y O r t e g a y Gasset. *
I f I q u o t e t h e m h e r e i t is b e c a u s e t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p ' s
greatest h a n d i c a p w a s p r o b a b l y its d i v o r c e f r o m those
w h o s e craft is i n t e l l e c t u a l . S o m e d a y , w h e n t h e years o f
dictatorship are c h r o n i c l e d a b l y a n d i n d e t a i l , the
' L a r e b e l l o n d e las m a s a s ' , Revista de Occidente

35

( M a d r i d , 1929), p . i 6 .

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SELECTED

WRITINGS

b a c k g r o u n d to this d i v i s i o n w i l l h a v e to be a n a l y s e d . A t
s u c h a t i m e , t w o c o n t r a d i c t o r y assessments w i l l e m e r g e .
O n e w i l l b e a d v a n c e d b y those w r i t e r s w h o i n o u r t i m e
w e r e h o s t i l e to t h e d i c t a t o r : to t h e m , i t is a l l p e r f e c t l y
p l a i n t h e d i c t a t o r c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y get o n w i t h t h e
intellectuals because he h i m s e l f was u n e d u c a t e d , u n r e a d
a n d incapable o f c o m p r e h e n d i n g thoughts o f a certain
c a l i b r e ; o b v i o u s l y h e was w h o l l y to b l a m e f o r t h e a b s e n c e
o f r a p p o r t b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s . B u t is t h i s
assessment l a i d d o w n b y t h e m e n o f letters w i t h t h e i r
c u s t o m a r y p e t u l a n c e l i k e l y to p r e v a i l ? O r w i l l t h e
c o n t r a r y assessment g a i n g r o u n d ? F o r a m o n g f u t u r e
h i s t o r i a n s t h e r e a r e b o u n d to b e s o m e w h o w i l l c o n s i d e r
G e n e r a l P r i m o de R i v e r a t o h a v e b e e n a m a g n i f i c e n t , a n
extraordinary, specimen of humanity, w h o m a n intell e c t u a l class, a f f l i c t e d at t i m e s b y ' t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f
the mass', 'the t r i u m p h a n t a d v a n c e o f the pseudoi n t e l l e c t u a l s , w h o a r e ... u n q u a l i f i a b l e a n d d i s q u a l i f i e d ' ,
f a i l e d to u n d e r s t a n d .
I f o n l y they c o u l d have u n d e r s t o o d h i m ! I n the foolish
a n d sickly atmosphere o f the o l d regime. G e n e r a l P r i m o
d e R i v e r a ' s a r r i v a l o n t h e scene w a s l i k e a n a s s e r t i o n o f
h e a l t h . O f course the d i c t a t o r d e p a r t e d f r o m the existing
n o r m s ; n o w o n d e r t h e p o l i t i c i a n s h a t e d h i m as t h e y c l u n g
to t h a t s y s t e m o f n o r m s as c r i p p l e s c l i n g to s o m e c h a r i t a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n . B u t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s ! T h e i r obtuseness was
t r u l y r e m a r k a b l e : for years a n d years they h a d been
c l a m o u r i n g for the p o l i t i c a l crust w h i c h was d i s a b l i n g
S p a i n t o be s m a s h e d ; a n d yet w h e n t h e y w e r e c o n f r o n t e d
w i t h the a c t u a l c o u p d'dtat they d i d not react i n a m a n n e r
that was i n t e l l e c t u a l , p r o f o u n d a n d a w a r e o f the r e v o l u t i o n a r y possibilities i m p l i c i t i n the c o u p , b u t p a i d heed
i n s t e a d to p e t t y s u s p i c i o n s , p e t t y a v e r s i o n s , l i n g e r i n g i n
t h e v u l g a r recesses o f t h e i r m i n d s b e n e a t h a n u p p e r l a y e r
o f i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m . F o r instance, the c o u p h a d been staged
b y a m i l i t a r y m a n , a n d to a d m i t t h a t a s o l d i e r m i g h t h a v e

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t h e m a k i n g s o f a p o p u l a r l e a d e r w a s a b h o r r e n t to those
civilians. I d e l i b e r a t e l y use t h e m o s t c o n d e s c e n d i n g t e r m
[paisanos],
b e c a u s e i n a c t u a l fact t h e a v e r s i o n to t h e
m i l i t a r y h a s its roots i n t h e m e d i o c r i t y o f t h e s m a l l
p r o v i n c i a l g a r r i s o n - t o w n , w h e r e i t is n o t u n u s u a l f o r t h e
s t u d e n t o f l a w to s t a r t n u r s i n g a n t i - m i h t a r i s t s e n t i m e n t s
o u t o f sheer e n v y o f the s m a r t l y u n i f o r m e d l i e u t e n a n t ' s
successes w i t h g i r l s o f a c e r t a i n t y p e .
I h a v e o f t e n t h o u g h t t h a t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s a m o n g us,
m a y b e because of a lack of university life, m a y b e because
o f a l a c k o f t r a n q u i l places o f l e a r n i n g , are never r e a l l y
transformed i n t o i n t e l l e c t u a l s . T h a t is t o say, t h e y a r e n o t
intellectuals through a n d through. I f they were, that
w o u l d make t h e m receptive, i n a p a r t i c u l a r way, not only
to t h e v i b r a t i o n s o f t h i n g s w h i c h c o n c e r n t h e m profess i o n a l l y , b u t to those o f a n y e x t e r n a l s t i m u l u s . F o r
e x a m p l e , a v e t e r a n s o l d i e r is n o t o n l y a s o l d i e r w h i l e he is
c o m m a n d i n g his t r o o p s ; he is at a l l t i m e s a s o l d i e r i n
a l l his c o n s c i o u s a n d his a u t o m a t i c a c t i o n s , i n t h e w a y he
sits d o w n a n d t h e w a y h e s u m m o n s t h e n i g h t - w a t c h m a n .
T h e s a m e c a n g e n e r a l l y be s a i d o f m a g i s t r a t e s . B u t i t is n o t
u s u a l l y so w i t h i n t e l l e c t u a l s (needless to say, I e x c e p t t h e
o u t s t a n d i n g o n e s ) ; i t is as t h o u g h t h e y w e r e e a c h m a d e u p
o f t w o m e n , t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l , s u i t e d to a c e r t a i n series o f
a c t i v i t i e s , a n d t h e c o m m o n , t o t a l l y c o m m o n , m a n , w h o is
neither saturated w i t h culture nor even touched b y it,
w h o is as i m p a t i e n t , as v a i n a n d i r a s c i b l e as a n y o n e o f
t h e r e g u l a r s w h o g o to his l o c a l cafe. W h o does n o t r e c a l l
w i t h w h a t d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , n a y , disbelief, h e f o u n d s o m e
exquisite w r i t e r he h a d been a d m i r i n g w i t h o u t ever
h a v i n g m a d e his p e r s o n a l a c q u a i n t a n c e to be a m a n o f
v u l g a r tastes, w h o s e m a n n e r s w e r e as a p p a l l i n g as h i s
c o n v e r s a t i o n w a s s t u n t e d , a n d w h o was n o t a s h a m e d o f
i n d u l g i n g i n a p l e b e i a n torrent o f abuse w h e n the w a i t e r
d i d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y b r i n g a r a t i o n o f sea-food t o g r a t i f y
his g l u t t o n y ? A n d w h o w i t h a n e v e n s l i g h t l y d i s c i p l i n e d

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m i n d has n o t e x p e r i e n c e d disgust a n d a n g e r at t h e s i g h t
o f so m u c h d e l i b e r a t e m u d d l e a n d i n e l e g a n t b a d f a i t h
i n t h e a r g u m e n t s w h i c h arise w h e n e v e r t h e r e a r e m a n y
professionals o f t h e i n t e l l e c t g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r ?
F o r this v e r y r e a s o n , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n o t r e f i n e d to t h e
core b u t are m e r e l y covered i n a v a r n i s h o f glutinous
i n f o r m a t i o n , the S p a n i s h intellectuals, t a k e n b y surprise,
d i d n o t r e a c t i n t e l l e c t u a l l y to t h e a d v e n t o f t h e d i c t a t o r ship. T h e p a t t e r n o f their everyday activities was not
g e a r e d t o s o m e t h i n g so o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y . A n d w h e n
t h e y w e r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a n e v e n t w h i c h d i d n o t fit i n t o
t h e i r p a t t e r n , t h e y c o u l d o n l y r e a c t as o r d i n a r y m e n , w i t h
a l l the i l l t e m p e r a n d aversion characteristic o f their
c l i q u e . A n d t h i s is e x a c t l y w h a t h a p p e n e d . T h e y left t h e
d i c t a t o r s t a n d i n g a l o n e i n t h e m i d d l e o f a vast desert
o f t h e i r m a k i n g . W h o e v e r d a r e d t o o v e r s t e p its b o r d e r s
e x p o s e d h i m s e l f t h e r e b y to t h e s c o r n o f a l l t h e a r b i t e r s
o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s t a n d a r d s . A l l o f w h i c h g a v e rise to a n
a s t o n i s h i n g s p e c t a c l e : t h e r e was the d i c t a t o r a l l b y
h i m s e l f , w i t h n o o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s save his o w n o p t i m i s m ,
his c a n d o u r , h i s c o u r a g e , his m a r v e l l o u s l y q u i c k i n t e l l i g e n c e , his flexibility, his s i n c e r i t y , his o v e r r i d i n g w e a l t h
o f genuine h u m a n i t y , alone a n d w i t h no one to help h i m ,
s u r r o u n d e d o n a l l sides b y h o s t i l e s i l e n c e , i n u n t r a i n e d a n d
d i r e c t c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e p e o p l e , m a n a g i n g to lift u p
a n d c a r r y , at least f o r a p e r i o d o f f o u r y e a r s , t h e s u m t o t a l
o f p e r h a p s t h e strongest hopes o u r p e o p l e c a n r e c a l l .
I f o n l y the intellectuals h a d understood that m a n ! A
more favourable conjunction of circumstances m a y not
c o m e to pass i n S p a i n f o r m a n y l o n g years. T h e i n t e l l e c tuals c o u l d have v o i c e d a l l their knowledge a n d their
thoughts. T h e dictator w o u l d surely have understood
t h e m , for P r o v i d e n c e h a d been t r u l y generous i n e n d o w i n g
h i m w i t h n a t u r a l talents. T h e intellectuals c o u l d h a v e
o r g a n i z e d t h e m a g n i f i c e n t fireworks o f e n t h u s i a s m t h e
d i c t a t o r s h i p n e e d e d so b a d l y , o n t h e basis o f a g r e a t

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central i d e a l , a strong a n d elegant doctrine. I n r e t u r n they

w o u l d h a v e f o u n d w h a t t h e y m a y n o t get a g a i n f o r a l o n g
t i m e : a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y man, i n t h e fullest sense o f t h e w o r d ,
b o r n i n o u r t i m e w i t h a l l the e x u b e r a n t s p i r i t , t h e j o y f u l
generosity, the health a n d courage a n d appeal to the
m u l t i t u d e of a great c a p t a i n o f the Renaissance.
B u t i t is n o w t o o l a t e ! T h e y let t h e o p p o r t u n i t y pass
t h e m b y , f a i l i n g t o a p p r e c i a t e its p r o f o u n d a n d d e c i s i v e
i m p o r t a n c e . T h e y s t a r t e d fussing a b o u t w h e t h e r
the
d i c t a t o r s h i p w a s p e r h a p s l a c k i n g i n respect f o r s o m e
p e t t y r i t u a l o r o t h e r . A n d t h e y s c o r n e d t h e man i n o r d e r
to s h a r e , at m o r e o r less close q u a r t e r s , i n t h e m o u r n i n g
o f the p o h t i c a l cliques e x c l u d e d f r o m positions o f c o m m a n d . T o the n e w w i n d , imperfect b u t i n v i g o r a t i n g , they
p r e f e r r e d t h e s m a l l - t o w n c l u b - r o o m , w h i c h is w h a t
S p a n i s h p o l i t i c s w e r e l i k e , w i t h its b r a z i e r , its s p i c y
gossip, its g a m e o f c a r d s a n d its tasteless c u r t a i n s , w h i c h
w e r e a p t to be b u g - r i d d e n . I k n o w t h a t w h e n t h e y w e r e
w r i t i n g , the intellectuals, too, a b h o r r e d a l l this; b u t i n
t h e i r h e a r t o f hearts t h e y c o u l d n o t get a w a y f r o m t h e i r
s e n t i m e n t a l a f f i n i t y w i t h the p o l i t i c i a n s i n d i s r e p u t e ; to
t h e m t h e d i c t a t o r w a s t h e c o m m o n e n e m y . A n d so p o l i t i c i a n s a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o g e t h e r p u t t h e i r m i n d s (let us
c a l l t h e m t h a t ) to d i s s e m i n a t i n g s a r c a s t i c r e m a r k s i n t h e
casinos a n d to p u b l i s h i n g c l a n d e s t i n e tracts.
W i t h s o m e e x c e p t i o n s , this w a s t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e
S p a n i s h intellectuals w h e n they were faced w i t h the
r e v o l u t i o n a r y h a p p e n i n g o f the d i c t a t o r s h i p . T h a t is h o w
t h e y s a w i t . T h e y m a y be w e l l p l e a s e d w i t h t h e w a y t h e y
h a v e r e n d e r e d i t sterile. B u t i t w i l l n o t be u p t o t h e m to be
t h e j u d g e s o f t h e i r o w n clear-sightedness. T h e d a y w i l l
c o m e w h e n , f r o m t h e s u m m i t s o f t i m e , a n assessment w i l l
be m a d e o f w h a t w a s g r e a t e r : t h e d i c t a t o r o r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a t m o s p h e r e i n this c o r n e r o f t h e w o r l d a r o u n d t h e y e a r
1923. W i l l h i s t o r y s a y t h a t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s w e r e r i g h t ?
E v e n now, they cannot help n o t i c i n g one disquieting

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s y m p t o m : w h i l e they are a l l agreed o n despising G e n e r a l

P r i m o de R i v e r a , t h e r e are m a n y a b l e m i n d s o u t s i d e
S p a i n w h o , though they think little of our contemporary
l i t e r a t u r e a n d a l m o s t n o t h i n g o f o u r science, t h i n k v e r y
h i g h l y o f G e n e r a l P r i m o de R i v e r a as a m a n o f h i s t o r i c a l
a n d p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g pages o f this
b o o k t h e r e a d e r w i l l find a g r e a t n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n
o p i n i o n s . A n d i t s h o u l d n o t b e f o r g o t t e n t h a t , as C l a r i n
has s a i d , ' a t t i m e s , d i s t a n c e has s o m e o f t h e v i r t u e s o f
t i m e ; other countries often p l a y the p a r t o f posterity'.
JOSE

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T H E BASIC E L E M E N T S OF
THE LIBERAL STATE
From El Fascio, N o . i , M a r c h i 6 t h , 1933

IN T H E D I R E C T I O N

OF A N E W

STATE

T h e l i b e r a l state believes i n n o t h i n g , n o t e v e n i n itself.

T h e l i b e r a l state a l l o w s e v e r y t h i n g t o be q u e s t i o n e d , e v e n
t h e v a l u e o f its o w n e x i s t e n c e .
F o r t h e l i b e r a l s t a t e s m a n t h e r e is n o t h i n g i l l i c i t i n t h e
d o c t r i n e b y w h i c h t h e state is r e p l a c e a b l e . T h a t is t o s a y ,
i n his p o s i t i o n at t h e h e a d o f a n ' e s t a b l i s h e d ' state, h e
does n o t e v e n b e l i e v e i n t h e i n t r i n s i c m e r i t s , t h e j u s t i c e ,
t h e usefulness o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r state. R a t h e r l i k e a s h i p ' s
c a p t a i n w h o is n o t sure w h e t h e r i t is b e t t e r to m a k e p o r t
o r t o be s h i p w r e c k e d . T h e l i b e r a l o u t l o o k a m o u n t s t o
t a k i n g a f r i v o l o u s v i e w o f one's o w n d e s t i n y ; i t p e r m i t s o n e
t o h o i s t o n e s e l f to p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y w i t h o u t e v e n b e i n g
persuaded that there s h o u l d be a n y positions o f a u t h o r i t y
at a l l , o r f e e l i n g t h a t t h e y e n t a i l a n y o b l i g a t i o n s , n o t e v e n
that o f h o l d i n g o n to t h e m .
T h e y recognize but one l i m i t i n g factor: the l a w . O h ,
yes; one c a n a t t e m p t the d e s t r u c t i o n o f a l l that exists;
but w i t h o u t overstepping the boundaries o f the l a w . B u t
w h a t e x a c t l y is t h e l a w ? H e r e a g a i n t h e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e to
a n y i m m u t a b l e p r i n c i p l e s . T h e l a w is t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e
sovereign w i l l o f the p e o p l e ; i n practice, that o f the
m a j o r i t y o f voters.
T w o points i n this c o n n e c t i o n :
F i r s t l y . F o r t h e l i b e r a l , t h e l a w is n o t c o n s e c r a t e d b y its
a i m s b u t b y its ' s o u r c e ' . T h o s e schools o f t h o u g h t w h o s e
c o n s t a n t a i m is t h e p u b h c g o o d c o n s i d e r g o o d l a w s those
41

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w h i c h serve s u c h a n e n d , a n d b a d l a w s those w h i c h s t r a y
f r o m this c o u r s e , regardless o f w h o has p r o m u l g a t e d t h e m .
T h e d e m o c r a t i c s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t d e m o c r a c y b e i n g the
s y s t e m w h i c h m o s t f u l l y expresses l i b e r a l t h i n k i n g
c o n s i d e r s t h a t a l a w is g o o d a n d l e g i t i m a t e i f i t has
o b t a i n e d the consent o f the m a j o r i t y o f voters, even
t h o u g h its c o n t e n t m a y be u t t e r l y m o n s t r o u s .
S e c o n d l y . L i b e r a l s d o n o t c o n s i d e r w h a t is r i g h t to be a
c a t e g o r y o f r e a s o n b u t a p r o d u c t o f w i l l . N o t h i n g is r i g h t
i n itself. T h e r e is n e v e r a n y reference to s o m e scale o f
v a l u e s b y w h i c h to g a u g e t h e r i g h t n e s s o f a n y l a w t h a t is
passed. I t is e n o u g h t o find sufficient votes e n d o r s i n g i t .
A l l this c a n be s u m m e d u p i n o n e s e n t e n c e : " T h e
p e o p l e is s o v e r e i g n . " S o v e r e i g n i n the sense t h a t i t is
e n t i t l e d to j u s t i f y its o w n d e c i s i o n s . T h e p e o p l e ' s decisions
are r i g h t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e p e o p l e ' s . T h e theories o f
r e g a l a b s o l u t i s m s t a t e d . Quod principi placuit legem habet
vigorem. T h e t i m e w a s b o u n d t o c o m e w h e n t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n s o f d e m o c r a c y w o u l d say, ' T h e r e has t o b e a c e r t a i n
a u t h o r i t y i n s o c i e t y w h o s e a c t i o n s d o n o t h a v e t o be r i g h t
i n o r d e r to b e v a l i d ; this a u t h o r i t y resides o n l y i n t h e
people.' These words are b y J u r i e u , one o f the forerunners
of Rousseau.

L I B E R T Y .

E Q , U A L I T Y .

F R A T E R N I T Y

T h e l i b e r a l state t h a t u n i n s p i r e d a n d i n d i f f e r e n t state
w r o t e these t h r e e s p l e n d i d w o r d s o n t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e
o f its t e m p l e : L I B E R T Y , E Q U A L I T Y , F R A T E R N I T Y . B u t u n d e r
its auspices n o n e o f these t h r e e t h i n g s
flourish.
L i b e r t y cannot live w i t h o u t the protection of strong
and i m m u t a b l e principles. W h e n principles change w i t h
t h e fluctuations o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n , t h e r e c a n be f r e e d o m
o n l y f o r those w h o h a p p e n t o a g r e e w i t h t h a t c h a n g e . T h e
m i n o r i t i e s h a v e n o c h o i c e b u t to suffer i n s i l e n c e . U n d e r
t h e t y r a n t s o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s t h e v i c t i m s at least h a d t h e

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comfort of k n o w i n g that they were being tyrannized. T h e

t y r a n t m i g h t be o p p r e s s i n g t h e m , b u t those w h o w e r e
a c t u a l l y s u f f e r i n g o p p r e s s i o n n o n e t h e less w e r e r i g h t , a n d
t h e t y r a n t was w r o n g . H i g h a b o v e the heads o f t y r a n t s a n d
subjects a l i k e t h e r e u s e d to be c e r t a i n e t e r n a l t r u t h s , i n
t h e l i g h t o f w h i c h e a c h was g i v e n his d u e . I n t h e d e m o c r a t i c state, this does n o t a p p l y ; t h e l a w n o t t h e state,
b u t t h e l a w , t h e s u p p o s e d w i l l o f t h e m a j o r i t y 'is
a l w a y s r i g h t ' . T h u s t h e v i c t i m o f o p p r e s s i o n , besides
b e i n g o p p r e s s e d , c a n m o r e o v e r be c h a r g e d w i t h d a n g e r o u s
w a y w a r d n e s s i f he c a l l s t h e l a w u n j u s t . N o t e v e n t h a t
freedom remains to h i m .
T h a t is w h y t h e b e l i e f t h a t a p e o p l e has g a i n e d its
f r e e d o m the v e r y d a y i t p r o c l a i m s t h e d o g m a o f n a t i o n a l
s o v e r e i g n t y a n d accepts u n i v e r s a l suffrage is s a i d b y
D u g u i t to b e ' f a t a l l y m i s g u i d e d ' . * B e w a r e , h e says,
o f d e m o c r a t i c absolutism! M o r e energetic precautions
m a y be n e e d e d a g a i n s t t h e d e s p o t i s m o f p o p u l a r assemblies
t h a n against the despotism o f kings. ' A t h i n g remains
u n j u s t even i f i t b e o r d a i n e d b y t h e p e o p l e a n d its r e p r e sentatives, q u i t e as m u c h as t h o u g h i t h a d b e e n o r d a i n e d
b y a p r i n c e . Because o f the d o g m a o f p o p u l a r sovereignty
this tends to be a l l t o o e a s i l y f o r g o t t e n . '
T h i s is w h a t h a p p e n s to f r e e d o m u n d e r t h e r u l e o f t h e
m a j o r i t y , a n d to e q u a l i t y t o o . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e r e is n o
e q u a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e d o m i n a n t p a r t y w h i c h legislates
as i t pleases a n d t h e rest o f t h e c i t i z e n s w h o e n d u r e i t .
Besides, t h e l i b e r a l state p r o d u c e s a n e v e n m o r e p r o f o u n d
i n e q u a l i t y : e c o n o m i c i n e q u a l i t y . Since i n theory the
w o r k e r a n d t h e c a p i t a l i s t e n j o y e q u a l f r e e d o m to e n t e r i n t o
a l a b o u r c o n t r a c t , t h e w o r k e r ends u p b y b e i n g e n s l a v e d
b y t h e c a p i t a l i s t . N o t t h a t t h e l a t t e r obliges t h e f o r m e r b y
force to a c c e p t a n y g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s ; he m e r e l y lets h u n g e r
t a k e its c o u r s e ; h e m a k e s a n offer w h i c h i n t h e o r y t h e
w o r k e r is free t o r e j e c t ; b u t i f h e does reject i t , h e w i l l h a v e
* L e o n D u g u i t ( i 859-1928), F r e n c h jurist.

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n o t h i n g to eat, a n d e v e n t u a l l y h e is b o u n d to a c c e p t i t .
T h i s is h o w l i b e r a l i s m b r o u g h t us t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f
c a p i t a l a n d the p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f the g r e a t mass o f t h e
p e o p l e . I n o r d e r to d e f e n d t h e o p p r e s s e d a g a i n s t t h e
e c o n o m i c t y r a n n y o f t h e p o w e r f u l , s o m e t h i n g as a n t i l i b e r a l as s o c i a l i s m h a d t o e m e r g e .
L a s t l y , i t is f r a t e r n i t y ' s t u r n to be s h a t t e r e d . S i n c e t h e
d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m is b a s e d o n t h e r u l e o f t h e m a j o r i t y ,
t h e o n l y w a y t o a t t a i n v i c t o r y w i t h i n i t is to get t h e
s u p p o r t o f t h e m a j o r i t y at a n y cost. T o t h i s e n d a l l w e a p o n s
a r e p e r m i s s i b l e ; i t is a l l r i g h t to accuse a n o p p o n e n t
w r o n g f u l l y o f b a d f a i t h i f this helps to d e p r i v e h i m o f a
f e w votes. I f t h e r e is to be a m a j o r i t y a n d a m i n o r i t y ,
t h e r e m u s t n e e d s be ' d i v i s i o n ' . I f t h e o t h e r p a r t y is to b e
s p l i t , t h e r e m u s t needs be ' h a t r e d ' . D i v i s i o n a n d h a t r e d ,
t h o u g h , are i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h f r a t e r n i t y . A n d thus t h e
m e m b e r s o f o n e a n d t h e s a m e p e o p l e cease to feel p a r t o f
a w h o l e s u p e r i o r to t h e m s e l v e s , p a r t o f a l o f t y h i s t o r i c a l
u n i t y w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s a l l o f t h e m . T h e f a t h e r l a n d is
r e d u c e d to t h e state o f a b a t t l e f i e l d , w h e r e t w o o r
s e v e r a l c o n t e n d i n g f a c t i o n s seek t o g a i n g r o u n d , e a c h
h e e d i n g a different sectarian voice, w h i l e the dear voice o f
t h e c o m m o n l a n d , w h i c h o u g h t to m a k e a l l o f t h e m
b r o t h e r s , seems to h a v e f a l l e n s i l e n t .

T H E

AIMS

OF

T H E N E W

S T A T E

A l l t h e a i m s o f t h e n e w state c o u l d b e s u m m e d u p i n a
s i n g l e w o r d : u n i t y . T h e f a t h e r l a n d is a h i s t o r i c w h o l e
i n t o w h i c h a l l o f us m e r g e , s u p e r i o r t o a l l a n d a n y o f o u r
g r o u p s . O u t o f respect f o r t h i s u n i t y , a l l classes a n d
i n d i v i d u a l s m u s t seek to a d a p t t h e m s e l v e s . A n d its
r e a l i z a t i o n m u s t be b a s e d o n t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o p r i n c i p l e s :
F i r s t l y . W i t h r e g a r d to its ' p u r p o s e ' , the state m u s t be
a t o o l i n t h e service o f t h a t u n i t y , i n w h i c h i t m u s t firmly
b e l i e v e . N o t h i n g t h a t goes a g a i n s t t h i s p r e c i o u s a n d

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t r a n s c e n d e n t a l u n i t y c a n be a c c e p t e d as b e i n g g o o d ,
be those w h o f a v o u r i t m a n y o r few.
S e c o n d l y . W i t h r e g a r d to its ' s h a p e ' , t h e state c a n
o n l y be e s t a b l i s h e d o n a basis o f n a t i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y , o f
v i g o r o u s a n d f r a t e r n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n . T h e class s t r u g g l e
a n d t h e f e s t e r i n g strife o f p a r t y p o l i t i c s a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e
w i t h t h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e state.
T h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e w t y p e o f p o l i t i c s w h e r e i n these
t w o p r i n c i p l e s w i l l b e j o i n e d t h a t is t h e task w h i c h
h i s t o r y has e n t r u s t e d t o o u r g e n e r a t i o n .

VIOLENCE AND JUSTICE

A letter f r o m Jose A n t o n i o to J u l i a n P e m a r t i n , p u b l i s h e d i n
Sancho D a v i l a a n d J u l i a n P e m a r t i n , Hacia la historia de la
Falange, v o l . i (Jerez, 1938), p. 24.

M a d r i d , A p r i l a n d , 1933
D e a r J u l i a n , I w o u l d h a v e l i k e d to w r i t e to y o u s o o n e r , b u t
it hasn't been possible. I do it n o w , o n S u n d a y , a n d shall
try to concentrate o n the arguments against fascism w h i c h
y o u tell me about i n y o u r letter.
1. ' T h a t
violence.'

it cannot

come

to p o w e r

except

through

F i r s t o f a l l , t h i s is h i s t o r i c a l l y u n t r u e . T h e r e is t h e
e x a m p l e o f G e r m a n y , w h e r e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m has
emerged t r i u m p h a n t f r o m a n election. B u t i f there were
no other means but violence, what w o u l d it matter?
E v e r y s y s t e m has i m p o s e d i t s e l f v i o l e n t l y , e v e n o n e so t a m e
as l i b e r a l i s m (the g u i l l o t i n e o f 1893 is r e s p o n s i b l e for
m a n y m o r e deaths t h a n M u s s o h n i a n d H i t l e r together).
V i o l e n c e is n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e p r e h e n s i b l e , b u t o n l y
w h e n i t is c o n t r a r y to j u s t i c e . E v e n S t T h o m a s was
p r e p a r e d , i n e x t r e m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , to
countenance
r e b e l l i o n against a tyrant. W h y , therefore, s h o u l d violence
u s e d a g a i n s t a v i c t o r i o u s sect w h i c h spreads d i s c o r d ,
disavows n a t i o n a l c o n t i n u i t y a n d obeys instructions f r o m
a b r o a d (the I n t e r n a t i o n a l o f A m s t e r d a m , f r e e m a s o n r y ,
et cetera) d i s q u a l i f y the s y s t e m w h i c h s u c h v i o l e n c e
implants ?
2. ' T h a t i t m u s t c o m e f r o m t h e p e o p l e , c o m p l e t e w i t h
its i d e a a n d its l e a d e r . '
T h e first p a r t is m i s t a k e n . T h e i d e a c a n n o l o n g e r c o m e
46

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f r o m the p e o p l e . I t is ' a l r e a d y t h e r e ' a n d those w h o k n o w

o f i t a r e n o t u s u a l l y o f t h e p e o p l e . T h o u g h i t is p r o b a b l y
g i v e n to a m a n o f l o w l y o r i g i n s to p u t t h e i d e a i n t o
p r a c t i c e . T o be a t r u e l e a d e r , o n e m u s t be s o m e t h i n g o f
a prophet, one must have such f a i t h , such h e a l t h , such
e n t h u s i a s m a n d s u c h a n g e r as is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
r e f i n e m e n t . I p e r s o n a l l y w o u l d be s u i t e d to a n y t h i n g b u t
t h e r o l e o f a fascist l e a d e r . T h e d o u b t s a n d t h e sense o f
i r o n y w h i c h n e v e r l e a v e those o f us w h o h a v e h a d a n y
k i n d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y m a k e us i n c a p a b l e o f u t t e r i n g
w i t h o u t a s t u t t e r those v i g o r o u s statements r e q u i r e d o f t h e
l e a d e r s o f t h e masses. T h u s , i f i n J e r e z o r i n M a d r i d t h e r e
a r e f r i e n d s o f o u r s w h o s e l i v e r s q u a i l at t h e t h o u g h t t h a t I
m i g h t w a n t to set m y s e l f u p as a fascist l e a d e r , y o u c a n t e l l
them from me to relax.
3. ' T h a t i n t h e c o u n t r i e s w h e r e i t seems to h a v e c o m e
o u t o n t o p , t h e r e w a s s o m e i m m e d i a t e r e a s o n f o r its
existence.'
A n d i s n ' t t h a t so i n S p a i n ? T h e r e m a y n o t be t h e r e a s o n
o f a w a r . T h a t is w h y I s a i d i n m y l e t t e r to L u c a de T e n a
t h a t h e r e f a s c i s m w i l l p r o b a b l y n o t be v i o l e n t . B u t t h e loss
o f u n i t y ( t e r r i t o r i a l , s p i r i t u a l , h i s t o r i c a l u n i t y ) , is t h a t less
o b v i o u s h e r e t h a n e l s e w h e r e ? A t m o s t i t m i g h t be s a i d
t h a t w e m u s t w a i t u n t i l t h i n g s get w o r s e . B u t , i f w e c a n
r e a c t sooner, w h a t is t h e p o i n t o f w a i t i n g f o r a m o m e n t o f
d e s p e r a t i o n ? P a r t i c u l a r l y i n v i e w o f t h e fact t h a t a socialist
d i c t a t o r s h i p is b e i n g h a t c h e d , o r g a n i z e d b y t h e p o w e r s
t h a t b e , w h i c h w o u l d b r i n g S p a i n to a p o i n t o f a l m o s t n o
r e t u r n unless i t is t h w a r t e d .
4. ' T h a t i t is a n t i - C a t h o h c '
T h i s o b j e c t i o n is t y p i c a l o f o u r c o u n t r y , w h e r e e v e r y b o d y is m o r e p a p i s t t h a n t h e p o p e . W h i l e t h e T r e a t y o f
L e t r a n is s i g n e d i n R o m e , h e r e w e a c c u s e f a s c i s m o f b e i n g
a n t i - C a t h o h c ; f a s c i s m , w h i c h i n I t a l y , after n i n e t y y e a r s o f
h b e r a l f r e e m a s o n r y , has b r o u g h t t h e c r u c i f i x a n d r e h g i o u s
t e a c h i n g b a c k i n t o t h e schools. I c a n u n d e r s t a n d p e o p l e

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being w o r r i e d i n Protestant countries, where there m i g h t

be a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the n a t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n a n d
the C a t h o l i c fervour o f a m i n o r i t y . B u t i n S p a i n , where
c a n t h e e x a l t a t i o n o f a l l t h a t is g e n u i n e l y n a t i o n a l t a k e us
other t h a n to a n encounter w i t h the C a t h o l i c i n v a r i a n t s
o f o u r mission i n the w o r l d ?
A s y o u c a n see, a l m o s t n o n e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t
f a s c i s m are f o r m u l a t e d i n g o o d f a i t h . W i t h i n t h e m
b r e a t h e s t h e h i d d e n w i s h to get h o l d o f a n i d e o l o g i c a l
excuse f o r laziness o r c o w a r d i c e , i f n o t f o r t h e u l t i m a t e
n a t i o n a l f a i l i n g , n a m e l y t h e k i n d o f e n v y w h i c h is p r e p a r e d
t o s p o i l t h e best p o s s i b l e t h i n g s f o r n o o t h e r r e a s o n t h a n to
prevent them f r o m giving a fellow h u m a n being an
o p p o r t u n i t y to s h i n e .
I s h a l l see to i t t h a t y o u r e c e i v e s o m e copies o f ./ Fascio,
w h e r e i n y o u w i l l find e n o u g h i n d u c e m e n t t o e n t h u s i a s m
a n d a g o o d l y h o a r d o f p o l e m i c a l a r g u m e n t s . I n a n y case,
should y o u want any further explanations w h i c h I could
g i v e y o u , I a m at y o u r d i s p o s a l .
Warmest

greetings.
JOSE

A N T O N I O

ON T H E O C C A S I O N OF T H E
F O U N D A T I O N OF T H E SPANISH
FALANGE
Speech m a d e at the T e a t r o C o m e d i a , M a d r i d ,
O c t o b e r 29th, 1933*
Nothing
becomes
you.

Hke a p a r a g r a p h o f t h a n k s . S u c c i n c t l y , as
t h e m i l i t a r y conciseness o f o u r style, T h a n k

W h e n a pernicious m a n b y the n a m e o f J e a n Jacques

R o u s s e a u p u b h s h e d , i n M a r c h 1762, The Social Contract,
p o l i t i c a l t r u t h ceased to be s o m e t h i n g p e r m a n e n t . U n t i l
t h e n , i n o t h e r less s u p e r f i c i a l t i m e s , states h a d , as e x e c u t o r s
o f historic missions, borne justice a n d t r u t h e m b l a z o n e d
o n t h e i r b r o w s a n d w i t h a l o n t h e stars. J e a n J a c q u e s
R o u s s e a u as m u c h as t o l d us t h a t j u s t i c e a n d t r u t h w e r e
not permanent
categories
of judgment
but
rather
t i m e - c o n d i t i o n e d decisions o f the w i l l .
J e a n J a c q u e s R o u s s e a u assumed that the w h o l e we
c o n s t i t u t e as a p e o p l e has a s o u l s u p e r i o r i n k i n d , o n a
d i f f e r e n t p l a n e , to e a c h o n e o f o u r souls, a n d t h a t t h i s
s u p e r i o r essence is e n d o w e d w i t h a n i n f a l H b l e w i l l c a p a b l e
o f d e f i n i n g i n s t a n t l y w h a t is j u s t o r u n j u s t , r i g h t o r w r o n g .
A n d since t h i s c o l l e c t i v e w i l l , t h i s s o v e r e i g n v o l i t i o n , c a n
find e x p r e s s i o n o n l y i n t h e v o t e w h i c h is t h e t r i u m p h o f
the majority's conjecture over that o f the m i n o r i t y w h e n
i t c o m e s to e l u c i d a t i n g t h e s u p e r i o r w i l l i t w o u l d
s i g n i f y t h a t t h e v o t e , t h a t f a r c e o f b a l l o t - p a p e r s cast i n t o
a glass u r n , h a d t h e p r o p e r t y o f d e t e r m i n i n g at a n y g i v e n
* W h e r e no precise source is given, the original text m a y be found in Jos6
A n t o n i o P r i m o de R i v e r a , Obras

Completas

1942)4

49

( M a d r i d : Editora Nacional,

50

P R I M O

D E

R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

t i m e w h e t h e r G o d d i d o r d i d n o t exist, w h e t h e r t h e t r u t h
was the t r u t h o r not, w h e t h e r the f a t h e r l a n d was to p c r d u r e
o r w h e t h e r i t w o u l d d o b e t t e r at s o m e t i m e o r a n o t h e r t o
c o m m i t suicide.
A s a s e r v a n t o f t h i s d o c t r i n e , t h e l i b e r a l state d i v e s t e d
i t s e l f o f its r o l e as r e s o l u t e e x e c u t o r o f t h e n a t i o n ' s d e s t i n y
t o b e c o m e a m e r e s p e c t a t o r o f t h e e l e c t o r a l contest. F o r
the l i b e r a l state i t w a s i m p o r t a n t o n l y t h a t a c e r t a i n
n u m b e r o f g e n t l e m e n presided over p o l l i n g stations, that
e l e c t i o n s s t a r t e d at e i g h t a n d finished at f o u r , t h a t n o
b a l l o t - b o x e s w e r e s m a s h e d t h o u g h t o be s m a s h e d is
e v e r y b a l l o t - b o x ' s n o b l e s t fate. A f t e r w a r d s , a l l t h a t
r e m a i n e d for t h e state t o d o w a s t o a c c e p t c a l m l y w h a t e v e r
e m e r g e d f r o m t h e p o l l as t h o u g h t h a t w a s n o t its c o n c e r n .
T h a t is t o s a y , t h e l i b e r a l r u l e r s h a d n o f a i t h e v e n i n t h e i r
o w n mission; they d i d not believe that they were installed
for the fulfilment o f a n entirely respectable d u t y , b u t that
a n y o n e w h o d i s a g r e e d a n d set a b o u t t a k i n g t h e state b y
assault, u s i n g f a i r m e a n s o r f o u l , h a d j u s t as m u c h r i g h t
t o say so a n d t o m a k e t h e a t t e m p t as t h e keepers o f t h e
state h a d t o d e f e n d i t .
H e n c e t h e d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m w h i c h is, first a n d foremost, a system most r u i n o u s a n d wasteful o f energy. A
m a n w i t h a talent for the lofty f u n c t i o n of government
p e r h a p s t h e n o b l e s t o f a l l h u m a n f u n c t i o n s w o u l d find
h i m s e l f o b l i g e d to devote 8 0 , even 90 or 95, p e r cent o f
his energies t o s u b s t a n t i a t i n g f o r m a l i s t i c d e m a n d s , t o
e l e c t i o n e e r i n g , t o s n o o z i n g o n the b e n c h e s o f t h e C o r t e s ,
to f a w n i n g o n the voters a n d w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e i r i m p e r t i nence because i t was f r o m the voters he d e r i v e d p o w e r , to
p u t t i n g u p w i t h h u m i h a t i o n s a n d t h e t a u n t s o f those w h o ,
precisely because o f the almost d i v i n e f u n c t i o n o f governm e n t , w e r e d e s t i n e d t o o b e y h i m . A n d i f after a l l t h a t h e
h a d a f e w h o u r s t o s p a r e at d a w n o r a f e w m i n u t e s
snatched f r o m uneasy s l u m b e r , this scanty m i n i m u m was
a l l t h e m a n w i t h a gift f o r g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d d e v o t e t o

FOUNDATION

OF T H E SPANISH F A L A N G E

5I

serious r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e essential f u n c t i o n s o f statecraft.

T h e r e e n s u e d t h e r u i n o f a p e o p l e ' s s p i r i t u a l u n i t y , for
since the s y s t e m d e m a n d e d t h a t a m a j o r i t y be o b t a i n e d ,
a n y o n e i n t e n t o n c a p t u r i n g t h e s y s t e m h a d to m a k e c e r t a i n
h e g a r n e r e d a m a j o r i t y o f t h e v o t e s i f n e e d be b y
s t e a l i n g t h e m f r o m t h e o t h e r p a r t i e s . T o this e n d he h a d to
slander the other parties w i t h o u t hesitation, to b o m b a r d
t h e m w i t h t h e v i l e s t i n s u l t s , t o resort to d e l i b e r a t e lies, t o
waste not a single p l o y o f falsehood a n d v i l i f i c a t i o n . T h u s
i t c a m e a b o u t t h a t a l t h o u g h f r a t e r n i t y was o n e o f t h e
a x i o m s t h e l i b e r a l state e x h i b i t e d o n its facade, t h e r e has
n e v e r b e e n a s i t u a t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e life w h e r e i n m e n ,
r e v i l e d a n d h o s t i l e t o e a c h o t h e r , felt less l i k e b r o t h e r s
t h a n i n t h e d i s t a s t e f u l t u r m o i l o f t h e l i b e r a l state.
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e l i b e r a l state g a v e us e c o n o m i c s l a v e r y ,
f o r i t says to t h e w o r k e r s , w i t h t r a g i c i r o n y : ' Y o u a r e free
t o w o r k as y o u l i k e ; n o b o d y c a n f o r c e y o u t o a c c e p t a n y
p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t i o n s ; b u t r e m e m b e r , b e i n g r i c h , w e offer
y o u w h a t e v e r c o n d i t i o n s w e p l e a s e ; as free c i t i z e n s , y o u
a r e b y n o m e a n s o b h g e d to a g r e e to t h e m ; b e i n g p o o r
c i t i z e n s , t h o u g h , i f y o u w i l l n o t a g r e e to t h e c o n d i t i o n s w e
impose, y o u w i l l die o f h u n g e r i n the midst o f the utmost
l i b e r a l d i g n i t y . ' A n d t h a t is w h y i n t h e c o u n t r i e s w h e r e
splendid parliaments a n d exquisite democratic institutions
h a v e e m e r g e d , y o u w o u l d find t h a t y o u h a d o n l y to w a n d e r
a few h u n d r e d yards f r o m the l u x u r i o u s n e i g h b o u r h o o d s
to c o m e u p o n n o i s o m e s l u m s w h e r e w o r k e r s a n d t h e i r
f a m i l i e s l i v e d i n c r a m p e d c o n d i t i o n s at a n a l m o s t s u b h u m a n l e v e l o f d e c o r u m . A n d y o u w o u l d find a g r i c u l t u r a l
l a b o u r e r s t o i l i n g o n t h e l a n d f r o m d a w n to d u s k w i t h t h e i r
b a c k s s c o r c h e d , w h o t h a n k s to t h e laissez-faire l i b e r a l
economy earned throughout a n entire year
some
s e v e n t y o r e i g h t y d a y - w a g e s o f t h r e e pesetas.
T h a t is w h y s o c i a l i s m was b o u n d to e m e r g e , a n d r i g h t l y
so (it is n o t o u r w a y t o e s c h e w a n y t r u t h ) . T h e w o r k e r s h a d
n o c h o i c e b u t to d e f e n d themselves a g a i n s t t h a t s y s t e m

52

PRIMO

D E

R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

WRITINGS

w h i c h offered t h e m o n l y t h e p r o m i s e o f r i g h t s , b u t d i d
n o t h i n g to p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h a n e q u i t a b l e life.
B u t s o c i a l i s m , w h i c h w a s a l e g i t i m a t e response t o l i b e r a l
s l a v e r y , has since g o n e astray, o p t i n g first f o r a m a t e r i a l i s t i c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f life a n d o f h i s t o r y , s e c o n d l y f o r a s p i r i t
o f reprisal a n d t h i r d l y for the p r o m u l g a t i o n o f the d o g m a
o f t h e class s t r u g g l e .
S o c i a l i s m , above a l l the socialism e l a b o r a t e d i n the
c h i l l o f t h e i r studies b y t h e i m p a s s i v e s o c i a l i s t apostles i n
w h o m the unfortunate workers p u t their trust, a n d w h o
h a v e b y n o w b e e n r e v e a l e d t o us as t h e y r e a l l y a r e b y
Alfonso G a r c i a V a l d e c a s a s * that version of socialism
sees i n h i s t o r y b u t t h e i n t e r p l a y o f e c o n o m i c forces. T h e
s p i r i t u a l e l e m e n t is d i s m i s s e d : r e l i g i o n is t h e o p i a t e o f t h e
p e o p l e ; t h e f a t h e r l a n d is a m y t h w i t h w h i c h to e x p l o i t
t h e hapless. S u c h a r e t h e c l a i m s o f s o c i a l i s m . N o t h i n g
matters b u t p r o d u c t i o n , e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n . A n d the
w o r k e r s are e x p e c t e d t o m a n g l e t h e i r souls to r i d t h e m o f
t h e last d r o p o f s p i r i t u a l i t y .
I t is n o t t h e a i m o f s o c i a l i s m to restore a s o c i a l j u s t i c e
w r e c k e d b y t h e e n d e m i c d i s t e m p e r o f t h e l i b e r a l s t a t e ; its
a i m is r e p r i s a l a n d i t aspires to r e a c h i n g as h i g h a d e g r e e
o f i n j u s t i c e i n o n e d i r e c t i o n as e v e r t h e l i b e r a l systems
have reached i n another.
F i n a l l y , socialism p r o c l a i m s the monstrous d o g m a o f
t h e class s t r u g g l e ; i t p r o c l a i m s t h e d o g m a t h a t t h e c o n flict b e t w e e n classes is i n e v i t a b l e a n d a n a t u r a l f a c t o f life
b e c a u s e t h e r e c a n n e v e r be a n y t h i n g t o t a k e t h e s t i n g o u t
o f i t . A n d t h u s has s o c i a l i s m , w h i c h arose as a v a l i d
c r i t i c i s m o f e c o n o m i c l i b e r a l i s m , b r o u g h t us t h e v e r y
hallmarks of economic liberalism: disintegration, hatred,
rifts a n d t h e e f f a c c m e n t o f e v e r y l i n k o f h u m a n b r o t h e r h o o d
and solidarity.
T h u s i t has c o m e a b o u t t h a t w h e n w e , t h e m e n o f o u r
* L a w y e r a n d professor; one o f the three founders of the F a l a n g e a n d the
only one to survive the civil war.

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53

g e n e r a t i o n , o p e n o u r eyes, w e see a r o u n d us a w o r l d t h a t
is m o r a l l y b a n k r u p t , a w o r l d s p l i t a p a r t b y a l l m a n n e r o f
d i f f e r e n c e s ; a n d r e g a r d i n g w h a t c o n c e r n s us d i r e c t l y , w e
see a m o r a l l y b a n k r u p t S p a i n , S p a i n d i v i d e d b y a l l
m a n n e r o f h a t r e d s a n d c o n f l i c t s . A n d t h u s w e h a v e h a d to
w e e p i n t h e recesses o f o u r souls as w e t r a v e l l e d a b o u t t h e
v i l l a g e s o f o u r w o n d e r f u l c o u n t r y , those v i l l a g e s w h e r e
beneath the h u m b l e s t cloaks one c a n still f i n d people
e n d o w e d w i t h a r u s t i c e l e g a n c e n o t g i v e n to t h e e x t r a v a g a n t gesture o r t h e r e d u n d a n t w o r d , p e o p l e w h o l i v e o n a
l a n d a p p a r e n t l y a r i d , w i t h a b o n e - d r y exterior, w h i c h yet
a m a z e s us w i t h its f e r t i l i t y e r u p t i n g i n t h e e x u b e r a n c e o f
v i n e s a n d w h e a t . A s w e t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h those l a n d s a n d
s a w those p e o p l e a n d k n e w t h e m to be t o r m e n t e d b y t h e
l o c a l notables, forgotten b y a l l the factions, d i v i d e d ,
poisoned b y tortuous doctrines, our thoughts about such a
p o p u l a c e c o u l d b u t e c h o its v e r y o w n c e l e b r a t i o n o f E l C i d
a t t h e s i g h t o f h i m r o a m i n g t h e fields o f C a s t i l e , b a n i s h e d
f r o m B u r g o s : ' B y G o d , h o w g o o d a subject, h a d h e b u t
a worthy lord!'
T h a t is w h a t w e e x p e c t t o find t h r o u g h t h e m o v e m e n t
i n i t i a t e d t o d a y : a legitimate l o r d a n d master for S p a i n ,
b u t a l o r d a n d m a s t e r l i k e S a n F r a n c i s c o de B o r j a ' s , * o f
w h o m w e c a n n o t be d e p r i v e d b y d e a t h . A n d f o r d e a t h to
b e k e p t at b a y , o u r l o r d a n d m a s t e r m a y n o t at t h e s a m e
t i m e be a slave t o t h e v e s t e d i n t e r e s t o f a n y g r o u p o r
party.
T h e m o v e m e n t f o u n d e d t o d a y , w h i c h owes a l l e g i a n c e to
n o p a r t y b u t is a m o v e m e n t , w e m i g h t a l m o s t say a n a n t i p a r t y , is n e i t h e r o f t h e R i g h t n o r o f t h e L e f t ; b e c a u s e
b a s i c a l l y t h e R i g h t stands f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a n
e c o n o m i c structure, albeit a n unjust one, w h i l e the Left
stands f o r t h e a t t e m p t to s u b v e r t t h a t e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e ,
even t h o u g h the subversion thereof w o u l d e n t a i l the
* T h i r d G e n e r a l of the Jesuits a n d a m a n of remarkable piety. H e was
V i c e r o y of C a t a l o n i a before becoming a Jesuit.

54

PRIMO DE R I V E R A :

SELECTED

WRITINGS

d e s t r u c t i o n o f m u c h t h a t was w o r t h w h i l e . A l l this is t h e n
dressed u p b y b o t h c a m p s w i t h a n u m b e r o f s p i r i t u a l
c o n c e p t s . W e w a n t a l l those l i s t e n i n g to us i n g o o d f a i t h t o
k n o w t h a t t h e r e is r o o m f o r a l l these s p i r i t u a l c o n c e p t s
w i t h i n our m o v e m e n t ; but that our m o v e m e n t w i l l o n no
a c c o u n t t e t h e r its d e s t i n y to t h e v e s t e d interests o f g r o u p s
o r classes w h i c h u n d e r l i e t h e s u p e r f i c i a l d i v i s i o n i n t o
R i g h t a n d Left.
T h e n a t i o n is a n a b s o l u t e w h o l e h a r b o u r i n g a l l i n d i v i d u a l s a n d classes; t h e n a t i o n c a n n o t be t h e d o m a i n o f t h e
strongest class o r o f t h e best o r g a n i z e d p a r t y . T h e n a t i o n
is a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l synthesis, a n i n d i v i s i b l e synthesis w i t h
a finality o f its o w n ; a n d w h a t w e w a n t is to see t h e m o v e m e n t o f this d a y , a n d t h e state i t w i l l c r e a t e , b e i n g t h e
effective, t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n , t o o l o f w h a t is a n i n d i s p u t a b l e
w h o l e : that permanent, irrevocable unit we call fatherland
and nation.
A n d t h a t s u m s u p t h e m o t i v a t i o n o f o u r f u t u r e acts a n d
o u r p r e s e n t c o n d u c t , b e c a u s e w e w o u l d be j u s t a n o t h e r
p a r t y i f w e w e r e to f o r m u l a t e a p r o g r a m m e o f c o n c r e t e
solutions. S u c h p r o g r a m m e s have the advantage that they
a r e n e v e r i m p l e m e n t e d . B u t for us, i m b u e d as w e a r e w i t h
a p e r m a n e n t awareness before h i s t o r y a n d life itself, t h a t
v e r y awareness is a c o n c e p t i o n w h i c h w i l l g e n e r a t e
s o l u t i o n s to m e e t c o n c r e t e p r o b l e m s , j u s t as l o v e lets us
k n o w w h e n to s c o l d a n d w h e n to e m b r a c e , w i t h o u t t r u e
l o v e h a v i n g the slightest n e e d o f a p r o g r a m m e o f
reprimands a n d embraces.
L e t us n o w state w h a t a r e t h e p r i o r i t i e s o f o u r t o t a l
c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a n d o f t h e state at t h e f a t h e r l a n d ' s
service.
T h e heartfelt fusion o f a l l the peoples o f S p a i n , h o w ever d i f f e r e n t t h e y m a y be, i n a n i r r e v o c a b l y c o m m o n
destiny.
T h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s . N o o n e has e v e r
been b o r n a m e m b e r o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . B u t w e are a l l

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55

b o r n m e m b e r s o f a f a m i l y ; a l l o f us a r e residents o f a
b o r o u g h ; a l l o f us t o i l i n t h e exercise o f o u r t r a d e . W e l l ,
i f these a r e o u r n a t u r a l c a t e g o r i e s , i f t h e f a m i l y , t h e
m u n i c i p a l i t y a n d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n are t h e p i l l a r s o f o u r
r e a l existence, w h y d o w e n e e d s u c h a n i n t e r m e d i a r y a n d
p e r n i c i o u s a p p a r a t u s as t h a t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s w h i c h ,
i n o r d e r t o u n i t e us i n a r t i f i c i a l u n i t s , b e g i n b y d i s r u p t i n g
the u n i t y o f o u r a u t h e n t i c context ?
W e w a n t less l i b e r a l v e r b i a g e a n d m o r e respect o f m a n ' s
p r o f o u n d e s t f r e e d o m . F o r t h e f r e e d o m o f m a n is o n l y
r e s p e c t e d w h e n h e is c o n s i d e r e d , as w e c o n s i d e r h i m , t h e
e m b o d i m e n t o f eternal values, the p h y s i c a l receptacle o f a
s o u l w h i c h c a n d a m n i t s e l f o r be s a v e d . O n l y w h e n m a n is
c o n s i d e r e d t h u s c a n i t be s a i d t h a t his f r e e d o m is t r u l y
r e s p e c t e d , a n d e v e n m o r e so i f this f r e e d o m is g i v e n , as w e
w o u l d w i s h i t to b e , a f r a m e w o r k o f a u t h o r i t y , h i e r a r c h y
a n d order.
W e w a n t e v e r y o n e t o feel p a r t o f a d i g n i f i e d a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o m m u n i t y : t h a t is t o say, t h e spheres o f a c t i o n
are m a n y a n d various some w i l l contribute their
m a n u a l w o r k ; others, works o f the s p i r i t ; some, acc o m p l i s h m e n t s o f m o r a l i t y a n d r e f i n e m e n t . B u t let m e
m a k e o n e t h i n g q u i t e c l e a r : i n a c o m m u n i t y s u c h as w e
e n v i s a g e t h e r e m u s t be n o spongers a n d n o d r o n e s .
W e w a n t no panegyrics o n i n d i v i d u a l rights that c a n
n e v e r be h o n o u r e d i n t h e h o m e s o f t h e s t a r v i n g , b u t w e d o
w a n t e v e r y m a n , e v e r y m e m b e r o f t h e b o d y p o l i t i c , to be
b y r i g h t s e n t i t l e d t o a m e a n s o f e a r n i n g b y his l a b o u r a
l i v i n g t h a t is h u m a n e , a d e q u a t e a n d f a i r .
W e w a n t the spirit o f r e l i g i o n , the keystone o f o u r
h i s t o r y ' s finest a r c h e s , to e n j o y t h e respect a n d p r o t e c t i o n
i t m e r i t s ; w h i c h does n o t m e a n t h a t t h e state s h o u l d
m e d d l e i n m a t t e r s b e y o n d its p r o p e r c o n c e r n , o r s h a r e
as i t has d o n e , p e r h a p s n o t e n t i r e l y f o r reasons r e l a t e d
t o t r u e r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n w h a t are s o l e l y its o w n
responsibihties.

56

PRIMO DE R I V E R A :

SELECTED

WRITINGS

W e w a n t S p a i n to be b o l d l y c o n s c i o u s o n c e m o r e o f t h e
universality of her culture a n d her history.
A n d w e w a n t , finally, t h a t , i f a t a n y t i m e these t h i n g s
c a n o n l y be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h v i o l e n c e , w e s h a l l n o t stop
s h o r t o f v i o l e n c e . F o r w h o has e v e r s a i d s p e a k i n g o f
' a n y t h i n g b u t v i o l e n c e ' t h a t k i n d l i n e s s is at t h e a p e x
o f a l l m o r a l v a l u e s ? W h o has ever c l a i m e d t h a t w h e n o u r
feelings are t r a m p l e d u n d e r f o o t i t is o u r d u t y to be k i n d l y
r a t h e r t h a n to r e a c t as m e n ? I t is f a i r e n o u g h t h a t d i a l e c tics s h o u l d be t h e i n i t i a l i n s t r u m e n t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
B u t there are n o acceptable dialectics other t h a n the
d i a l e c t i c s o f fists a n d p i s t o l s w h e n j u s t i c e o r t h e f a t h e r l a n d
is p r o f a n e d .
T h a t is w h a t w e t h i n k a b o u t t h e f u t u r e state w e m u s t
s t r u g g l e t o forge.
B u t o u r m o v e m e n t w i l l n o t b e f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d i f i t is
t h o u g h t to b e m e r e l y a w a y o f t h i n k i n g ; i t is n o t a w a y o f
t h i n k i n g , i t is a w a y o f b e i n g . I t is n o t o n l y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
t h e p o l i t i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , w e m u s t a i m f o r . W e m u s t , at
every m o m e n t o f o u r life, i n o u r every act, a d o p t a n
a t t i t u d e t h a t is t r u l y h u m a n , p r o f o u n d a n d c o m p l e t e . T h i s
a t t i t u d e is a s p i r i t o f s e r v i c e a n d o f s a c r i f i c e , t h e a s c e t i c
a n d m i l i t a r y c o n c e p t i o n o f life. Therefore, let n o one
t h i n k t h a t h e r e w e are r e c r u i t i n g i n o r d e r t o h a n d o u t
sinecures; let n o one t h i n k that we are gathered here for
t h e defence o f p r i v i l e g e s . I w o u l d l i k e this m i c r o p h o n e I
h a v e before m e to c a r r y m y v o i c e i n t o t h e farthest c o r n e r s
o f t h e h o m e s o f w o r k e r s , so as t o t e l l t h e m : yes, w e d o
w e a r t i e s ; yes, y o u c a n c a l l us senoritos. B u t w e h a v e a
fighting s p i r i t p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e as senoritos i t is n o t i n o u r
i n t e r e s t ; w e a r e p r e p a r e d to fight f o r h a r s h a n d f a i r
sacrifices to be i m p o s e d o n m a n y o f o u r o w n c l a s s ; a n d w e
a r e p r e p a r e d to fight f o r t h e benefits o f a t o t a l i t a r i a n state
t o be m a d e a v a i l a b l e e q u a l l y to t h e p o w e r f u l a n d t h e
l o w l y . A n d this is t h e w a y w e a r e , b e c a u s e t h i s is w h a t t h e
senoritos o f S p a i n h a v e a l w a y s b e e n l i k e t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y .

FOUNDATION

OF T H E SPANISH

FALANGE

57

T h i s is h o w t h e y c a m e to m e r i t t h e a u t h e n t i c status o f
senores a n d g e n t l e m e n , b e c a u s e , i n f a r a w a y c o u n t r i e s a n d
our o w n , they b r a v e d d e a t h a n d took o n the most arduous
m i s s i o n s for t h e v e r y g o o d r e a s o n t h a t , to t h e senoritos t h e y
w e r e , s u c h t h i n g s m a t t e r e d n o t at a l l .
I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e flag is w e l l a n d t r u l y h o i s t e d . N o w let
us d e f e n d i t c h e e r f u l l y , p o e t i c a l l y . F o r t h e r e a r e s o m e w h o ,
faced w i t h the onslaught o f r e v o l u t i o n , believe that u n i t y
o f p u r p o s e c a n best b e a c h i e v e d b y p r o p o s i n g t h e m o s t
l u k e w a r m solutions; they believe that a n y t h i n g w h i c h
m i g h t arouse a n e m o t i o n or p r o m p t a n y vigorous a n d
e x t r e m i s t a t t i t u d e s h o u l d be k e p t o u t o f p r o p a g a n d a .
W h a t a m i s j u d g m e n t ! N o n e b u t t h e poets h a v e e v e r
m o v e d a p e o p l e , a n d w o e to those w h o k n o w n o t h o w
to c o u n t e r t h e p o e t r y o f d e s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e p o e t r y o f
promise!
I n a p o e t i c m o v e m e n t w e s h a l l raise h i g h t h a t f e r v e n t
c o n c e r n a b o u t S p a i n ; w e w i l l s a c r i f i c e ourselves, w e w i l l
r e n o u n c e , a n d o u r s w i l l be t h e v i c t o r y , a v i c t o r y w h i c h ,
needless to say, w e s h a l l n o t be w i n n i n g at t h e n e x t
e l e c t i o n s . I n these e l e c t i o n s , v o t e f o r w h a t seems to y o u t h e
lesser e v i l . B u t t h a t is n o t w h e r e o u r S p a i n w i l l e m e r g e
f r o m , n o r is i t o u r p r o p e r e l e m e n t . I t is a m u r k y a t m o s p h e r e
a n d s t a l e , l i k e a t a v e r n at t h e e n d o f a d i s s o l u t e n i g h t . T h a t
is n o t t h e p l a c e f o r us. I d o b e l i e v e t h a t I a m a c a n d i d a t e ,
b u t o n e w i t h o u t f a i t h i n t h e process o r respect f o r i t . A n d
I say so n o w , t h o u g h i t m a y cost m e e v e r y v o t e . I c o u l d n o t
c a r e less. W e s h a l l n o t be fighting t h e r e g u l a r s f o r t h e s o u r
scraps o f a g r u b b y d i n n e r . O u r p l a c e is o u t s i d e , t h o u g h w e
m a y p e r h a p s be p a s s i n g t h r o u g h o n o u r w a y . O u r p l a c e
is o u t i n t h e o p e n a i r , b e n e a t h t h e c l e a r sky o f n i g h t , g u n
i n h a n d a n d w i t h t h e stars h i g h a b o v e us. L e t the o t h e r s
c o n t i n u e t h e i r feasting. O u t s i d e , a n d tensely, fervently,
c o n f i d e n t l y v i g i l a n t , w e a l r e a d y sense t h e a p p r o a c h o f
d a w n stirring o u r hearts.

BASIC POINTS
F.E.,

N o . I, D e c e m b e r 7th, 1933

I.

T h e Spanish Falange
NOT a territory.

SPAIN

beHeves f i r m l y i n S p a i n . S p a i n is

N E I T H E R is i t a n a g g r e g a t e o f m e n a n d

women.

S p a i n is, a b o v e a l l , A N INDIVISIBLE D E S T I N Y .

A historical reality.
A n e n t i t y , r e a l i n itself, w h i c h has a c c o m p l i s h e d a n d
w i l l yet a c c o m p l i s h i n f u t u r e m i s s i o n s o f u n i v e r s a l
import.

*
T h e r e f o r e , S p a i n exists:
1. A s s o m e t h i n g A P A R T f r o m e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d f r o m
the classes a n d g r o u p s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e i t .
2. A s s o m e t h i n g S U P E R I O R t o e a c h o f these i n d i v i d u a l s ,
classes a n d g r o u p s a n d e v e n t o t h e i r s u m t o t a l .

T h u s S p a i n , b e i n g a t h i n g ' a p a r t a n d s u p e r i o r ' , is b o u n d
to h a v e its own goals.
These goals are:
1. T h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f its u n i t y .
2. T h e r e s u r g e n c e o f its i n t e r n a l v i t a l i t y .
3. P r o m i n e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the s p i r i t u a l affairs o f t h e
world.
II.

T H E F A C T O R S OF DISSENSIONS

IN

SPAIN

I n the p u r s u i t o f these g o a l s , S p a i n is h a m p e r e d
major obstacle, that o f being d i v i d e d :
58

by

BASIC

POINTS

59

1. B y r e g i o n a l s e p a r a t i s m s .
2. B y c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s .
3. B y t h e class s t r u g g l e .

*
S e p a r a t i s m d i s r e g a r d s o r forgets t h e r e a l i t y o f S p a i n ,
i g n o r i n g the fact that S p a i n is, a b o v e a l l , one great
INDIVISIBLE D E S T I N Y .

T h e separatists c o n c e n t r a t e o n w h e t h e r t h e y s p e a k a
language of their o w n , whether they have ethnic characteristics o f t h e i r o w n , w h e t h e r t h e i r a r e a has a c l i m a t e o f
its o w n o r d i s t i n c t t o p o g r a p h i c a l features.
B u t i t m u s t be r e p e a t e d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n t h a t a
n a t i o n is n e i t h e r a l a n g u a g e , n o r a r a c e , n o r a t e r r i t o r y . A
n a t i o n is a n

INDIVISIBLE D E S T I N Y I N U N I V E R S A L T E R M S .

[For

us] T h i s i n d i v i s i b l e d e s t i n y was c a l l e d a n d is c a l l e d S p a i n .
U n i t e d i n u n i v e r s a l t e r m s , t h e p e o p l e s c o n s t i t u t i n g this
n a t i o n h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d their destiny u n d e r the sign o f
Spain.
N o t h i n g c a n j u s t i f y t h e b r e a k - u p o f this
w h o l e , w h i c h has c r e a t e d a w h o l e w o r l d .

magnificent

T h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s d i s r e g a r d the oneness o f S p a i n , s i n c e
they look u p o n it w i t h PARTIALITY.
S o m e are o f t h e
O t h e r s are o f the

RIGHT.
LEFT.

T h i s a p p r o a c h to S p a i n is i n i t s e l f a d i s t o r t i o n o f S p a i n ' s
true nature.
I t is l i k e l o o k i n g at S p a i n w i t h t h e left eye o n l y o r t h e
r i g h t eye o n l y , l i k e l o o k i n g a t i t A S K A N C E .
T h i n g s b r i g h t a n d b e a u t i f u l s h o u l d n o t be l o o k e d at
i n this w a y , b u t r a t h e r w i t h b o t h eyes, s i n c e r e l y a n d
STRAIGHTFORWARDLY.

N e v e r f r o m a n y partial, partisan p o i n t o f v i e w , w h i c h b y
its n a t u r e distorts w h a t o n e is l o o k i n g at.

6o

PRIMO

DE RIVERA : SELECTED

WRITINGS

But rather f r o m a T O T A L p o i n t o f v i e w , f r o m the

p a t r i o t i c p o i n t o f v i e w , w h i c h , w h e n w e g a z e at t h e
f a t h e r l a n d as a w h o l e , w i l l c o r r e c t o u r d e f e c t i v e v i s i o n .

*
T h e class s t r u g g l e d i s r e g a r d s t h e u n i t y o f t h e f a t h e r l a n d
because i t destroys t h e i n t e g r i t y o f the c o n c e p t o f national
production.
I n a state o f strife t h e e m p l o y e r s a r e d e t e r m i n e d t o e a r n
more.
T h e workers, likewise.
A n d , alternately, they tyrannize each other.
I n periods o f u n e m p l o y m e n t the employers exploit the
workers.
I n periods o f l a b o u r shortage, o r w h e n working-class
o r g a n i z a t i o n s are p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g , t h e w o r k e r s e x p l o i t
the employers.
N e i t h e r t h e w o r k e r s n o r t h e e m p l o y e r s a r e a w a r e o f this
t r u t h , t h a t t h e y are a l l e n g a g e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e o v e r a l l task
of NATIONAL PRODUCTION. Heedless o f n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n ,
e a c h t h i n k i n g o n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e interests a n d a m b i t i o n s
o f t h e i r o w n class, e m p l o y e r s a n d w o r k e r s a l i k e e n d u p
destroying a n d r u i n i n g themselves.

III.

T H E FIRST STEP

TOWARDS A

REMEDY

I f w e o w e t h e c o n f l i c t a n d t h e d e c a d e n c e to the fact t h a t
w e h a v e lost s i g h t o f S p a i n ' s i m m u t a b l e n a t u r e , t h e r e m e d y
m u s t l i e i n r e v i v i n g this c o n c e p t . W e m u s t t h i n k o n c e m o r e
o f S p a i n as a r e a l i t y i n its o w n r i g h t .
S u p e r i o r to t h e differences b e t w e e n the p e o p l e s .
A n d to t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s .
A n d to t h e class s t r u g g l e .
W h o e v e r does n o t lose s i g h t o f t h i s a s s e r t i o n o f S p a i n ' s
s u p e r i o r r e a l i t y w i l l see a l l p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e
utmost clarity.

BASIC

IV.

6l

POINTS

T H E STATE

S o m e p e o p l e t h i n k o f t h e state as n o m o r e t h a n a k e e p e r o f
t h e p e a c e , as a m e r e s p e c t a t o r o f t h e n a t i o n a l scene, t a k i n g
a n active p a r t o n l y w h e n there are disorders, but not
i m b u e d w i t h a firm b e l i e f i n a n y p a r t i c u l a r i d e a .
O t h e r s h o p e t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f t h e state so as t o use i t ,
o p p r e s s i v e l y e v e n , as a t o o l o f t h e i r g r o u p ' s o r t h e i r class's
v e s t e d interests.
T h e S p a n i s h F a l a n g e w a n t s t o see n e i t h e r t h e o n e n o r
t h e o t h e r : n e i t h e r t h e i n d i f f e r e n t state, t h e m e r e p o l i c e m a n , n o r t h e state at t h e s e r v i c e o f a n y class o r g r o u p .
T h e F a l a n g e w a n t s a state t h a t b e l i e v e s i n t h e s u p e r i o r
reality a n d mission of Spain.
A state w h i c h w i l l , f o r t h e sake o f t h i s i d e a , assign t o e a c h
m a n , t o e a c h class a n d t o e a c h g r o u p t h e i r tasks, t h e i r
r i g h t s a n d t h e i r sacrifices.
A state f o r A L L , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t i t w i l l be m o v e d
exclusively b y the t h o u g h t o f this i d e a o f S p a i n ' s p e r m a n e n c e , a n d n e v e r b y a l l e g i a n c e t o a n y o n e class o r p a r t y .
V.

T H E SUPPRESSION

OF POLITICAL

PARTIES

I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t h e state f r o m e v e r b e i n g a p a r t y , i t is
essential t o p u t a s t o p t o p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s .
P o l i t i c a l parties are the result o f a w r o n g
s y s t e m , the p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m .

political

I n the C o r t e s , a s m a l l n u m b e r o f m e n c l a i m to represent
those w h o elect t h e m . B u t t h e b u l k o f t h e e l e c t o r a t e has
n o t h i n g i n c o m m o n w i t h those w h o h a v e b e e n e l e c t e d :
they b e l o n g neither to the same f a m i l y , n o r to the same
m u n i c i p a l i t y , n o r to the same trade.
S o m e s c r a p s o f p a p e r cast e v e r y t w o o r t h r e e y e a r s i n t o
a ballot-box are the o n l y l i n k between the people a n d
those w h o c l a i m t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p e o p l e .

62

PRIMO

DE RIVERA:

SELECTED

WRITINGS

F o r t h i s e l e c t o r a l m a c h i n e r y t o f u n c t i o n , t h e life o f t h e
p e o p l e has t o be g r i p p e d b y f e v e r i s h a g i t a t i o n e v e r y t w o
or three years.
T h e candidates bellow, insult each other a n d promise
the impossible.
B a n d s o f s u p p o r t e r s a r e r o u s e d to a f e v e r - p i t c h o f
p a s s i o n , t a k i n g e a c h o t h e r to task a n d e v e n m u r d e r i n g
each other.
T h o s e d a y s see i n c i t e m e n t to t h e m o s t b i t t e r h a t r e d s .
R e s e n t m e n t s a r e b o r n w h i c h m a y last for e v e r a n d m a k e
life i m p o s s i b l e i n t o w n s a n d v i l l a g e s .
B u t w h a t d o t h e successful c a n d i d a t e s c a r e a b o u t t h a t ?
T h e y g o t o t h e c a p i t a l t o s h o w off, to a p p e a r i n t h e
n e w s p a p e r s a n d to s p e n d t h e i r t i m e a r g u i n g a b o u t
c o m p l i c a t e d matters, w h i c h the villages cannot understand.

*
W h a t n e e d h a v e t h e p e o p l e o f these p o l i t i c a l i n t e r m e d i aries ? W h y m u s t e v e r y m a n j o i n a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o r v o t e
for t h e c a n d i d a t e s o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n o r d e r to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p o l i t i c a l life o f his c o u n t r y ?
W e are a l l b o r n p a r t o f a F A M I L Y .
We

a l l live i n a MUNICIPALITY.

We

a l l h a v e a T R A D E or

a PROFESSION.

B u t n o o n e is b o r n i n t o a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o r lives w i t h i n i t
naturally.
A
p o l i t i c a l p a r t y is s o m e t h i n g A R T I F I C I A L w h i c h
c o n n e c t s us w i t h p e o p l e i n o t h e r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a n d o t h e r
trades, w i t h w h o m we have n o t h i n g i n c o m m o n , w h i l e
s e p a r a t i n g us f r o m o u r n e i g h b o u r s a n d o u r w o r k m a t e s ,
w h o are t h e ones w e r e a l l y l i v e w i t h .
A g e n u i n e state, l i k e t h e o n e t h e S p a n i s h F a l a n g e w a n t s
t o see, w i l l n o t be b u i l t u p o n t h e f a l s e h o o d o f p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i e s o r u p o n t h e C o r t e s t h e y beget.
I t w i l l be b u i l t u p o n t h e a u t h e n t i c r e a l i t i e s o f l i f e :
T h e family.

BASIC

63

POINTS

T h e municipality.
T h e g u i l d or trade u n i o n .
Thus the new state w i l l have to recognize the integrity
of the family as a social u n i t ; the autonomy of the municipality as a territorial u n i t ; and the trade union, the guild,
the corporation, as the authentic foundations of the whole
organization of the state.
VI.

O N

O V E R C O M I N G

T H E GLASS

S T R U G G L E

T h e new state w i l l not be cruelly uninvolved i n men's

struggle for survival.
It w i l l not leave it up to each class to find ways of throwing off" the other's yoke or of tyrannizing the other.
T h e new state, being everyone's, and totalitarian, w i l l
consider the goals of each component group its own, and
w i l l look after the interests of a l l as after its own.
W e a l t h should be devoted first of a l l to an improvement
i n the standard of l i v i n g of the majority; it is wrong to
sacrifice the majority to the enjoyment of the few.
W o r k is the best foundation of civic dignity. N o t h i n g
can be more deserving of the state's attention than the
dignity and welfare of the workers.
T h u s it w i l l be the foremost duty of the state, regardless
of the cost, to provide each m a n w i t h employment w h i c h
w i l l guarantee h i m not just a bare l i v i n g , but a dignified
and fitting existence.
T h e state w i l l not do this i n a spirit of charity, but as the
fulfilment of a duty.
As a result, neither capital gains w h i c h these days are
sometimes exorbitant nor the work-load w i l l be conditioned by class interest or by the power of the class w h i c h
at any one time is predominant, but rather by the common
interest of national production and by the power of the
state.

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D E

R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

T h e classes w i l l have no need to organize on a war

footing i n self-defence, because they can feel sure that the
state w i l l look unhesitatingly after all their fair and
proper interests.
But everyone w i l l indeed have to be organized on a
peace footing, i n trade unions and guilds, since the trade
unions and the guilds, w h i c h are nowadays kept at a distance from p u b l i c life by the artificial interposition of the
Cortes and the political parties, w i l l become direct
agencies of the state.

T o sum u p :
U n d e r present conditions of strife the classes are thought
of as forming two separate bands, w i t h different and
conflicting interests.
T h e new point of view w i l l be that a l l those who
contribute to production w i l l have a stake i n one and the
same great common undertaking.
VII.

T H E I N D I V I D U A L

T h e Spanish Falange thinks of m a n as the combination

of a body and a s o u l ; that is to say, as being capable o f
eternal life since he is the embodiment of eternal values.
T h u s we have the greatest respect for h u m a n dignity,
for man's integrity and freedom.
But this profound freedom does not permit anyone to
undermine the foundations of p u b l i c life.
It is inadmissible that an entire people be subjected
to the daring or extravagant experiments of anyone who
comes along.
Genuine freedom for a l l can only be achieved by those
who belong to a strong and free nation.
N o one shall be allowed the freedom to perturb,
poison or inflame people's passions, or to undermine the
foundations of the whole of a lasting political system.

BASIC

Those foundations are:

ORDER.

POINTS

65

AUTHORITY,

HIERARCHY

AND

W h i l e the physical integrity of the i n d i v i d u a l is at a l l

times sacred, this is not i n itself enough to give h i m access
to the nation's p u b l i c life.
T h e individual's political identity can only be justified i n
so far as he plays a functional part i n the life of the nation.
O n l y invalids w i l l be exempted from this duty.
T h e parasites, though, the idlers, those who expect to
live like guests at the expense o f other people's efforts, w i l l
not be treated considerately by the new state.
VIII.

T H E S P I R I T U A L

A S P E C T

T h e Spanish Falange cannot think of life as being no more

than the interaction of economic factors. It refuses to
accept the materialistic interpretation of history.
T h e spiritual aspect is and always has been the m a i n spring of the lives of men a n d o f nations.

*
R e l i g i o n is the predominant element of a l l things spiritual.
N o m a n can help asking himself the eternal questions
about life a n d death, about creation a n d the w o r l d beyond.
These questions cannot be answered evasively; they
must be answered positively or negatively.
Spain has always given the positive answer o f the
Catholic faith.
N o t only is the Catholic interpretation of life the true
one; it is besides, historically, Spanish.
Thanks to her sense of C A T H O L I C I S M , of U N I V E R S A L I S M ,
Spain w o n u n k n o w n continents from the sea a n d barbarism. She w o n them so that she might integrate their
inhabitants into a universal design of salvation.

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S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

Thus any reconstruction of S p a i n must have a C a t h o l i c

meaning.
T h i s does not mean that persecutions of those who are
not Catholics w i l l start up again. T h e days of religious
persecution are past.
Neither does it mean that the state w i l l directly take on
religious functions w h i c h are the Church's business.
E v e n less does it mean that the state w o u l d tolerate any
interference or stratagems on the part of the C h u r c h w h i c h
might jeopardize the dignity of the state or the national
integrity.
It does mean that the new state w i l l draw its inspiration
from the spirit of the C a t h o l i c religion, w h i c h is traditional
i n Spain, and w i l l make sure by means of a concordat
w i t h the C h u r c h that it w i l l enjoy a l l the care and
protection due to it.

IX.

B E H A V I O U R

T h i s is what the Spanish Falange hopes to achieve.

A n d i n order to reach its goal, it summons to a crusade
every Spaniard who wants to see a rebirth of a S p a i n that
is great, free, just and authentic.
Those who j o i n this crusade must have readied their
spirit for service and sacrifice.
T h e y must think of their life as membership of a m i l i t i a :
they must be prepared for discipline a n d danger, they must
be selfless and forswear a l l vanity, envy, sloth and
malicious gossip.
A n d at the same time they must serve this spirit
cheerfully and sportingly.

Violence can be permissible when it is used for an ideal

that can justify its use.
W e shall resort to violence i n defence of what is right

BASIC

POINTS

67

and what is just a n d to defend our fatherland against any

violent or insidious attack.
But the Spanish Falange w i l l never use violence as a
tool of oppression.
Those who predict, for instance to the workers, the
advent of a fascist tyranny are lying.
A t a l l times the F A S C E S or F A L A N G E stands for unity,
vigorous a n d fraternal co-operation, love.
T h e Spanish Falange, aflame w i t h love, secure i n its
faith, w i l l conquer Spain for S p a i n to the sound of
military music.

A D D R E S S I N G
O N

T H E

C O R T E S :

T H E T O T A L I T A R I A N

S T A T E

December igth, 1933

Please allow me, Senores Diputados and may these first
words of mine serve as an apology and as a greeting
allow me to j o i n i n a discussion, i n w h i c h I h a d no
intention of intervening today, i n order to rectify, under
the same conditions of publicity as those enjoyed previously
by the ever appropriate a n d astute words of Sefior G i l
Robles, what might seem an ideological indictment of the
youth he mentioned, whereof I may perhaps c l a i m to be
a part.
Sefior G i l Robles has said that a right-wing dictatorship
is a bad solution a n d that a left-wing dictatorship is a bad
solution. W e l l then, it so happens that the members of this
youth to w h i c h I belong feel that not only dictatorships
of the R i g h t a n d the Left are bad, but that it is b a d even
to harbour right-wing or left-wing political attitudes.
Sefior G i l Robles considers that to aspire to an integral,
totalitarian and authoritarian state is to deify the state;
let me say to Sefior G i l Robles that the deification of the
state is the exact opposite of what we want.
I n our opinion, the conduct of the state, like that of any
i n d i v i d u a l or class, cannot be fully justified at a l l times
unless it adjusts itself constantly to some permanent
n o r m . I f anything deifies the state, it is Rousseau's idea
that the state, or the custodians of the w i l l to w h i c h the
state is bound, must always be right; what deifies the state
is the belief that the w i l l of the state, as expressed once
upon a time by absolute monarchs, and nowadays by
popular suffrage, must always be right. Absolute monarchs
68

A D D R E S S I N G

T H E C O R T E S

: T O T A L I T A R I A N

S T A T E

69

could be mistaken; popular suffrage can be mistaken; for

truth and justice can never be expressed or professed i n
terms of volition. Justice and truth are permanent
categories of reason, and i n order to know whether something is right, it is not enough to ask the k i n g whose w i l l
the adherents of absolute monarchy held to be always
just; neither is it enough to ask the people whose w i l l
the 'Rousseaunians' hold to be always correct. I n order
to know whether something is right, we must at every
moment weigh up whether our actions and our thoughts
correspond to a permanent aspiration. {Hear! Hear!)
T h a t is why the deification of the state is the opposite of
what we want. W e want the state to be ever an instrument
i n the service of a historic destiny, i n the service of a
historic mission of u n i t y ; we consider the state to be i n
good shape when it has faith i n such a total historic
destiny, when it looks upon the people as an integrality
of aspirations, a n d that is why we do not favour either a
left-wing or a right-wing dictatorship, or even the R i g h t
or the Left as such. F o r we understand the people to be
precisely that: an integrality of destiny, of effort, of
sacrifice and struggle, w h i c h we must look upon as a
whole, w h i c h progresses through history as a whole, and
w h i c h we must serve as a whole. {Hear! Hear!)

M A N

IS T H E

S Y S T E M

Introduction to the Spanish edition of Mussolini's La Dottrina

delfascismo, first published as the entry on Fascism i n the
Enciclopedia italiam, Rome, 1932.
O N E O C T O B E R A F T E R N O O N ...
M a n is the system; and this is one o f the profound h u m a n
truths w h i c h fascism has brought to light again. T h e entire
nineteenth century was spent devising machineries of good
government. O n e might just as well seek to discover a
machine for t h i n k i n g or for loving. N o machine has ever
managed to produce anything authentic, eternal a n d
exacting such as government; it has always been necessary
i n the long r u n to t u r n to what has, from the beginning of
time, been the only apparatus capable of governing men,
namely m a n himself. T h a t is to say: the leader; the hero.
T h e opponents of fascism mistake this truth a n d use it
as an aggressive debating point. 'Yes,' they admit. 'Italy
has derived benefit from fascism; but what happens when
M u s s o l i n i dies?' T h e y think that they are thus dealing
the system a crushing blow, as though any system could
possibly be guaranteed to exist for ever. It is very likely
that momentary unease w i l l befall Italy when Mussolini
dies; but it w i l l only last a m o m e n t ; i n due course, w i t h
more or less travail, the system w i l l b r i n g forth a new
leader. A n d this leader w i l l i n turn embody the system for
many years. A n d he (the duce, the guide) w i l l keep faith
w i t h his people i n man-to-man communion, that basic,
h u m a n and eternal way of communicating w h i c h has left
its mark on a l l the paths of history.
I have seen Mussolini close to, one afternoon i n October
1933, at the Palazzo V e n e z i a i n R o m e . T h a t meeting d i d
70

M A N

IS T H E

S Y S T E M

71

more to make me understand I t a l i a n fascism than reading

a great many books.
It was h a l f past six i n the evening. There was not the
slightest bustle i n the Palazzo V e n e z i a . A t the entrance
there were two m i l i t i a m e n and a p l a c i d doorman. It
seemed easier to get into the palace where Mussolini works
than to gain access to any provincial government b u i l d i n g
[in S p a i n ] . A s soon as I h a d shown the doorman the
notification of m y appointment, I was taken up wide a n d
silent stairs to the ante-room to Mussolini's office. Three
or four minutes later the door opened. M u s s o l i n i works i n
a huge drawing-room, a l l o f marble, w i t h h a r d l y any
furniture i n it. There he was, behind his desk i n the far
corner opposite the door. O n e saw h i m from a distance,
alone i n the vastness of the room. W i t h a R o m a n salute
and a candid smile, he asked me to approach. I walked
towards h i m for I don't know how long. A n d once we
were both seated the Duce began his conversation w i t h me.
I had seen h i m before, years ago, at a formal audience,
when I was received together w i t h a number of students
of M a d r i d University. Besides, like everyone i n the w o r l d ,
I knew h i m from photographs, w h i c h almost invariably
depict h i m i n a military pose, saluting or haranguing.
But the Duce of the Palazzo Venezia was quite different,
w i t h strands of silver i n his hair, w i t h a subtle air of
weariness, w i t h his civilian clothes neat a n d yet casual.
H e was not the leader of the p u b l i c speeches, but a m a n
of wonderful serenity. H e spoke slowly, w i t h every
syllable pronounced distinctly. H e h a d to give some
instructions on the telephone and he d i d so as calmly
as can be, his voice anything but authoritarian. A t times,
when something I said surprised h i m , he w o u l d throw back
his head and open his eyes exceedingly wide, so that his
dark pupils w o u l d for a second be surrounded by white.
A t other times he w o u l d smile calmly. T h e way he
listened was remarkable.

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W R I T I N G S

W e talked for about half an hour. T h e n he accompanied

me to the door, across the enormous room. H e is not very
t a l l ; he no longer has, supposing he ever had it, the upright
stance of a m i l i t i a chief; i n fact, his back is beginning to be
slightly bent. W h e n the two of us reached the door, he
said to me w i t h paternal c a l m , without the slightest
emphasis:
T wish you the very best, for yourself and for S p a i n . '
T h e n he returned to his desk, slowly, to resume his
work i n silence. It was seven o'clock i n the evening. W i t h
the day's labour done, R o m e was streaming through the
streets i n the w a r m evening air. T h e Corso was alive w i t h
movement a n d chatter, like our Calle A l c a l a at about the
same time of day. People were going into cafes and cinemas. It seemed as though only the Duce was still at work
by the light of his l a m p , i n a corner of a huge empty room,
watching over Italy, to whose breathing he listened from
there as to that of a small daughter.
W h a t k i n d of a government apparatus, what system of
weights and scales, councils and assemblies, can possibly
replace that image of the hero become father, watching
beside a perpetually glimmering l a m p over the toil and
slumber of his people?
JOSE

A N T O N I O

P R I M O

D E

R I V E R A

A D D R E S S I N G
O N

T H E

C O R T E S :

C A T A L O N I A

January 4th, 1934

F o r the very reason that I a m not a member of any
minority faction, I believe that I can more freely than
anyone lay c l a i m on m y o w n behalf, and I venture to
think on behalf of a l l , to what is held i n trust: namely, the
fact that when we speak the name of Spain a n d
remember that I have not j o i n e d i n any battle-cry we
are moved by something far loftier than the wish to offend
any government and far loftier than the wish to offend a
l a n d so noble, so great, so illustrious a n d so beloved as the
l a n d of C a t a l o n i a . Supposing that offence was given, I
w o u l d like the President a n d the House to set apart those
of us who i n the present circumstances are thinking, as
always and without any mental reservations, of Spain and
nothing but S p a i n ; because S p a i n is more than a constitutional entity; because Spain is more than a historical
circumstance; because Spain can never be i n opposition
to the sum of her lands and each one of her lands.
I a m glad that the problem of C a t a l o n i a has obliquely
arisen i n the midst of a l l this disorder, so that not another
day may go by before I make it clear that anyone who
agrees w i t h me inside the House or outside the House
must feel that C a t a l o n i a , the l a n d of Catalonia, should
be treated henceforth a n d always w i t h the love, consideration and understanding we have not seen hitherto
i n any debate. F o r whenever the problem of Spain's
unity has been brought out at different times inside a n d
outside this House, the noble defence of Spain's unity has
been adulterated by a series o f petty affronts to C a t a l o n i a ,
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W R I T I N G S

a series of minor exasperations, which amount to nothing

other than a separatism promoted from this side of the
Ebro.
W e love Catalonia because it is Spanish, and because we
love C a t a l o n i a we want to see it become ever more
Spanish, like the Basque country, like a l l the other
regions; quite simply, because we feel that a nation is more
than just the magnetism of the l a n d where we were born,
more than the direct a n d sentimental emotion we a l l feel
i n the vicinity of our home ground, because we feel that a
nation is unity in universal terms, the level a people attains
when it fulfils its universal destiny i n history. F o r this
reason, because Spain fulfilled her universal destiny when
a l l her peoples were one, because S p a i n was an outwardlooking nation, w h i c h is the way to be really a nation,
when the Basque admirals roamed the seas of the w o r l d
i n the ships of Castile, when the admirable Catalans conquered the Mediterranean i n the ships of A r a g o n
because that is the way we see it, we want a l l the peoples
of Spain to feel not only that basic patriotism aroused i n
us by the l a n d , but the patriotism of a great mission, the
patriotism of transcendence, the patriotism of a S p a i n that
is truly great.
I assure the President and the House that I believe us a l l
to be thinking only of Spain's greatness when on certain
commemorative occasions we h a i l Spain or express a
longing for what is not. I f anyone had shouted, D o w n
w i t h Catalonia, this w o u l d not only have been tremendously improper, it w o u l d also have been a crime
against Spain, a n d such a person w o u l d not ever be
worthy of sitting amongst Spaniards. A l l those i m b u e d
with a feeling for S p a i n say. L o n g live C a t a l o n i a and long
live a l l the lands involved as brothers i n the admirable,
indestructible a n d glorious mission, handed d o w n to us
through m a n y centuries of effort, that bears the name of
Spain. {Applause.)

T H E

F L A G E O L E T

A N D T H E

L Y R E

From F.E., No. 2, January n t h , 1934

H o w m u c h it a l l means to us! N o tune seems to us so
exquisite as that of our home; no meadow more tender;
no music comparable to that of its brooks. B u t ... is there
not some poisonous sensuality i n this p u l l of the l a n d ?
There is something physically, organically, fluid about it,
something almost plant-like, as though the l a n d held us
captive by subtle roots. It is the k i n d of love w h i c h tempts
us to let ourselves go, to grow soft, to weep; w h i c h
dissolves into melancholy at the mournful sound of the
flageolet. It is a love w h i c h seeks shelter a n d withdraws
ever more into ever closer i n t i m a c y ; from the region to the
valley where we were b o r n ; from the valley to the pool
which reflects the image of the ancestral house; from the
pool to the house itself, and, w i t h i n the house, to the
corner w h i c h holds our memories.
A l l this is sweet indeed, like some sweet wine. But, like
the wine, this sweetness harbours intoxication or indolence.
C a n this k i n d of loving be called patriotism ? I f patriotism were affective tenderness, it w o u l d not be the highest
form of h u m a n love. M e n w o u l d be less patriotic than
plants, w h i c h cling more closely to the l a n d . W e cannot
give the name of patriotism to the first thing we happen
to find i n our hearts, this saturation w i t h tellurism. I n
order to be the highest form of love, patriotism must be
altogether at the other extreme: supremely difficult;
supremely cleansed of a l l earthly bargains; supremely
sharply defined; supremely immutable. T h a t is to say, it
must be anchored, not i n the heart, but i n the m i n d .
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L e t US by a l l means drink the sweet wine of the flageolet,

but without yielding to it our secrets. A l l that is sensual is
soon over. Thousands and thousands of springtimes have
faded, and still two and two are four, as from the beginning
of time. L e t us not plant our true loves i n the meadows
w h i c h have seen so many springtimes fade; let us cast
them wide, like lines without weight or volume, towards
the eternal sphere where the numbers sing their song o f
precision.
T h e measured song of the lyre, so rich i n its design
because it is well-versed i n numbers.
Thus, let us not think of the fatherland i n terms o f the
brook and the meadow, the song and the flageolet; let us
see it i n terms of a 'destiny' and a 'design'. T h e fatherland is the culmination, i n this w o r l d , of a great collective
undertaking. W i t h o u t this undertaking there cannot be a
fatherland; without faith i n a c o m m o n destiny, everything
dissolves into birth-places, local flavour and colour. T h e n
the lyre is still a n d the flageolet resounds. There is no
longer any reason except, for instance, those of a
secondary, economic nature why each valley should
remain linked to its neighbour. T h a t is when the i m p e r i a l
numbers, those of geometry a n d architecture, lose their
voice, giving way to the strident call of the spirits of
disintegration, w h i c h hide beneath the toadstools of every
village.

S P E E C H

A T

T H E F U N E R A L

M A T I A S

O F

M O N T E R O

February loth, 1934

From La Nacidn, February loth, 1934, and F.E., No. 7,
February 22nd, 1934
Before us i n the grave lies one of our best comrades. H e
gives us the magnificent example of his silence. F r o m the
comfort of their homes others w i l l advise you to be more
spirited, more belligerent, more ruthless i n reprisal. It is
easy to give advice. But Matfas M o n t e r o neither spoke nor
advised: he simply went out to do his duty, even though
he knew that death was probably awaiting h i m i n the
street. H e knew that because he h a d been warned. Shortly
before he died, he said, " I know that I a m threatened
w i t h death, but I don't care i f it is for the good of Spain
and of the cause." N o t m u c h time went by before a bullet
hit h i m squarely i n the heart, a heart i m b u e d w i t h the
purity of his love for Spain and his love for the Falange.
Comrade Matfas M o n t e r o R o d r i g u e z ! T h a n k y o u for
your example.
M a y G o d give you H i s eternal rest and may H e deny
us any rest u n t i l we have gathered for Spain the harvest
which your death has sown.
F o r the very last t i m e : M a t i a s M o n t e r o R o d r i g u e z .
( A l l reply: 'Presenter)
Viva Espanaf
( A l l reply: 'Viva!')

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I N T E R V I E W
A N T O N I O

G R A N T E D

T O

T H E

B Y

J O S E

N E W S P A P E R

AHORA
From Ahora, February i6th, 1934
: Is there a real danger of subversion i n S p a i n ?
I think there is (replied Josd A n t o n i o ) . There is a
real danger of revolution, w h i c h must be countered on two
flanks: on the one h a n d , the state must prepare physically
to defend itself; on the other, it is necessary to go really to
the roots of the social problem i n order to solve i t . It is
impossible to disregard or falsify this social p r o b l e m , and
yet there is a tendency to do both. Outside the Socialist
Party, the present trends are to ignore or falsify reality.
T h e one group hopes to go on l i v i n g peaceably i n a
bourgeois republic, as though we were not plagued by any
such social problem, while the other tries to pretend it is
tackling the social question by m a k i n g a series of concessions, as though there were some point to the method of
filing away at the claws of the revolution. T h e only thing
to do is to get the people interested i n one and the same
campaign o f improvement, not to have one class tossing
bits o f meat to another i n the hope o f appeasing its
irritability a n d hunger. T h e question has to be tackled i n
depth and w i t h complete sincerity, so that the w o r k i n g
class too can participate i n the global efforts of the state.
W h a t one cannot do is to keep the w o r k i n g class away from
power. T h a t is a crucial fact. Its struggles have earned the
w o r k i n g class a place at the centre o f power a n d to banish
it anew to a place beyond the gates of government is quite
out of the question.
T h e only solution is for these working-class forces to
QUESTION

ANSWER:

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79

shed their international or extra-national orientation and

become a national force w h i c h identifies w i t h the nation's
destinies.
Q,: D o y o u believe that such a transformation of the socialists is possible ?
A : I believe it is and that w i t h i n every Spanish socialist
that you scratch a little there is a Spaniard, who w o u l d
therefore retain but the best part of a socialist, namely the
urge to improve the lot of the workers and the w i l l to see
social justice done. I f our socialists were of the G e r m a n i c
species, that is to say, laboratory Marxists, things w o u l d be
far more difficult; but I do believe that there is a Spaniard
inside every Spanish socialist, w h i c h makes a l l the difference.
Q,: It does not look as though Spanish working-class
thinking w o u l d be easily persuaded to change its ideals i n
this way.
A : It w o u l d probably not be easy, a n d that only makes the
task a l l the more attractive. But eventually they w i l l
understand. A l l the tactics employed against our movement consist of distortion. N o one fights it head-on. N o t a
single anti-fascist newspaper has the fairness to fight
fascism head-on; they a l l distort it, claiming that it is a
movement for oppressing the workers! A n y halfway
educated person knows that it is not so, but rather the
exact opposite.
W h e n the proletarian masses are brandishing the threat
of subversion, there can be only one of the following
solutions: either to surrender power to them or to come to
some arrangement w i t h them, or else to transform them
into a different k i n d of force. T h e first two solutions are for
governments to work out. T h e y are no concern of ours,
since we are not i n power. T h e third is the solution we
w o u l d like to see, and we expect to achieve it by means of
propaganda and the spiritual permeation of the multitude.
Q,: D o you not believe i n the effectiveness of an intermediate solution ?

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A : T h a t is what the populist parties have been a i m i n g for.

But the same thing happens to a l l populist parties as to
sterilized m i l k , from w h i c h a l l the vitamins have been
eliminated along w i t h the germs. T h e y embody none of
the dangers w h i c h the fascist experiment may h o l d , but
neither do they have our spiritual force or that of the
socialists.
Q_: None the less, everything seems to indicate that should
the socialists, taking a leaf out of Italy a n d Germany's
book, attempt to seize power, the fight against revolution
w o u l d have to be waged by precisely such forces, by the
populists, w h i c h means Popular A c t i o n .
A : Unless it is done by the c i v i l guard and the assault
guard.
Q,: D o y o u not believe i n the effectiveness o f a citizens'
organization like P o p u l a r A c t i o n ?
A : N o , I do not; firstly, because it seems to me that they
have no effective elements at their disposal, and, secondly,
because there are fewer people prepared to risk their lives
than one w o u l d think. N o one ever risks his life except for
some strongly spiritual reason. T h e conservative militias
are non-existent i n this sphere of a life-or-death struggle,
because when it comes to defending material possessions,
life is always worth more than that.
Q_: I f i n these circumstances the socialists should strike
before any fascist organization has h a d time to establish
itself, w o u l d they not have a good chance of success?
A : I don't know. A t present, apart from ourselves, the only
strong civilian organization is obviously that of the
socialists.
Q_: Is there some c o m m o n denominator w h i c h holds a l l
the forces of the R i g h t together ?
A : I cannot see that there is such a common denominator.
A n d I a m not i n c l i n e d to look for one. A l l alliances are
based on what is least meaningful. A n y alignment is the
result of a deal i n w h i c h each participant abandons the

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ANTONIO TO ' A H O R A '

8I

most vigorous features i n order to agree on the very

blandest aspects. I do not think that a threat of revolution
can be met by employing the weapon of a basic instinct
of self-defence, but only by another revolutionary vision,
another fervour of the same poetic force, a n d this fervour,
which we are now endowed w i t h , does not i n m y opinion
owe anything to current Spanish politics. There is one
group, that o f the Traditionalists, w h i c h has a truly
Spanish, positive vitality a n d a genuine combative
tradition; but on the other h a n d it lacks a certain sensitivity and modern technical competence, apart from most
probably being ill-equipped to cope w i t h the social
question. Its vision of social matters is not of our time,
even though it has a good relationship o f l o n g standing
w i t h the guilds. I believe, therefore, that this group w o u l d
not be strong enough to halt a revolution, i n spite of being
the most spirited right-wing force.
Qj C o u l d this combative spirit of yours or of the T r a d i tionalists be related i n some way to co-operation w i t h the
government at the present time ?
A : I know nothing about what might be the relations
between the government a n d the other groups or Popular
A c t i o n . There are none between the government a n d
ourselves.
Q,: A n d i n future ?
A : I believe that our future is not likely to be born of any
contact w i t h the groups already i n existence, a n d that
these groups are bound to be deserted by their young
people, who w i l l come to us. T h e role w h i c h G i l Robles
w i l l have to play w i l l be that of proceeding against the
revolution w i t h the instruments of power he holds. Thanks
to the parliamentary and electoral strength w h i c h has
given h i m a larger group than any other i n the House, he
w i l l become P r i m e M i n i s t e r or M i n i s t e r o f the Interior
and he w i l l then put d o w n the revolution, but not w i t h
the effectiveness b o r n of one spirit's victory over another;
6

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merely w i t h the thrust of a technically superior fighting

force. Against the onslaught of the revolutionaries armed
w i t h rifles he can pit machine-guns and tanks. But this w i l l
not be a clash of two revolutionary trends; it w i l l be a clash
of one political trend against an arsenal, against sheer
military technique. W h i c h is why I think that it w i l l i n no
way affect the chances of a future Spanish revolution.
Q_: D o you mean by that, that y o u w i l l merely have to
wait for G i l Robles and his movement to carry out their
task and become irrelevant ?
A : But one can be waiting asleep or awake. W e are
waiting wide awake.
Q_: There is a fairly widespread belief that fascism cannot
possibly take root i n Spain. W h a t do y o u reply to that?
A : I believe that it w i l l take root. S p a i n has done things
requiring an amazing degree of discipline. W h a t happens
is that we are faced w i t h this necessity after a century of
decadence. Just now, our virtues of discipline a n d organization may be very m u c h debilitated, but there is no
reason why we should be incapable of finding some way of
arousing them from their slumber. Fascism is a universal
attitude of self-recovery. W e are told that we are imitating
Italy. A n d so we do, to the extent that we are looking for
our real raison d'etre w i t h i n ourselves. But this attitude,
which we may be said to have copied, though it is eternal,
produces results of the greatest authenticity. Italy has
found Italy. B y turning inwards, we shall find Spain.
Q^: Fascism is essentially nationalistic. W h a t are the roots
of the k i n d of nationalism y o u seek to foment ?
A : T h e fatherland is a mission. I f we confine the idea of
the fatherland to territorial or ethnic considerations, we
risk getting lost i n fruitless localisms or regionalisms. T h e
fatherland has to be a mission. It is true that there are
no continents left to conquer, and there is no longer any
place for illusions of conquest. But we are already witnessi n g the international decline of the democratic idea as put

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ANTONIO TO 'AHORA'

83

forward by the League of Nations. O n c e again the w o r l d is

tending towards being governed by three or four racial
entities. Spain can be one of these three or four. It is
located i n a key position of the greatest geographic
importance, and has a spiritual content entitling it to one
of these positions of leadership. A n d that is what we can
struggle to achieve. N o t to be a m i d d l i n g country; for
either we are a vast country fulfilling a universal mission,
or else we are a meaningless a n d degraded people. Spain
must be given back the a m b i t i o n to recover her leading
role i n the w o r l d .
Q_: N o t every citizen is capable of understanding the great
ideals of nationalism. W h a t has fascism to offer the simple
m a n i n the street?
A : F o r those who are not susceptible to the great ideal of
nationalism there is always the mainspring o f the social
ideal. W i t h o u t a doubt, the most immediate content of the
movement is its emphasis on social justice, on a better way
of life. Fascism aspires to national greatness; but one of the
rungs leading towards such greatness consists of material
improvements for the people. Social aspirations are of
interest even to simple m i n d s ; but besides, m a n y more
people are capable of understanding the ideal of nationalism than is c o m m o n l y supposed. Inside every Spanish
socialist there is a nationalist.

ADDRESSING THE CORTES:

THE BASQUES AND SPAIN
February 28th, 1934
G o d keep us, gentlemen, from exacerbating yet another
problem of nationalism. I n Catalonia we have a resentful
separatism that is exceedingly hard to cure, and I believe
that this separatism can be blamed partly on a certain
inability to understand early on what Catalonia is really
like. T h e Catalans are fundamentally a sentimental
people, grossly misunderstood by those who ascribe
cupidity and a purely practical outlook to their every
attitude. T h e Catalans are a people saturated w i t h poetry,
and this poetry is to be found not only i n their typical
forms of artistic expression, such as their ancient songs
and the liturgy of the sardana, but also i n the most commonplace aspects of their bourgeois way of life, even i n the
hereditary life of those families of Barcelona whose small
shops i n the ancient streets round about the P l a z a R e a l
are handed d o w n from father to son; not only do those
families live w i t h a sense of poetry, they are consciously
aware of it and perpetuate the poetic traditions, w h i c h
are wonderfully refined, of their g u i l d , their family, their
bourgeois society. T h i s was not appreciated i n time;
Catalonia was not treated the way it should have been,
and i f we bear that i n m i n d , we have the reason why the
problem has continued to fester. I can see but one way out
of this situation: through a new Spanish poetry w h i c h
must prove capable of arousing i n the soul of Catalonia a
real interest i n a total undertaking, from which Catalonia
was diverted by a separatist movement that is likewise
poetic.
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85

G o d keep us, therefore, from exacerbating another

problem of a regional nature; but i f I speak out to give
notice that I a m on Senor Salmon's side i n this particular
division and against the Statute,* it is because I believe
that this problem of the Basque Statute involves something
far more important than the question of whether or not
the plebiscite was rigged, whether article i i applies or
article 1 2 or some other of those articles into w h i c h a l l m y
presumption w o u l d not make me dare pursue Seiior
Landrove through the tangled thickets of his rhetoric
the essential point being that the Basque Statute contains,
quite apart from a separatist meaning that is hostile to
Spain, a deeply anti-Basque spirit of w h i c h its very
authors may well be unaware.
T h e life of the Basque people, like that of every people,
can be reduced to a tragic conflict between the spontaneous and the historical: a conflict between things
inborn, those things we can perceive even w i t h our
instincts, and the artificial and tremendously difficult
feat of accomplishing a universal destiny i n history. A
people does not owe its transformation into a nation to
some features of race, language or climate; what does
confer the rank of nationhood on a people is the fact of its
having accomplished a universal undertaking. F o r just
as we, i f we wish to be persons instead of mere individuals
i n their native state, must be other, that is to say, different
from the others and different i n relation to others, so, i n
order to be a nation, we must be distinct i n universal
terms. W e are a nation i n so far as we attempt and
accomplish something w h i c h other nations do not attempt.
N o w then: have the Basque people been a unit i n
universal terms? H a v e the Basques accomplished a
universal destiny? Q u i t e obviously they have; the
Basques have given the w o r l d a collection of admirals, who
* The

Basque

Statute, introduced to

give autonomy

to

the

Basque

provinces but not put into effect until after the beginning of the civil war.

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w o u l d by themselves suffice to be the pride a n d j o y of an

entire people; the Basques have given the w o r l d a u n i versal genius o f the stature of St Ignatius L o y o l a . But it so
happened that the Basque people gave the w o r l d these
geniuses precisely when its emblem of nationhood was
firmly united to Castile. [Senor Picavea: ' When it enjoyed
greater freedom than we can ask for at present.' SeHor
Aguirre: 'Precisely; we shall have something to say about that
later on.' Mutterings.) W h e n it was indestructibly a part
of Spain, because Spain is an exact a n d irrevocable
example of a n a t i o n ; because S p a i n w h i c h is by no
means Castile as opposed to the Basque country, but
rather the Basque country together w i t h Castile a n d w i t h
a l l the other peoples that together constitute Spain
because Spain, I say, has indeed fulfilled a universal
destiny and justified its existence by a destiny w i t h
universal implications, being favoured, moreover, by a
Providence so assiduous i n allotting universal destiny that,
when Spain managed to complete the universal undertaking of freeing herself from Islam, she found herself i n
the very same year o f 1492 w i t h the universal task of
discovering a n d conquering a new w o r l d . T h i s is h o w i t
happened that the Basques outgrew their primitive fishing
and farming existence, precisely when their destinies
merged w i t h the total destiny of Spain.
So far, so good; but just when the Basque people, j o i n e d
thus to Spain, h a d once and for a l l incorporated themselves
into history, there appeared some self-styled tutors of the
Basque people who decided that the Basques must
repudiate that historical unity, repudiate that emblem
thanks to whose magic powers they were able to enter
history together w i t h Spain, as an integral part of Spain,
who wanted to separate the Basque country once more
from Spain and to h a n d it back to its artless native state, to
the tending of its lands, its customs a n d its music. Such an
intention is anti-Basque, such an intention means standing

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anew at the gates of native spontaneity a n d turning

against the universal, historic, prodigious and difficult
achievements of the Basque people's history as fused w i t h
the history of Spain. {Hear! Hear! Splendid!)
This is w h y I believe that it is not Spain's mission i n this
predicament to ascertain how many votes have been cast
i n favour of the Statute; it is rather Spain's mission to
succour the Basque people and to rescue them from their
infatuation w i t h the designs of their most worthless tutors,
for the Basque people may have let themselves be carried
away by nationalist propaganda; a l l the best Basque
minds, however, a l l the Basques of universal renown, feel
themselves to be profoundly Spanish a n d are deeply
conscious of Spain's unified and universal destiny. I f
you say it is not so, I would ask Senor A g u i r r e to forgive
me for m a k i n g a comparison: of the Basques who are
members of this House, we have R a m i r o de M a e z t u w i t h
us; o f the Basques outside the House, we have M i g u e l de
U n a m u n o ; a n d like these two, a l l the best Basque minds
are profoundly Spanish. [Senor Aguirre: ' Will the Honourable Member allow me a small interruption? Simply to point out
that it is the Basques of inferior mind, like ourselves, who have
the support of the people. When gentlemen like Maeztu and
Unamuno, for whom I have, by the way, the greatest respect, come
to our country, our people reject them. Why is that? Because they
have proved incapable of voicing the people's actual feelings. I
shall be replying to the Honourable Member presently.'
Mutterings.) N o , Senor A g u i r r e . T h e problem is that it is
m u c h more difficult to understand M a e z t u and U n a m u n o
than to get excited over a football match, a n d while
Senors M a e z t u and U n a m u n o are probably the very best
Basque minds, some of the advocates of the Statute w o u l d
make up a very creditable football team.

P R O C L A M A T I O N OF T H E
SPANISH F A L A N G E OF T H E
J.O.N.S.
Speech made at the Teatro Calder6n, Valladolid,
M a r c h 4th, 1934
This is not the place to applaud anyone or to cheer. H e r e
no one is anybody, each is only a mere component, a
soldier of this task-force set on a task w h i c h is ours and
that of Spain.
Let me tell anyone about to cheer yet again that I w i l l
not thank h i m for the acclaim. W e have not come here to
be applauded. W h a t is more, I might almost say that we
have not come to teach y o u anything. W e have come here
to learn.
There is a great deal to be learnt from this l a n d a n d this
sky of Castile by us, who i n m a n y cases live far removed
from them. T h i s l a n d of Castile, w h i c h is the l a n d of no
airs or graces, the essence of l a n d , the l a n d w h i c h is
neither local colour, nor the river, nor the boundary, nor
the hillside. T h e l a n d w h i c h is certainly not the sum of a
number of estates, or the basis of certain landed interests
to be haggled over i n assemblies, but w h i c h is l a n d itself,
l a n d as the repository of eternal values, austerity of
conduct, the spirit of religion i n life, speech and silence,
the solidarity o f ancestors and descendants.
A n d above this quintessential l a n d , the quintessential
sky.
T h e sky so blue, so bare of passing clouds, so utterly
without the greenish reflections of leafy groves, so purely
blue that one might say it was almost white. A n d so
Castile, w i t h the quintessential land and the quintessential
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Og

sky gazing at each other, has never been resigned to being

a mere province; it could not help but aspire at a l l times
to being an empire. Castile has never managed to understand what is local, it has understanding only for what is
universal, w h i c h is why Castile denies itself the certainty
of limits, perhaps because it is unlimited, both i n scope a n d
i n stature. A n d therefore Castile, that l a n d encrusted w i t h
wonderful names Tordesillas, M e d i n a del C a m p o ,
M a d r i g a l de las Altas Torres that l a n d of the Chancery
[i.e., the medieval Chancery], of fairs and castles, that is,
of justice, trade a n d m i l i t i a , gives us an idea of what
constituted the Spain we no longer possess, a n d oppresses
our hearts w i t h a deep sense of loss.
F o r i f we have taken to the road through the towns and
countryside of Spain, w i t h many hardships and some
amount of danger (though that is of no matter), i n order
to spread abroad the good tidings, we have done so, a l l
the comrades who have spoken before me said, because we
are deprived of Spain. O u r Spain is split by three kinds of
rifts: local separatisms, party conflicts a n d the divisions
along class lines.
L o c a l separatism is a sign of decay w h i c h is bound to
spring up whenever there is a tendency to forget that the
fatherland is not synonymous w i t h those things immediate
and physical that we can perceive even i n the most
primitive state o f spontaneity. T h e fatherland is not the
taste of the water from any particular source, it is not the
pigment of the soil of any particular grove: the fatherland
is a historic mission, a mission of universal dimensions.
T h e life of any and every people is a tragic struggle
between the spontaneous a n d the historic. Primitive
peoples are almost vegetally aware of the characteristics
of the l a n d . B y the time they emerge from such a primitive
state, peoples know that their specific nature is not
determined by the physical features of the l a n d they
inhaliit, but that it is their mission i n universal terms which

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sets them apart from other peoples. As soon as a phase sets

i n when this sense of a universal mission falls into decay,
separatisms begin to flourish once more and once again the
peoples t u r n to their soil, to their l a n d , to their music
and their language, endangering once again the glorious
integrality that was Spain i n the heroic past.
B u t apart from this, we are divided into p o l i t i c a l parties.
T h e parties are full of filth, but above a n d beneath this
filth there exists a profound explanation of political parties,
w h i c h should suffice to make them odious.
Political parties are born the day men lose the sense of
there being over them a truth i n whose sign peoples and
individuals fulfil their missions i n life. Prior to the birth
of political parties, peoples a n d individuals knew that
above their own reason stood the eternal truth, a n d , as the
antithesis to eternal truth, the absolute lie. B u t there came
a time when men were t o l d that neither truth nor lies are
absolute categories, that everything is debatable, that
everything can be resolved by the vote, and that votes can
decide whether the fatherland should continue united or
should commit suicide, a n d even whether G o d does or
does not exist. M e n split up into groups, make propaganda,
insult each other and become restless, u n t i l finally one
Sunday they place a glass box on a table a n d start filling
it up w i t h little bits of paper on w h i c h it says whether G o d
exists or does not exist a n d whether the fatherland should
or should not commit suicide.
A n d this brings about what culminates i n the Cortes.
O n e of the reasons why I have come here is to breathe
this fresh air, because m y lungs are a l l too full of the fumes
of the Cortes. I f y o u were to see, at this time of such
troubles and anxieties, i f y o u , who live i n the country,
who t i l l the fields, were to see what goes on i n there! I f y o u
could see the coteries gathered i n those corridors flocking
to hear the hoariest a n d most hackneyed jokes! I f you
could have observed how the other day, d u r i n g a debate

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o n w h e t h e r y e t a n o t h e r shce o f S p a i n s h o u l d be a m p u t a t e d ,
a l l t h a t c o u l d be h e a r d w e r e speeches h a r p i n g w i t h
pettifogging rhetoric o n article such-and-such of the
c o n s t i t u t i o n , o n w h e t h e r this percentage o r that o f the
p o p u l a r vote was r e q u i r e d to authorize the a m p u t a t i o n !
A n d i f y o u h a d been there w h e n a Basque, every i n c h a
S p a n i a r d a n d every i n c h a Basque, l i s t e d the d i s t i n g u i s h e d
S p a n i a r d s o f h i s h o m e l a n d , a n d seen h o w a f e l l o w s i t t i n g
o n those b e n c h e s , w h i c h s u p p o r t t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f S e f i o r
L e r r o u x , t o o k t h e l i b e r t y o f t r e a t i n g t h e m a t t e r as a j o k e
a n d o f m o c k i n g l y a d d i n g t h e n a m e o f U z c u d u n t o those o f
Loyola and Elcano!
A n d as t h o u g h t h i s w e r e n o t e n o u g h , t o t h e c e n t u r y
w h i c h has g i v e n us l i b e r a l i s m a n d w i t h i t t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y p a r t i e s , w e o w e t h e l e g a c y o f t h e class s t r u g g l e .
F o r economic liberalism m a i n t a i n e d that a l l m e n were able
t o w o r k as t h e y w i s h e d s l a v e r y w a s a t h i n g o f t h e p a s t ;
q u i t e so, t h e w o r k e r s r e c e i v e d n o b l o w s ; b u t s i n c e t h e
w o r k e r s h a d n o t h i n g t o eat b u t w h a t t h e y w e r e g i v e n ,
s i n c e t h e w o r k e r s w e r e h e l p l e s s a n d w i t h n o defence
against the p o w e r o f c a p i t a l i s m , c a p i t a l i s m l a i d d o w n the
c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e w o r k e r s h a d to a c c e p t these c o n d i t i o n s
o r be r e s i g n e d t o d y i n g o f h u n g e r . A n d so, w h i l e p e n n i n g
s p l e n d i d B i l l s o f R i g h t s o n pieces o f p a p e r w h i c h p r a c t i c a l l y
n o one r e a d (if o n l y because the people were not even
t a u g h t to r e a d ) , e v e n w h i l e c o m p o s i n g s u c h d e c l a r a t i o n s ,
l i b e r a l i s m p r o d u c e d before o u r eyes t h e m o s t i n h u m a n
s p e c t a c l e o f a l l t i m e : i n t h e best cities o f E u r o p e , i n t h e
c a p i t a l s o f states e n d o w e d w i t h t h e m o s t e x q u i s i t e l i b e r a l
institutions, there were h u m a n beings, o u r brothers,
living i n overcrowded, mis-shapen, horrendous red a n d
b l a c k houses, t r a p p e d b y g r i n d i n g p o v e r t y , t u b e r c u l o s i s
a n d t h e a n a e m i a o f t h e i r h u n g r y c h i l d r e n , o n l y to b e t o l d
f r o m t i m e to t i m e w i t h b i t i n g s a r c a s m h o w free t h e y w e r e
a n d s o v e r e i g n to b o o t .
O b v i o u s l y the workers were b o u n d to rebel one

day

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a g a i n s t s u c h m o c k e r y , a n d t h e class s t r u g g l e w a s b o u n d to
e x p l o d e . T h e r e w a s j u s t r e a s o n f o r t h e class s t r u g g l e , a n d
there was, i n the v e r y b e g i n n i n g , just reason for socialism,
a n d w e h a v e n o cause to d e n y i t . T h e t r o u b l e is t h a t
s o c i a l i s m , i n s t e a d o f p u r s u i n g its i n i t i a l course o f a s p i r i n g
to s o c i a l j u s t i c e a m o n g m e n , h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a
m e r e d o c t r i n e o f h o r r i f y i n g heartlessness, c a r i n g n o t a
w h i t a b o u t the l i b e r a t i o n o f the workers. T h e r e are a l l
those w o r k e r s g o i n g a b o u t , e n o r m o u s l y p l e a s e d w i t h
t h e m s e l v e s a n d c a l l i n g themselves M a r x i s t s . A l r e a d y t h e r e
h a v e b e e n m a n y streets i n m a n y S p a n i s h t o w n s n a m e d
after K a r l M a r x ; b u t K a r l M a r x w a s a G e r m a n J e w ,
w h o f r o m h i s s t u d y o b s e r v e d t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c events o f
his t i m e w i t h t e r r i f y i n g i m p a s s i v i t y . W h i l e g a z i n g at t h e
E n g l i s h factories o f M a n c h e s t e r a n d f o r m u l a t i n g i n e x o r a b l e l a w s o n c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d t h e interests o f
w o r k e r s a n d e m p l o y e r s , t h i s G e r m a n J e w w r o t e i n his
letters t o his f r i e n d F r i e d r i c h E n g e l s t h a t t h e w o r k e r s w e r e
a v u l g a r r a b b l e n o t w o r t h b o t h e r i n g a b o u t e x c e p t i n so
f a r as t h e y s e r v e d t o test his t h e o r i e s .
S o c i a l i s m ceased to be a m o v e m e n t for t h e r e d e m p t i o n
o f m e n a n d c a m e to b e , as I h a v e b e e n t e l l i n g y o u , a n
i m p l a c a b l e d o c t r i n e ; a n d i n s t e a d o f w a n t i n g to restore
a state o f j u s t i c e i t a i m e d at t a k i n g i n j u s t i c e , i n r e t a l i a t i o n ,
as f a r as ever b o u r g e o i s i n j u s t i c e h a d g o n e i n its o r g a n i z a t i o n . W h a t is m o r e , s o c i a l i s m d e c r e e d t h a t t h e class
s t r u g g l e w o u l d n e v e r cease a n d s t a t e d , besides, t h a t h i s t o r y
m u s t be g i v e n a m a t e r i a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; t h a t is to say,
i n o r d e r to e x p l a i n h i s t o r y , o n l y t h e e c o n o m i c p h e n o m e n a
matter. A n d w h e n M a r x i s m culminates i n a system like
the R u s s i a n one, c h i l d r e n are t o l d i n school that r e l i g i o n
is t h e o p i a t e o f t h e p e o p l e ; t h a t t h e f a t h e r l a n d is m e r e l y
a w o r d i n v e n t e d as a t o o l o f o p p r e s s i o n ; a n d t h a t e v e n
m o d e s t y a n d t h e l o v e o f p a r e n t s f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n are
b o u r g e o i s p r e j u d i c e s w h i c h m u s t be e r a d i c a t e d at a l l cost.
T h a t is w h a t s o c i a l i s m has c o m e t o be. D o y o u r e a l l y

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t h i n k t h a t i f t h e w o r k e r s k n e w a l l t h a t , t h e y w o u l d feel
a t t r a c t e d to s o m e t h i n g so d r e a d f u l , so h o r r i f y i n g a n d
i n h u m a n as t h e b r a i n - c h i l d o f t h a t G e r m a n J e w c a l l e d
Karl Marx?
T h o s e o f us w h o a r e n o w a b o u t t h i r t y y e a r s o l d e n t e r e d
the life o f S p a i n w h e n the w o r l d was l i k e that, w h e n S p a i n
w a s l i k e t h a t . W e c o u l d h a v e b e e n t e m p t e d to a c c e p t t h e
s y s t e m a n d fight o u r w a y i n t o t h e coteries o f t h e C o r t e s o r
else to get i n v o l v e d i n excesses w h i c h w o u l d f u r t h e r
a g g r a v a t e a n d p o i s o n t h e p r o l e t a r i a n masses a n d t h e i r
class s t r u g g l e . T h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n a v e r y s i m p l e
m a t t e r , a n d a t first s i g h t i t s e e m e d t o offer c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s . I f a n y o n e o f us h a d j o i n e d t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e
R e p u b l i c a n P a r t y , or the R a d i c a l s , the democratic liberals
or the P o p u l a r A c t i o n P a r t y , he w o u l d easily h a v e b e c o m e
a m i n i s t e r , f o r since w e h a v e a g o v e r n m e n t crisis o n c e a
fortnight, w i t h n e w ministers t u r n i n g u p each time, we
h a v e t o ask ourselves w h e t h e r t h e r e c a n s t i l l be s o m e o n e
i n S p a i n w h o has n e v e r as yet b e e n a m i n i s t e r .
B u t f o r t h e l i k e s o f us t h a t is v e r y l i t t l e . W e h a v e c h o s e n
to l e a v e t h e b e a t e n t r a c k a n d t o set f o r t h , as o u r c o m r a d e
L e d e s m a has p u t i t , o n t h e r o a d o f r e v o l u t i o n , o n t h e r o a d
o f a different r e v o l u t i o n , o n the r o a d o f the r e a l r e v o l u t i o n ;
because a l l revolutions hitherto have been i n c o m p l e t e ,
s i n c e n o t o n e h a s e v e r s e r v e d , at o n e a n d t h e s a m e t i m e ,
the n a t i o n a l i d e a o f the f a t h e r l a n d a n d the i d e a o f social
justice. W e integrate the t w o : the f a t h e r l a n d a n d social
j u s t i c e , a n d u p o n these t w o i m m u t a b l e p r i n c i p l e s w e
b o l d l y a n d c a t e g o r i c a l l y i n t e n d to b u i l d o u r r e v o l u t i o n .
T h e y say t h a t w e a r e i m i t a t o r s . O n e s i m o R e d o n d o has
a l r e a d y r e p l i e d to t h a t . T h e y say w e a r e i m i t a t o r s b e c a u s e
this m o v e m e n t o f o u r s , this m o v e m e n t o f a r e t u r n t o
S p a i n ' s a u t h e n t i c n a t u r e , is a m o v e m e n t w h i c h has
already emerged elsewhere. I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y have
t u r n e d i n w a r d s u p o n themselves i n a n attitude o f extreme
e x a s p e r a t i o n at t h e m y t h s p r o m u l g a t e d for t h e p u r p o s e o f

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W R I T I N G S

sterilizing t h e m ; but just because I t a l y a n d G e r m a n y have

t u r n e d i n w a r d s a n d f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s , s h o u l d w e say t h a t
S p a i n i n s e a r c h o f h e r s e l f is i m i t a t i n g t h e m ? T h o s e
c o u n t r i e s h a v e r e t u r n e d to t h e i r o w n a u t h e n t i c i t y , a n d as
w e d o l i k e w i s e t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y w e s h a l l find w i l l b e o u r
o w n , not that o f either G e r m a n y o r I t a l y , a n d therefore
b y d o i n g as t h e I t a l i a n s o r t h e G e r m a n s h a v e d o n e w e w i l l
b e m o r e t r u l y S p a n i a r d s t h a n w e h a v e ever b e e n .
T o c o m r a d e O n d s i m o R e d o n d o I w o u l d say. D o n ' t
w o r r y too m u c h about their saying that we imitate. I f we
dealt w i t h that particular point, they w o u l d soon invent
o t h e r s . T h e s o u r c e o f g u i l e is i n e x h a u s t i b l e . L e t t h e m say to
us t h a t w e i m i t a t e t h e fascists. A f t e r a l l , i n f a s c i s m as i n a l l
t h e m o v e m e n t s o f e v e r y age o n e finds b e n e a t h t h e l o c a l
characteristics c e r t a i n recurrent elements w h i c h are the
p a t r i m o n y o f every h u m a n m i n d a n d w h i c h are the same
everywhere. O n e e x a m p l e o f this was, i f y o u like, the
Renaissance. A n o t h e r , i f y o u like, was the hendecas y l l a b l e : t h e h e n d e c a s y l l a b l e c a m e t o us f r o m I t a l y , b u t
v e r y s o o n after i t h a d b e e n b r o u g h t f r o m I t a l y , h e n d e c a syllables,
C a s t i l i a n hendecasyllables
were
used
by
G a r c i l a s o a n d F r a y L u i s t o s i n g o f t h e fields o f S p a i n a n d
b y F e r n a n d o de H e r r e r a to praise the L o r d of the plains
o f t h e sea, w h o g r a n t e d v i c t o r y to S p a i n at L e p a n t o .
T h e y also say t h a t w e a r e r e a c t i o n a r i e s . S o m e say so i n
b a d f a i t h , t o p e r s u a d e t h e w o r k e r s t o a v o i d us a n d n o t t o
l i s t e n to w h a t w e say. I n s p i t e o f t h a t , t h e w o r k e r s w i l l
l i s t e n a n d w h e n t h e y h e a r us t h e y w i l l n o l o n g e r b e l i e v e
those w h o s a i d t h i s , b e c a u s e p r e c i s e l y those w h o , l i k e us,
w a n t t o restore t h e i d e a o f a n i n d e s t r u c t a b l y i n t e g r a t e d
d e s t i n y c a n n o t p o s s i b l y be r e a c t i o n a r i e s . O n t h e c o n t r a r y ,
r e a c t i o n a r i e s t h r i v e i n a r e g i m e o f strife as w h e n o n e class
h a s r e c e n t l y v a n q u i s h e d a n o t h e r a n d t h e v a n q u i s h e d class
is t h i r s t y f o r r e v e n g e ; b u t w e d o n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e
g a m e o f r e p r i s a l s o f class a g a i n s t class o r p a r t y a g a i n s t
p a r t y . W e place a g u i d e for a l l o u r actions above p a r t y

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p o l i t i c s a n d class interests. T h i s g u i d e o f o u r s a n d h e r e
lies t h e r e a l essence o f o u r m o v e m e n t is t h e i d e a o f a
totally integrated destiny called fatherland a n d n a t i o n .
W i t h this concept o f the n a t i o n served b y the i n s t r u m e n t
o f a s t r o n g state a n d s u b s e r v i e n t n e i t h e r to a class n o r t o a
p a r t y , t h e i n t e r e s t e m e r g i n g v i c t o r i o u s is t h a t o f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l l w i t h i n that w h o l e , not the m o m e n t a r y
i n t e r e s t o f t h e w i n n e r s . T h e w o r k e r s w i l l r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s is
so, a n d t h e n t h e y w i l l see t h a t o u r s is t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e
solution.
O t h e r s , t h o u g h , s u p p o s e us to b e r e a c t i o n a r i e s i n t h e
vague hope that, w h i l e they g r u m b l e a w a y i n their clubs
a n d c a s i n o s , h a n k e r i n g after t h e p r i v i l e g e s w h i c h h a v e
p a r t l y f a l l e n a w a y , w e w i l l be the storm-troopers o f
r e a c t i o n , get t h e c h e s t n u t s o u t o f t h e fire f o r t h e m a n d b u s y
ourselves i n s t a l l i n g a l l those i n t h e i r a r m c h a i r s w h o a r e
n o w w a t c h i n g us i n c o m f o r t . I f w e w e r e t o d o t h a t , w e
w o u l d deserve to be c u r s e d b y t h e five d e a d m e n w h o m w e
h a v e f e l l e d f o r t h e sake o f a m o r e l o f t y c a u s e . . .
F i n a l l y , t h e y say t h a t w e h a v e n o p r o g r a m m e . C a n y o u
t h i n k o f a n y t h i n g serious a n d p r o f o u n d t h a t o w e s its
e x i s t e n c e to a p r o g r a m m e ? W h e n h a v e y o u ever k n o w n t h e
r e a l l y d e c i s i v e t h i n g s , t h e e t e r n a l t h i n g s , l i k e l o v e , life a n d
d e a t h , t o be g o v e r n e d b y a p r o g r a m m e ? W h a t w e m u s t
possess is a t o t a l a w a r e n e s s o f w h a t i t is w e w a n t , a n
a b s o l u t e sense o f t h e f a t h e r l a n d , o f life a n d o f h i s t o r y ;
a n d i t is t h i s t o t a l a w a r e n e s s , b r i g h t i n o u r souls, w h i c h
w i l l t e l l us i n e v e r y s i t u a t i o n w h a t w e m u s t d o a n d w h a t
w e m u s t prefer. I n b e t t e r t i m e s t h e r e w e r e n o t a l l these
s t u d y g r o u p s , a l l these statistics, e l e c t o r a l r o l l s a n d
p r o g r a m m e s . Besides, i f w e h a d a concrete p r o g r a m m e
w e w o u l d be j'ust a n o t h e r p a r t y , a n d w e w o u l d l o o k v e r y
m u c h l i k e t h e c a r t o o n - f i g u r e s t h e y m a k e o f us. T h e y a l l
k n o w that they are l y i n g w h e n they say that we c o p y
I t a l i a n fascism, that we are neither C a t h o l i c n o r S p a n i s h ;
b u t the very people w h o m a k e such accusations are w i t h

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t h e i r left h a n d o r g a n i z i n g a k i n d o f p a r o d y o f o u r m o v e m e n t . T h u s t h e y w i l l h a v e a p a r a d e at t h e E s c o r i a l i f w e
h a v e o n e i n V a l l a d o l i d . A n d i f w e speak o f e t e r n a l S p a i n ,
o f I m p e r i a l S p a i n , t h e y t o o w i l l say t h a t t h e y l o n g f o r t h e
greatness o f S p a i n a n d t h e c o r p o r a t i v e state. T h e s e
m o v e m e n t s c a n be as a l i k e t o o u r s as a p l a t e o f c o l d m e a t
to t h e h o t m e a l o f t h e n i g h t before. F o r i t is p r e c i s e l y its
t e m p e r a t u r e , its s p i r i t , w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s l o n g i n g
o f ours, this u n d e r t a k i n g o f ours. W h a t d o we care a b o u t
t h e c o r p o r a t i v e state, w h a t does i t m a t t e r w h e t h e r t h e
C o r t e s is a b o l i s h e d , i f d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i s m s a r e g o i n g to
c o n t i n u e c h u r n i n g o u t those selfsame c a u t i o u s , p a l e ,
slippery a n d s m i l i n g youths, incapable of being aroused
b y p a t r i o t i c f e r v o u r o r e v e n l e t t h e m say w h a t t h e y w i l l
b y religious fervour ?
B e v e r y careful w h e n it comes to the c o r p o r a t i v e state;
be v e r y c a r e f u l i n y o u r a p p r o a c h t o a l l t h e c o l d t h i n g s
m a n y people w i l l tell y o u w i t h the one a i m o f transforming
us i n t o j u s t a n o t h e r p a r t y . O n e s i m o R e d o n d o has a l r e a d y
w a r n e d us o f t h i s d a n g e r . W e w i l l n o t satisfy o u r a s p i r a t i o n s b y r e a r r a n g i n g t h e state i n s o m e w a y . W h a t w e w a n t
is t o g i v e b a c k t o S p a i n o p t i m i s m , s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , a c l e a r
a n d f o r c e f u l life-style. T h a t is w h y o u r g r o u p is n o t a
p a r t y : i t is a m i l i t i a . T h a t is w h y w e a r e n o t h e r e i n o r d e r
to b e c o m e d e p u t i e s , u n d e r - s e c r e t a r i e s o r m i n i s t e r s , b u t i n
o r d e r to f u l f i l , e a c h i n h i s p l a c e , w h a t e v e r m i s s i o n w e a r e
c o m m a n d e d t o u n d e r t a k e ; a n d t h o u g h w e five a r e n o w
b e h i n d this table, the d a y m a y c o m e w h e n the lowliest
m i l i t a n t m a y b e c a l l e d u p o n to g i v e us o r d e r s a n d w e m a y
be c a l l e d u p o n t o o b e y . W e h a v e n o p e r s o n a l a m b i t i o n s ,
e x c e p t , p e r h a p s , t h e a m b i t i o n to b e i n t h e f o r e f r o n t o f
d a n g e r . A l l w e w a n t is t o see S p a i n b e c o m e o n c e a g a i n
herself, a n d t o s a y w i t h h o n o u r , s o c i a l j u s t i c e , y o u t h f u l n e s s
a n d p a t r i o t i c enthusiasm w h a t this v e r y c i t y o f V a l l a d o l i d
s a i d i n a l e t t e r t o t h e E m p e r o r C h a r l e s V i n 1516:

P R O C L A M A T I O N :

S P A N I S H

F A L A N G E

O F

J . O . N . S .

97

Y o u r H i g h n e s s o u g h t to c o m e a n d t a k e u p i n o n e h a n d
t h a t y o k e b e q u e a t h e d to y o u b y t h e C a t h o H c K i n g ,
y o u r g r a n d f a t h e r , w i t h w h i c h so m a n y m e n o f c o u r a g e
a n d pride have been t a m e d , a n d i n the other h a n d
the arrows o f that i n c o m p a r a b l e Q u e e n , y o u r g r a n d m o t h e r D o h a I s a b e l l a , w i t h w h i c h she r e m o v e d t h e
M o o r s so f a r a w a y .
W e l l , h e r e i n t h i s selfsame c i t y o f V a l l a d o l i d w h i c h
p l e a d e d thus, y o u have the y o k e a n d the a r r o w s : the yoke
o f t o i l a n d the arrows o f authority. T h u s we have come,
b e n e a t h t h e e m b l e m o f t h e y o k e a n d a r r o w s , t o say r i g h t
here, i n V a l l a d o l i d :
' C a s t i l l a , once a g a i n for S p a i n ! '

SOME THOUGHTS ON
NATIONALISM
F r o m Revista J.O.N.S,,

T H E

R O M A N T I C

N o . i 6 , A p r i l 1934

C O N C E P T I O N

O F

T h e r o m a n t i c b e l i e f i n t h e i n t r i n s i c goodness o f m a n w a s
t h e e l d e r sister o f t h e f a i t h i n t h e i n t r i n s i c goodness o f
p e o p l e s . ' M a n is b o r n free a n d finds h i m s e l f e v e r y w h e r e
i n fetters,' s a i d R o u s s e a u . T h e i d e a l w a s , t h e r e f o r e ,
t o g i v e his o r i g i n a l f r e e d o m a n d i n n o c e n c e b a c k t o m a n ,
d i s m a n t l i n g as f a r as p o s s i b l e t h e e n t i r e s o c i a l m e c h a n i s m ,
w h i c h , i n Rousseau's o p i n i o n , h a d been a n agent of
c o r r u p t i o n . Years later, the R o m a n t i c conception o f
n a t i o n h o o d w a s f o r m u l a t e d a l o n g t h e selfsame l i n e s . J u s t
as free a n d g o o d i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e e n c h a i n e d b y society,
so free a n d s p o n t a n e o u s p e o p l e s suffered t h e o p p r e s s i o n o f
h i s t o r i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r e . I t w a s as u r g e n t to l i b e r a t e t h e
p e o p l e s as i t w a s to l i b e r a t e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s .
I f o n e l o o k s at i t c l o s e l y , t h e R o m a n t i c c o n c e p t i o n
t e n d e d t o w a r d s ' d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n ' , t h a t is, t h e e l i m i n a t i o n
o f a l l that h a d been a d d e d (like l a w a n d history) by
h u m a n effort to t h e p r i m a r y entities o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d
the people. L a w m a d e the i n d i v i d u a l a ' p e r s o n ' ; history
m a d e t h e p e o p l e a ' p o l l s ' b y c r e a t i n g t h e state. T h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e p e r s o n is l i k e
that between the people a n d the b o d y p o l i t i c . A c c o r d i n g
t o t h e R o m a n t i c s i t w a s u r g e n t i n b o t h cases to r e t u r n to
t h e p r i m a r y , s p o n t a n e o u s state.

98

S O M E

T H E

T H O U G H T S

I N D I V I D U A L

O N

N A T I O N A L I S M

99

P E R S O N

T h e p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f l a w is t h e o r g a n i c
p l u r a l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e one a n d o n l y i n h a b i t a n t o f
a n i s l a n d has n o t i t u l a r r i g h t s a n d n o l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n s . H i s
a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be l i m i t e d o n l y b y t h e e x t e n t o f h i s o w n
s t r e n g t h , o r a t m o s t b y w h a t e v e r sense o f m o r a l s h e m a y
have. B u t the l a w c a n n o t even be i m a g i n e d u n d e r such
circumstances. T h e l a w always involves the a u t h o r i t y to
m a k e c e r t a i n d e m a n d s : t h e r e c a n o n l y be r i g h t s i f t h e r e
are c o r r e s p o n d i n g o b l i g a t i o n s ; a l l matters relative to the
l a w c o n c e r n b u t the t r a c i n g o f boundaries between the
activities o f t w o o r m o r e people. F o r this reason, w h e r e
t h e r e is l a w t h e r e is c o m m u n i t y l i f e ; t h a t i s , a s y s t e m o f
n o r m s c o n d i t i o n i n g the v i t a l activities o f i n d i v i d u a l s .
H e n c e i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l as s u c h is n o t b y a n y
m e a n s t h e subject o f j u r i d i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; t h e i n d i v i d u a l
is o n l y t h e p h y s i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l ' s u b s t r a t u m ' u p o n
w h i c h t h e l a w c o n s t r u c t s its s y s t e m o f c i r c u m s c r i b e d
r e l a t i o n s . T h e t r u e j u r i d i c a l u n i t is t h e p e r s o n ; t h a t is
to say, t h e i n d i v i d u a l n o t as a l i v i n g r e a l i t y b u t as t h e a c t i v e
o r passive e m b o d i m e n t o f w h a t e v e r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
t h e l a w r e g u l a t e s , as s o m e o n e c a p a b l e o f m a k i n g d e m a n d s ,
of b e i n g o b l i g e d , o f a t t a c k i n g a n d o f transgressing.

B I R T H P L A C E

N A T I O N

L i k e w i s e , t h e p e o p l e i n its s p o n t a n e o u s state is b u t t h e
s u b s t r a t u m o f the b o d y p o l i t i c . F r o m this p o i n t o n it w i l l
b e c l e a r e r t o start u s i n g t h e w o r d ' n a t i o n ' , t a k i n g i t t o
m e a n precisely t h a t : the b o d y p o l i t i c , capable o f h a v i n g
a f u n c t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m i n t h e f o r m o f a state. A n d t h i s
defines t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e p r e s e n t w o r k , n a m e l y t h e
i l l u m i n a t i o n o f the m e a n i n g o f n a t i o n h o o d ; w h e t h e r it
is t h e s p o n t a n e o u s r e a l i t y o f a p e o p l e , as t h e R o m a n t i c
nationalists t h i n k , or rather something unrelated to a n y

1 0 0

P R I M O

R I V E R A

S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

native characteristics. T h e R o m a n t i c s were keen o n a l l

t h i n g s n a t u r a l . T h e i r s l o g a n w a s a ' r e t u r n to n a t u r e ' .
T h u s they i d e n t i f i e d the n a t i o n w i t h 'the b i r t h p l a c e ' .
W h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d a n a t i o n w e r e its e t h n i c , l i n g u i s t i c ,
t o p o g r a p h i c a l a n d c l i m a t i c features. A t m o s t , a c o m m o n
h e r i t a g e o f uses, c u s t o m s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , b u t t a k i n g
t r a d i t i o n to be little more t h a n the m e m o r y o f certain
t h i n g s d o n e o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n a n d n o t as a r e f e r e n c e to
a n y k i n d o f h i s t o r i c a l process s t r e t c h i n g f r o m a p o i n t o f
departure to some possibly unattainable goal.
T h e m o s t p e r n i c i o u s n a t i o n a l i s m s , b e c a u s e t h e y are t h e
m o s t d i s s o l v e n t , a r e those w h i c h t a k e this v i e w o f n a t i o n h o o d . I f o n e a c c e p t s t h a t t h e n a t i o n is a n e x p r e s s i o n o f
the spontaneous, particularistic n a t i o n a l i s m
becomes
u n b e a t a b l e . T h a t is w h y i t is so easy t o b e a l o c a l p a t r i o t .
T h a t is w h y t h e p e o p l e a r e so s w i f t l y a r o u s e d b y t h e j u b i l a n t f r e n z y o f t h e i r songs, t h e i r fairs, t h e i r h o m e l a n d . I n
a l l o f this t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g l i k e a s e n s u a l s u m m o n s , w h i c h
is a p p a r e n t e v e n i n t h e f r a g r a n c e o f t h e s o i l : a p h y s i c a l ,
primitive a n d stirring current, not unlike drunkenness
a n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f p l a n t l i f e w h e n t h e p o l l e n is r i p e .

C L U M S Y

P O L I T I C S

T o such pastoral a n d p r i m a r y elements do the nationalisms

o f the R o m a n t i c type owe their obvious a p p e a l .
N o t h i n g w i l l i r r i t a t e m e n a n d p e o p l e s m o r e t h a n to be
d i s t u r b e d i n t h e i r v e r y b a s i c d r i v e s : h u n g e r a n d sex
appetites o n a l e v e l w i t h the mysterious c a l l o f the l a n d
c a n , i f t h e y a r e t h w a r t e d , u n l e a s h t h e greatest t r a g e d i e s .
T h a t is w h y i t is e x c e e d i n g l y c l u m s y t o t r y a n d c o u n t e r
R o m a n t i c n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h R o m a n t i c n a t i o n a l i s m , to
c o m b a t feelings w i t h feelings. E m o t i o n a l l y , n o t h i n g c a n be
as s t r o n g as l o c a l n a t i o n a l i s m , f o r t h e v e r y r e a s o n t h a t i t
is so p r i m i t i v e a n d w i t h i n t h e g r a s p o f e v e n t h e least
sensitive. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , a n y a t t e m p t to fight i t w i t h

SOME T H O U G H T S ON N A T I O N A L I S M

lOI

sentiment runs the risk o f h u r t i n g the innermost

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e m o s t b a s i c fibres o f t h e p e o p l e ' s
soul a n d o f c h u r n i n g u p v i o l e n t reactions against the v e r y
t h i n g s t r i v i n g t o be l o v e d .
W e have a g o o d e x a m p l e o f this i n S p a i n . L o c a l
n a t i o n a l i s m s h a v e m a d e c l e v e r use o f p r i m a r y f o l k
impulses wherever they have s p r u n g u p : the l a n d , the
m u s i c , the language, a n c i e n t r u r a l customs, the o l d e r
p e o p l e ' s store o f f a m i l y m e m o r i e s . . . I t w a s a l t o g e t h e r
i n e p t t o t r y a n d b r e a k this e x c l u s i v e n a t i o n a l i s m b y
m o c k i n g these i m p u l s e s ; s o m e p e o p l e h a v e f o r i n s t a n c e
r e s o r t e d t o m a k i n g j o k e s a b o u t these v e r y b a s i c f o r m s o f
e x p r e s s i o n , l i k e those w h o h a v e r i d i c u l e d t h e C a t a l a n
l a n g u a g e for its h a r s h n e s s .
I t is i m p o s s i b l e t o i m a g i n e a c o a r s e r p o l i t i c a l a p p r o a c h ;
w h e n o n e offends a g a i n s t o n e o f those p r i m a r y feelings
r o o t e d i n t h e d e p t h s o f a p e o p l e ' s s p o n t a n e i t y , t h e r e is
b o u n d t o be a b a s i c r e a c t i o n o f a n g e r , e v e n a m o n g s t those
w h o least i n c l i n e t o w a r d s n a t i o n a l i s m . T h i s is a l m o s t a
biological phenomenon.
B u t o n l y a l i t t l e s h r e w d e r is t h e a p p r o a c h o f those w h o
h a v e t r i e d t o c o m b a t l o c a l p a t r i o t i s m o n its o w n g r o u n d
b y a t t e m p t i n g m e r e l y to arouse sentiments o f u n i t a r i a n
p a t r i o t i s m . I f y o u p i t feelings a g a i n s t feelings, t h e s i m p l e r
w i l l a l w a y s be t h e s t r o n g e r . I f y o u b r i n g u n i t a r i a n
p a t r i o t i s m d o w n to the l e v e l o f emotions w i t h i n the r e a c h
o f a n a l m o s t p l a n t - l i k e s e n s i t i v i t y , t h a t w h i c h is closest is
b o u n d t o be t h e m o s t i n t e n s e .

D E S T I N Y IN U N I V E R S A L

TERMS

W h a t , t h e n , c a n o n e d o t o r e v i v e t h e p a t r i o t i s m o f the
g r e a t h e t e r o g e n e o u s u n i t s ? N o t h i n g less w i l l d o t h a n a
revision o f the concept o f n a t i o n h o o d , starting out f r o m
d i f f e r e n t p r e m i s e s . A n d i n t h i s c o n t e x t w e c a n be g u i d e d
b y w h a t has been said a b o u t the difference between

I02

PRIMO DE R I V E R A :

SELECTED

WRITINGS

i n d i v i d u a l s a n d p e r s o n s . J u s t as t h e p e r s o n is b u t t h e
i n d i v i d u a l seen i n r e l a t i o n t o s o c i e t y , t h e n a t i o n is t h e
p e o p l e seen i n r e l a t i o n t o u n i v e r s a l i t y .
O n e is n o t a p e r s o n b y r e a s o n o f b e i n g f a i r - h a i r e d o r
dark, t a l l or short, speaking one language or another, but
b y reason o f one's c i r c u m s c r i b e d social relationships. O n e
is o n l y a p e r s o n i n so f a r as o n e is ' a n o t h e r ' ; t h a t is to
say, o n e s e l f i n o p p o s i t i o n to o t h e r s , a p o s s i b l e c r e d i t o r o r
d e b t o r w i t h r e g a r d to others, r i g h t f u l l y i n positions w h i c h
a r e n o t those o f o t h e r s . P e r s o n a l i t y is t h e r e f o r e n o t d e t e r m i n e d f r o m w i t h i n , b y r e a s o n o f a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n o f cells,
but f r o m without, b y reason o f certain relationships.
L i k e w i s e , a p e o p l e is n o t a n a t i o n b e c a u s e o f a n y t h i n g
p h y s i c a l o r a n y l o c a l c o l o u r a n d flavour, b u t b e c a u s e
i t is ' a n o t h e r ' i n u n i v e r s a l t e r m s ; t h a t is t o say, b e c a u s e
its d e s t i n y is n o t t h a t o f o t h e r n a t i o n s . T h u s , n o t e v e r y
people constitutes a n a t i o n , n o r d o a l l groups o f peoples,
b u t o n l y those w h i c h a c c o m p l i s h a s p e c i f i c d e s t i n y i n
universal terms.
H e n c e t h e r e is n o n e e d t o e s t a b l i s h w h e t h e r t h e c h a r a c teristics o f g e o g r a p h i c a l , e t h n i c o r l i n g u i s t i c u n i f o r m i t y
a r e p r e s e n t i n a g i v e n n a t i o n ; a l l t h a t n e e d s t o b e establ i s h e d is w h e t h e r i t does i n d e e d h a v e a u n i q u e h i s t o r i c a l
destiny i n universal terms.
I n classical times people saw this w i t h their usual
p e r s p i c a c i t y . T h i s is w h y t h e y d i d n o t use t h e w o r d s
'fatherland' a n d 'nation' i n their romantic acception or
seek t o a n c h o r p a t r i o t i s m i n a d a r k l o v e o f t h e l a n d . T h e y
p r e f e r r e d expressions l i k e ' t h e e m p i r e ' o r ' t h e k i n g ' s
s e r v i c e ' , t h a t is to say, expressions w i t h h i s t o r i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . T h e v e r y w o r d ' S p a i n ' , w h i c h i n i t s e l f is t h e
e x p r e s s i o n o f a n u n d e r t a k i n g , w i l l a l w a y s be m o r e m e a n i n g ful t h a n the phrase 'the S p a n i s h n a t i o n ' . A n d i n E n g l a n d ,
w h i c h m a y w e l l b e t h e c o u n t r y o f t h e m o s t classic p a t r i o t ism, they not o n l y do not have the w o r d ' f a t h e r l a n d ' , b u t
v e r y few p e o p l e c a n e v e n s e p a r a t e t h e w o r d ' k i n g ' , t h e

SOME T H O U G H T S ON N A T I O N A L I S M

I03

s y m b o l o f h i s t o r i c a l u n i t y , f r o m the w o r d ' c o u n t r y ' , the

t e r r i t o r i a l base o f t h a t s a m e u n i t y .

THE SPONTANEOUS AND T H E DIFFICULT

W e a r e c o m i n g to t h e e n d o f t h e r o a d . O n l y w h e n
n a t i o n a l i s m is c o n s i d e r e d t h u s , c a n t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i n g
effect o f l o c a l n a t i o n a l i s m s be o v e r c o m e . O n e m u s t
r e c o g n i z e a l l t h a t is g e n u i n e i n t h e s e ; b u t o n e m u s t p i t
against t h e m a forceful m o v e m e n t a s p i r i n g to a n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h a m i s s i o n , t o w h i c h t h e f a t h e r l a n d is a u n i t o f
h i s t o r i c d e s t i n y . O b v i o u s l y t h i s k i n d o f p a t r i o t i s m is m o r e
d i f f i c u l t t o f e e l ; b u t i n t h i s d i f f i c u l t y resides its greatness.
A l l h u m a n e x i s t e n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l s , as o f p e o p l e s is
a tragic struggle between the spontaneous a n d the
difficult. Precisely because a p a t r i o t i c a t t a c h m e n t to one's
b i r t h p l a c e is felt w i t h o u t effort a n d e v e n w i t h s w e e t l y
p o i s o n o u s s e n s u a l i t y , i t is a n o b l e h u m a n task t o d i s e n t a n g l e o n e s e l f f r o m i t a n d to a t t a i n i n s t e a d a p a t r i o t i s m
t h a t is i n t e l l i g e n t l y a n d h a r s h l y v i s i o n a r y . W h i l e h i t h e r t o
t h e r e h a v e o n l y b e e n feeble a t t e m p t s m a d e to c o m b a t
R o m a n t i c movements w i t h the weapons o f R o m a n t i c i s m ,
it w i l l be u p to the n e w p a t r i o t i s m to c o n t a i n a n y such
R o m a n t i c inundations w i t h impregnable redoubts
of
classic t e m p e r . T h i s p a t r i o t i s m o w e s its s t r e n g t h to t h e
intellect r a t h e r t h a n to the emotions. I n s t e a d o f b e i n g a
v a g u e f e e l i n g s w a y e d b y a n y w h i m , p a t r i o t i s m m u s t be a
t r u t h as a b s o l u t e as a n y m a t h e m a t i c a l t r u t h .
T h i s c e r t a i n l y does n o t m e a n t h a t p a t r i o t i s m w i l l
become something aridly intellectual. T h e spiritual
p o s i t i o n s thus a t t a i n e d , i n a h e r o i c s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e
s p o n t a n e o u s , a r e t h e v e r y ones w h i c h i n d u e c o u r s e
penetrate most deeply i n t o o u r authentic being. F o r i n stance, the w a y w e love o u r parents once w e h a v e passed
t h e age w h e n w e n e e d t h e m is p r o b a b l y s o m e t h i n g
artificial, the o u t c o m e o f a r u d i m e n t a r y culture's v i c t o r y

I04

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SELECTED WRITINGS

over o r i g i n a l b a r b a r i s m . I n a p u r e l y a n i m a l existence, the

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p a r e n t s a n d o f f s p r i n g ceases as s o o n
as t h e c h i l d r e n c a n l o o k after t h e m s e l v e s . A m o n g m a n y
p r i m i t i v e tribes, c u s t o m authorizes c h i l d r e n to k i l l t h e i r
p a r e n t s o n c e these a r e , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r age, n o m o r e t h a n
a n e c o n o m i c b u r d e n . Y e t , b y n o w , affection for o u r parents
h a s b e c o m e so m u c h a p a r t o f us t h a t i t seems t o us t h e m o s t
s p o n t a n e o u s o f f e e l i n g s . T h i s is b u t o n e o f t h e sweet
r e w a r d s w e get f o r s t r i v i n g t o i m p r o v e o u r s e l v e s : t h o u g h
s o m e b a s i c d e l i g h t s m a y be l o s t , at t h e e n d o f t h e r o a d w e
find others so d e a r a n d i n t e n s e t h a t t h e y e v e n e n c r o a c h
u p o n t h e s p h e r e o f those a n c i e n t feelings w e e d e d o u t w h e n
o u r quest f o r e x c e l l e n c e first b e g a n . T h e h e a r t has its
reasons, w h i c h r e a s o n c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d . B u t t h e i n t e l l e c t ,
t o o , has its o w n w a y o f l o v i n g , a k i n d o f l o v e o f w h i c h t h e
h e a r t m a y be i n c a p a b l e .

M A N I F E S T O
S P A N I S H

T O

T H E

P E O P L E

F r o m F . ' . , N o . 12, A p r i l 26th, 1934

O n c e a g a i n , as so o f t e n i n r e c e n t t i m e s , S p a i n ' s d e s t i n y
h a n g s i n t h e b a l a n c e . I t a l m o s t l o o k s as t h o u g h s o m e k i n d
o f a curse w e r e p r e v e n t i n g o u r c o u n t r y f r o m e v e r b e c o m i n g
a clearly defined a n d established reality, c o n d e m n i n g it
p e r p e t u a l l y t o t h e state o f a r o u g h d r a f t .
W h e n e v e r one thought one caught a glimpse o f the
r e v i v a l o f a c o m m o n n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n , t h i s has b e e n
s w i f t l y f o r e s t a l l e d b y p a r t y strife. T h e last t i m e s o m e t h i n g
o f t h e sort s e e m e d o n t h e c a r d s was A p r i l 14th t h r e e y e a r s
a g o ; at t h a t t i m e m o s t p e o p l e t h o u g h t t h a t , w h i l e w e
w e r e l o s i n g a m i l l e n a r i a n i n s t i t u t i o n (a loss m o u r n e d b y
m a n y ) , we were o n the t h r e s h o l d o f a n era o f j o y f u l
c o l l e c t i v e h o p e . T h e m o v e m e n t o f A p r i l 1 4 t h a p p e a r e d to
be the e m b o d i m e n t o f the two things S p a i n needed most
urgently: a national optimism, which would make all
partake o f a faith i n a c o m m o n destiny, a n d the social
justice that w o u l d rectify the s u b h u m a n l i v i n g conditions
under w h i c h a large proportion of our w o r k i n g people
a r e f o r c e d to v e g e t a t e .
A l l too soon the various governments strayed f r o m the
first o f these p r i n c i p l e s . W h a t c o u l d h a v e b e e n a n a t i o n a l
regime became instead a most disagreeable a n d peevish
s e c t a r i a n r e g i m e . A n d w h e n t h i s p e r i o d f i n a l l y d r e w to a
close, w h e n t h e L e r r o u x g o v e r n m e n t a n d its h e l p e r s o f
t h e R i g h t d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d p u t a s t o p to s e c t a r i a n
p o l i t i c s , t h e y u t t e r l y t h w a r t e d t h e r e p u b l i c ' s o t h e r essential
p r i n c i p l e : that o f social justice. I n the hands o f the
L e r r o u x g o v e r n m e n t , the r e p u b l i c t u r n e d i n t o a bourgeois
105

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regime, the spitting i m a g e o f that w h i c h p r e v a i l e d i n

1921.
I n v a i n t h e S p a n i s h F a l a n g e o f t h e J . O . N . S . has
r e p e a t e d l y r a i s e d its v o i c e a g a i n s t a p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m w h i c h
toys w i t h t h e f a t h e r l a n d ' s fate i n a seesaw q u a d r i l l e o f t h e
Left a n d the R i g h t . I n v a i n we have repeated over a n d
o v e r a g a i n t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t is u n c h a n g i n g a n d
m u s t n o t be l o o k e d a t e i t h e r f r o m t h e R i g h t o r f r o m t h e
L e f t , b u t as a w h o l e . I n s p i t e o f s u c h w a r n i n g s , t h e leftw i n g parties have persisted i n s l a n d e r i n g us; t h o u g h they
k n o w t h e y a r e l y i n g , t h e y h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o insist t h a t w e
a r e t h e c h a m p i o n s o f a c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m w e find l o a t h s o m e ;
w h i l e those o f r i g h t - w i n g p e r s u a s i o n s h a v e p r e f e r r e d t o
h u d d l e a r o u n d l e a d e r s w i t h less t a x i n g p r o g r a m m e s , e v e n
t h o u g h they sacrifice a l l y o u t h f u l , S p a n i s h a n d p r o f o u n d
e m o t i o n t o t h e cosiness o f t h e i r p r o g r a m m e s .
A s u s u a l , t h o s e w h o w e r e t r y i n g t o be c l e v e r h a v e
t u r n e d o u t t o be u t t e r fools. T h a n k s t o a l l t h e p o l i t i c a l
w i s d o m , to t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y g a m e a n d a l l those t h i n g s
i n w h i c h s o m e p e o p l e s t i l l k e e p t r u s t i n g , S p a i n finds
herself i n one o f the most confused situations w i t h i n l i v i n g
m e m o r y : t h e p a r a d o x i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h those w i t h
t h e fewest seats i n t h e C o r t e s h a v e t h e effective p o w e r
t o p a r a l y s e e v e n t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t i e s o f t h e state, w h i l e
t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y m a j o r i t y a n d t h e p a r t i e s best e q u i p p e d
for w i n n i n g elections a n d for o r g a n i z i n g spectacular
strikes are b a c k e d u p b y n o t h i n g b u t w e a k n e s s a n d
despondency.
T h e r e is n o t h i n g i m m e d i a t e t h e S p a n i s h F a l a n g e o f t h e
J . O . N . S . c a n d o i n t h i s c h a o s to w h i c h S p a i n h a s b e e n
r e d u c e d b y the ever m o r e noisome decay o f a p o l i t i c a l
s y s t e m i n its d e a t h - t h r o e s . B u t i n o r d e r t o d i s s o c i a t e
ourselves f r o m i t , a n d c o n v i n c e d as w e a r e t h a t a l l is n o t
lost as y e t , w e d o w a n t to address a d e s p e r a t e a p p e a l t o t h e
Spanish people:

A MANIFESTO TO T H E SPANISH P E O P L E

ID?

Fellow
Spaniards!
Down with the Cortes and shady
politicking. Down with the Left and the Right. Down with
capitalist selfishness and proletarian indiscipline. It is high
time for a strongs united and determined Spain to regain
control of her great destiny. T h a t is w h y w e o f t h e
S p a n i s h F a l a n g e o f t h e J . O . N . S . , w h o w a n t t o see
this d o n e , a p p e a l to a l l o f y o u students, peasants,
workers a n d farmers, a l l o f y o u w h o are y o u n g i n
b o d y a n d s p i r i t to scorn the siren song of hatred
coming from the Left and that of selfishness and sloth
coming from the Right; r a l l y i n s t e a d t o o u r b a n n e r ,
w h i c h is t h e l i b e r a t i n g b a n n e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l
Syndicalist Revolution.

A D D R E S S I N G
A N

C O R T E S :

A S S E S S M E N T O F

D I C T A T O R S H I P
A

T H E

A N D

N A T I O N A L

T H E

T H E
N E E D

F O R

R E V O L U T I O N

J u n e 6 t h , 1934

T h e H o u s e w i l l n o d o u b t be p r e p a r e d f o r t h e f a c t t h a t m y
i n t e r v e n t i o n i n this debate w i l l c o n t r i b u t e n o t h i n g i n
p a r t i c u l a r to its e c o n o m i c aspect. I t w a s o n l y to be
e x p e c t e d t h a t i n t h i s d e b a t e t h e a r g u m e n t w o u l d n o t be
l i m i t e d to a n a n a l y s i s o f S e n o r C a l v o S o t e l o ' s p r o p o s a l s
f o r a r e d u c t i o n o f e x p e n d i t u r e , a n d I w o u l d ask t h e H o u s e
t o b e l i e v e t h a t I c o u l d n o t be m o r e p l e a s e d ; i t w a s to be
expected that the a r g u m e n t w o u l d not be l i m i t e d , either,
to a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p ' s e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s ;
i t w a s to be e x p e c t e d , a n d I w e l c o m e d t h i s m o s t s i n c e r e l y ,
t h a t i n t h e c o u r s e o f this d e b a t e a c o m p l e t e assessment
w o u l d be a t t e m p t e d , a l b e i t b r i e f l y , o f t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p ' s
s i g n i f i c a n c e as a h i s t o r i c a l p h e n o m e n o n a n d as a p o l i t i c a l
p h e n o m e n o n . T h a t is w h y I h a v e felt o b l i g e d , u n d e r t h e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t o ask l e a v e to s p e a k ; n o t , as t h e M i n i s t e r
o f F i n a n c e h a s i n s i n u a t e d , as a d u t i f u l gesture o f filial
p i e t y . I feel s u r e t h a t a l l o f y o u w o u l d respect filial p i e t y
o n m y p a r t , b u t t h e r e is n o e a r t h l y r e a s o n w h y I s h o u l d
ask y o u t o s h a r e i t . T h i s is n o t t h e p l a c e f o r m e t o g i v e
e x p r e s s i o n t o filial p i e t y ; I m u s t speak o u t as a m e m b e r o f
t h e g e n e r a t i o n f a t e d to l i v e after t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p has c o m e
a n d g o n e , a n d w h i c h m u s t , l i k e i t o r n o t , assess t h e h i s t o r i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p h e n o m e n o n o f the d i c t a t o r s h i p w i t h
l u c i d i t y a n d , i f possible, w i t h h i g h historical standards.
S i n c e I a m s p a r i n g y o u t h e n e e d to a c c o r d m e t h e l i c e n c e
108

A N ASSESSMENT OF T H E D I C T A T O R S H I P

I09

d u e to a s o n , I w o u l d ask y o u to d o m e t h e f a v o u r o f
h e a r i n g m e o u t , a n d I m y s e l f s h a l l d o m y best to be at a l l
times rigorously objective.
I d o n o t k n o w w h e t h e r y o u w i l l r e m e m b e r since t h i s
d e b a t e has b e e n g o i n g o n f o r s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e
that I asked for the floor at the v e r y m o m e n t w h e n the
M i n i s t e r o f F i n a n c e , i n his attack o n the dictatorship,
p r o p o u n d e d the theory he considered v a l i d i n p o l i t i c a l l a w ,
n a m e l y t h a t t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p w o u l d h a v e h a d its j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n l a w h a d it fulfilled certain requirements, w h i c h he
then enumerated. A t that m o m e n t I asked h i m . W a s that
stipulated i n the c o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1876? T h e M i n i s t e r o f
F i n a n c e ' s harsh retort was quite out o f p l a c e ; no d o u b t he
t h o u g h t I was deliberately t r y i n g to upset h i m . A n d i n
v i e w o f this a c i d r e m a r k I h a d n o c h o i c e b u t to ask f o r t h e
floor. F o r w h e n I p u t t h a t q u e s t i o n t o t h e M i n i s t e r o f
F i n a n c e , I was not m o v e d b y a n y sentimental i m p u l s e ; I
was s i m p l y h a z a r d i n g a t h e o r y I h a d a l r e a d y p u t f o r w a r d
o n o t h e r o c c a s i o n s o n c e a t least i n r a t h e r s o l e m n
circumstances, d u r i n g the e x a m i n a t i o n o f the dictatorship's r e c o r d i n the Senate. I was p u t t i n g f o r w a r d w h a t I
insist is a r i g o r o u s l y o b j e c t i v e a n d j u r i d i c a l t h e o r y , w h i c h
c a n be s u m m e d u p i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t : n e i t h e r t h e
dictatorship n o r the r e p u b l i c n o r a n y r e v o l u t i o n a r y event
whatsoever c a n be, or ever has been, j u s t i f i e d i n terms o f
the previously existing legality. E v e r y p o l i t i c a l system i n
t h e w o r l d , w i t h o u t a s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n , was b o r n i n o p e n
conflict w i t h the prevalent p o l i t i c a l o r d e r ; for the one
t h i n g n o p o l i t i c a l o r d e r c a n e v e r d o is t o w i l l a n d b e q u e a t h .
F o r example, the S p a n i s h R e p u b l i c , whose l e g i t i m a c y I
d o n o t suppose a n y o n e w i l l q u e s t i o n , w a s b y n o m e a n s t h e
n a t u r a l o u t c o m e o f t h e m u n i c i p a l e l e c t i o n s o f A p r i l 12 t h .
I t w o u l d be a b s u r d t o m a i n t a i n t h a t i t w a s , s i n c e w i t h i n
a n y given j u r i d i c a l framework, no factor not even one
so s o l e m n as s u c h m o r e o r less w e l l - a t t e n d e d m u n i c i p a l
e l e c t i o n s c a n h a v e a n y c o n s e q u e n c e s o t h e r t h a n those

no

PRIMO DE R I V E R A :

SELECTED

WRITINGS

envisaged specifically b y the prevalent legality; a n d i n the

c o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1876, w h i c h w a s i n force a t t h e t i m e , t h e r e
w a s c e r t a i n l y n o m e n t i o n o f a n y t h i n g to t h e effect t h a t
w h e n a r e p u b l i c a n p a r t y or several r e p u b l i c a n parties
emerged victorious i n a m u n i c i p a l election, such a victory
w o u l d a u t h o r i z e t h e m to e s t a b l i s h a r e p u b l i c . T h e r e f o r e ,
w h e n the R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o m m i t t e e declared i n the
Gazette t h a t i t h a d t a k e n p o w e r , t h e g e n t l e m e n w h o m a d e
u p this R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o m m i t t e e s i g n e d t h e i r D e c r e e o f
A p r i l 15th, n o t i n t h e i r c a p a c i t y as d u l y e l e c t e d c o u n c i l l o r s ,
b u t as m e m b e r s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y C o m m i t t e e w h i c h
h a d assumed p o w e r over the S p a n i s h b o d y p o l i t i c b y
r e v o l u t i o n a r y m e a n s as a n e x o r b i t a n t r e s u l t o f s o m e
m u n i c i p a l elections.
T h a t is t h e w a y i t has a l w a y s b e e n w h e n e v e r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state o f affairs has b e e n u n d e r m i n e d , a n d t h e r e f o r e
the dictatorship, w h i c h d i d u n d e r m i n e a constitutional
state o f affairs, h a d n o n e e d t o j u s t i f y i t s e l f o n j u r i d i c a l
g r o u n d s , as t h e M i n i s t e r o f F i n a n c e h a s c l a i m e d . N o t t h a t
t h i s m e a n s a n d n o w w e c o m e t o t h e essence o f m y
a r g u m e n t , i f y o u w i l l b e g o o d e n o u g h to h e a r m e o u t
t h a t i t h a d n o n e e d t o j u s t i f y i t s e l f as a h i s t o r i c a l f a c t a n d
a p o l i t i c a l fact. N o w , every fact o f history, every r e g i m e
i n h i s t o r y , c a n be l o o k e d at i n t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s , a n d this
I b e l i e v e to h a v e e s c a p e d a t t e n t i o n r a t h e r i n t h e c o u r s e o f
t h e p r e s e n t d e b a t e : a n y p e r i o d o f h i s t o r y c a n be l o o k e d
u p o n e i t h e r as a series o f a n e c d o t e s , o f l o c a l i z e d d a t a , o f
i s o l a t e d facts, o r else as a g l o b a l p h e n o m e n o n , f r o m a
g l o b a l p o i n t o f view, i n accordance w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r
d e s t i n y w h i c h a g i v e n h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t sets i t s e l f f r o m t h e
v e r y b e g i n n i n g . T h i s , I feel, has b e e n d i s r e g a r d e d b y a l l
the critics o f the dictatorship we have h e a r d here.
T h e d i c t a t o r s h i p has b e e n s c r u t i n i z e d b y its o p p o n e n t s
i n t h e l i g h t o f d e t a i l ; t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p has b e e n s h r e d d e d
b y its o p p o n e n t s i n t o a n u m b e r o f p e t t y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
e p i s o d e s ; a n d , p r e c i s e l y b y o p t i n g f o r this s p h e r e , t h e

A N

A S S E S S M E N T

O F

T H E

D I C T A T O R S H I P

I I I

c r i t i c s s t o o d to lose o n a l l c o u n t s , f o r i t w a s p r e c i s e l y i n t h e
h o n e s t y a n d e f f i c i e n c y o f its a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h a t t h e
d i c t a t o r s h i p scored over most o f the periods w i t h w h i c h it
c a n b e c o m p a r e d . I feel sure t h a t i f y o u w i l l b u t j o i n m e
for a l i t t l e i n this s c r u t i n y . . . {Senor Prieto Tuero: ' Those
sitting behind you will no doubt answer you on the subject of
its superiority and honesty.') I h o p e t h a t e v e r y b o d y w i l l r e p l y ,
a n d I h o p e t h a t p e r h a p s S e n o r P r i e t o w i l l d o so h i m s e l f .
{Senor Prieto Tuero: 'Maybe, maybe.' Laughter.)
I f o n e takes t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p ' s e v e r y a c t i o n a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n i n d i v i d u a l l y , o n e finds t h a t , l i k e a n y o t h e r
regime, it m a d e a n u m b e r o f mistakes; u n d o u b t e d l y there
w e r e m o m e n t s , as w i t h e v e r y o t h e r r e g i m e , w h e n e v e n t h e
m o s t z e a l o u s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s m a y h a v e f a i l e d to a v o i d
c o m i n g u p w i t h s o m e t h i n g m o r e o r less d i s p u t a b l e . I
challenge anyone to show m e a p e r i o d o f government
l a s t i n g s i x years o f w h i c h t h a t c a n n o t be s a i d . T h a t is
incontestable. V e r y w e l l t h e n ; the d i c t a t o r s h i p increased
the p u b l i c debt, for instance. W e a l l agree o n that b y n o w ,
a n d after h a v i n g l i s t e n e d to t h e p r e s e n t d e b a t e w e a r e
t i r e d o f h e a r i n g a b o u t i t . A n d y e t i t c a n n o t be d e n i e d t h a t
a t o t h e r t i m e s p r e v i o u s l y t h e p u b l i c d e b t h a d also b e e n
i n c r e a s e d , at m o r e o r less t h e s a m e r a t e , b u t w i t h o n e
d i f f e r e n c e : i n t h e p a s t s u c h increases i n t h e p u b l i c d e b t
w e r e u s e d t o d e f r a y t h e c u r r e n t expenses o f r o u t i n e
administration, while the dictatorship d i d tackle certain
projects ( a n d Senor P r i e t o h i m s e l f a d m i t t e d that m u c h
w h e n he spoke one d a y i n this v e r y place a b o u t the
h y d r a u l i c w o r k s i n p r o g r e s s ) , w h i c h m a y c o n c e i v a b l y be
considered to have been over-ambitious, but w h i c h were
most c e r t a i n l y i n t e n d e d to p r o v i d e the S p a n i s h e c o n o m y
w i t h a f a r s t r o n g e r a n d f a r b r o a d e r base. T h a t is o b v i o u s .
I n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e process, t o o , t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p m a d e
w r o n g d e c i s i o n s , b u t those o f y o u w h o , after its d e m i s e ,
t o o k o v e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e S p a n i s h state, c a n not d e n y that the d i c t a t o r s h i p d i d i m p a r t to S p a i n ' s

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a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h i n e r y a degree o f efficiency a n d p r o b i t y u n h e a r d o f before. I d o n ' t k n o w w h e t h e r it was S e n o r

B a r c i a w h o r e c a l l e d s o m e d a y s a g o h o w p r i o r to the
d i c t a t o r s h i p the redoubts o f C a b i n e t ministers a n d the
v a r i o u s c i v i l s e r v i c e d e p a r t m e n t s w e r e t h e refuge o f m a n y
a non-existent functionary, o f m a n y w h o h a d no function
i n t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e e x c e p t to be l i s t e d a m o n g t h e e s t a b l i s h e d
staff. Y o u c a n n o t d e n y t h a t t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p p u t a s t o p
to t h i s f a r c i c a l b u r e a u c r a c y w h e r e i n b a r e f a c e d j o b b e r y
w a s r a m p a n t . {Senor Trabal:
'The
bureaucracy of the
monarchy.)
I f the H o n o u r a b l e M e m b e r w i l l be good
e n o u g h to l i s t e n to w h a t I h a v e to say ... i t seems t o m e
that I a m k e e p i n g this discussion f a i r l y objective.
I was saying that the d i c t a t o r s h i p q u i t e o b v i o u s l y
infused the p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h a n efficiency a n d
p r o b i t y u n h e a r d o f p r i o r to the r e v o l u t i o n a r y event o f
S e p t e m b e r 1 3 t h , 1923. Y o u h a v e p e r s i s t e d i n b e r a t i n g t h e
d i c t a t o r s h i p precisely o n this p o i n t , precisely i n the sphere
o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e t a i l , p r e c i s e l y o n w h a t h a p p e n e d t o be
t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p ' s s t r e n g t h , a n d t h a t is w h y y o u h a v e g o t
y o u r s e l v e s a n d I b e g y o u to h e a r m e o u t , f o r I s h a l l
presently say s o m e t h i n g w h i c h m a y be m o r e agreeable for
y o u t o h e a r t h a t is w h y y o u h a v e g o t y o u r s e l v e s i n t o
t h e d e a d e n d o f t r y i n g to a p p o r t i o n l i a b i l i t y . F o r t w o y e a r s
n o w y o u h a v e h a d t h e files, i n w h i c h y o u e x p e c t e d to
u n e a r t h the greatest m o n s t r o s i t i e s , t h e v i l e s t c o r r u p t i o n , i n
y o u r possession, a n d y o u h a v e n o t m a n a g e d to f i n d a t h i n g ,
y o u h a v e n o t c o m e u p w i t h e v i d e n c e o n w h i c h t o base
legal proceedings against a n y o n e at a l l .
W h a t y o u h a v e m a n a g e d to d o , t h o u g h , is t o m a k e i t
impossible for a n u m b e r o f people, w h o s u p p o r t e d the
d i c t a t o r s h i p i n g o o d f a i t h , w h o h a d g o o d r e a s o n to be
p e r s o n a l l y sensitive t o t h e p a i n y o u h a v e i n f f i c t e d o n t h e
d i c t a t o r s h i p w i t h y o u r often u n f a i r a n d always exaggera t e d c r i t i c i s m , to c o n c e d e t h a t t h e r e m a y be s o m e t h i n g t o
w h a t y o u say. W e a r e a l m o s t p r e p a r e d to d o so n o w at t h i s

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n e c r o l o g i c a l session f o r t h a t is w l i a t a l l o u r l a t e - n i g h t
sittings are t u r n i n g i n t o w h e n w e say to y o u t h a t as s o o n
as y o u w i l l a d m i t t h a t o n t h e w h o l e t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p w a s a
g o v e r n m e n t w h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s efficient a n d h o n e s t ,
as s o o n as y o u w i l l a d m i t t h e t r u t h o f t h a t , a l l o f us
those w h o b e a r a b u r d e n o f filial p i e t y a n d those w h o d o
n o t a l l o f us w h o a r e p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n t h a t has
e n t e r e d p o l i t i c s after t h e y e a r 1930 w i l l g r a n t y o u t h a t as a
p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i m e n t the d i c t a t o r s h i p was a failure.
F o r w h i l e I d i d say t h a t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e c a n n o t
e v e r v i n d i c a t e its l e g i t i m a c y i n t e r m s o f t h e p r e v i o u s
r e g i m e ' s l e g a l i t y , w h i l e I d i d say t h a t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
r e g i m e c a n n e v e r r e l y o n its b i r t h c e r t i f i c a t e to v a l i d a t e
its e x i s t e n c e , I a m b o u n d to g r a n t y o u t h a t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
r e g i m e ' s j u s t i f i c a t i o n m u s t a l w a y s be its r e c o r d , its r e c o r d
as seen i n t h e l i g h t o f h i s t o r y a n d n o t o f a n e c d o t e , its
r e c o r d as i t emerges f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e a i m s
w h i c h t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e i n q u e s t i o n set i t s e l f w h e n
i t first b r o k e w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s s y s t e m a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n i t
left b e h i n d w h e n i t c a m e to t h e e n d o f its c y c l e . A n d t h i s
is w h e r e t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p ' s r e a l f a i l u r e lies. T h e d i c t a t o r s h i p
d i s r u p t e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r p r e v a i l i n g at t h e t i m e
a n d l a u n c h e d t h e f a t h e r l a n d o n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y process,
w h i c h unfortunately it proved incapable of completing.
W h e n t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p m e t its e n d , t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
order, p r a c t i c a l l y u n c h a n g e d except perhaps for the s y m p toms o f anaemia indicative o f an early death, made a
c h e e r f u l c o m e - b a c k w i t h a l l those defects t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p
h a d f o u n d w h e n i t b e g a n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 3 t h , 1923. A n d
this c a m e about, because the dictatorship was e m b o d i e d
a n d y o u c a n see t h a t w h e n I s p e a k o f this p e r i o d i n o u r
h i s t o r y I m a n a g e f a i r l y w e l l to d i s r e g a r d a l l t h e i n d u c e ments of b l o o d relationship by a truly extraordinary
m a n , b y a m a n so e x t r a o r d i n a r y t h a t h a d h e b e e n less so
h e w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a b l e to k e e p a b a l a n c e so
precarious for six l o n g years,
a

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T h e d i c t a t o r s h i p , w h i c h , as I w a s s a y i n g , w a s e m b o d i e d
i n a t r u l y e x t r a o r d i n a r y m a n , a m a n w h o was e n d o w e d
a n d I a m sure that n o one w i l l gainsay t h i s ; n o n e other
t h a n O r t e g a y Gasset has s a i d i t , w h o w a s o n e o f h i s m o s t
tenacious opponents e n d o w e d w i t h a w a r m heart, a
tempered spirit a n d a n extremely l u c i d m i n d , a m a n w h o
h a d a gift o f i n t u i t i o n a n d d i v i n a t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h e l i k e o f w h i c h f e w m e n possess; t h a t d i c t a t o r s h i p
t u r n e d out to have one deficiency, was l a c k i n g the one
t h i n g w i t h o u t w h i c h i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o m a k e a n y r e g i m e
w o r k . T h e dictatorship l a c k e d dialectic elegance.
A t the t i m e , that was entirely excusable.
N o w a d a y s , a n u m b e r o f systems w h i c h h a v e r e a c h e d a
state o f c o n c e p t u a l m a t u r i t y a r e b e i n g t r i e d o u t i n t h e
w o r l d . I n t h e y e a r 1923, n o d o c t r i n e c a p a b l e o f r e p l a c i n g
t h e l i b e r a l , d e m o c r a t i c , b o u r g e o i s d o c t r i n e o f t h e states
t h e n i n existence h a d as y e t b e e n f u l l y e l a b o r a t e d . I f y o u
t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t t h e g e n e r a l o f 1923 c a m e t o p o w e r
o n l y e l e v e n m o n t h s after M u s s o l i n i , i t m a y s e e m a m a z i n g
that he s h o u l d h a v e i n t u i t i v e l y evolved a l l the c o n c e p t u a l
bases o f a s y s t e m , w h e n i n fact i t h a s t a k e n M u s s o l i n i ' s
system ten o r twelve years to p r o d u c e the b i b l i o g r a p h y
w h i c h n o w serves t o j u s t i f y i t a posteriori. G e n e r a l P r i m o d e
R i v e r a h a d n o t h i n g o f t h e sort t o h e l p h i m ; h e h a d to
keep d i v i n i n g the i n t i m a t e r a t i o n a l e o f his every a c t i o n ,
a n d h e d i d e x a c t l y t h a t , m o r e o r less m i r a c u l o u s l y f o r a l l
o f six y e a r s ; b u t u n h a p p i l y , n o r e g i m e c a n m a i n t a i n itself
unless i t m a n a g e s to r e c r u i t t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e y o u n g
g e n e r a t i o n o f its t i m e , a n d i n o r d e r to r e c r u i t a y o u n g
g e n e r a t i o n i t needs t o h i t o n e x a c t l y t h e r i g h t w o r d s , i t
needs to h i t o n exactly the r i g h t f o r m u l a o f c o n c e p t u a l
e x p r e s s i o n . T h i s is w h a t G e n e r a l P r i m o d e R i v e r a f a i l e d
t o a c c o m p l i s h , w h a t i n d e e d c o u l d n o t be a c c o m p l i s h e d at
t h a t t i m e , a n d t h a t is w h y t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s n e v e r u n d e r s t o o d h i m , w h o m i g h t easily h a v e c o m e t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h h i m five y e a r s l a t e r . A n d f o r t h i s b o t h t h e

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intellectuals a n d G e n e r a l P r i m o de R i v e r o are to b l a m e .
Possibly G e n e r a l P r i m o de R i v e r a c o u l d have h a d a
m o r e t i m e l y a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the i n t e l l e c t u a l i d i o m , the
d i a l e c t i c a l i d i o m o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s ; at t h e s a m e t i m e i t is
obvious that the intellectuals, b e i n g intellectuals, were
d u t y b o u n d t o use t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n a l i t t l e m o r e . T h e
i n t e l l e c t u a l s f a i l e d to u n d e r s t a n d h i m a n d t u r n e d t h e i r
backs o n h i m ; together w i t h the intellectuals, the y o u n g
p e o p l e t u r n e d t h e i r b a c k s o n h i m , a n d t h a t is h o w G e n e r a l
P r i m o de R i v e r a f o u n d himself i n that t e r r i b l y tragic
situation I h a v e a l r e a d y described o n other occasions, i n
w h i c h a l m o s t e v e r y o n e w h o e m b a r k s o n a process o f
p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o r a n y process w i t h p r o f o u n d
s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s i n S p a i n finds h i m s e l f . E x c e p t i n g a
small number of loyal a n d intelligent collaborators.
G e n e r a l P r i m o d e R i v e r a w a s n o t u n d e r s t o o d b y those w h o
d o t e d o n h i m a n d d i d n o t e n d e a r h i m s e l f t o those w h o
could have understood h i m .
T h a t is t o say, i f o n l y t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s , w h o h a d l o n g
b e e n h a n k e r i n g after a r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
o f S p a i n f r o m b e l o w o r f r o m above, h a d u n d e r s t o o d the
general, there c o u l d h a v e been a r e v o l u t i o n . B u t they d i d
not u n d e r s t a n d h i m , a n d he was appreciated instead b y
those w h o , for o n e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , h a d n o t t h e slightest
w i s h for a n y k i n d o f r e v o l u t i o n . I a m positive that G e n e r a l
P r i m o de R i v e r a w a s f u l l y a w a r e o f this a n d t h a t t h i s
w a s t h e t r a g e d y t h a t b l i g h t e d t h e last t w o y e a r s o f h i s
d i c t a t o r s h i p . I t w a s his g r e a t a n d h o n o u r a b l e t r a g e d y , so
g e n u i n e a t r a g e d y t h a t , w h e n h e s a w t h a t his w o r k w a s
e s s e n t i a l l y a f a i l u r e , i t cost h i m n o less t h a n his l i f e .
T h e revolution the dictatorship s h o u l d have m a d e

was

this. F o r a l o n g t i m e past S p a i n h a d l e d a d r e a r y life, a

m e a n l i f e , a d o l e f u l life, c a u g h t b e t w e e n t w o
flagstones,
w h i c h h a v e resisted a l l efforts to d e s t r o y t h e m to t h i s d a y :
t h e p r e s s u r e f r o m a b o v e signifies t h e l a c k o f a n y h i s t o r i c a l
a m b i t i o n , t h e l a c k o f a n y h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t ; t h e pressure

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f r o m below, the l a c k o f r e a l social justice. T h e l a c k o f

h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t w e o w e to t h i r t y o r f o r t y y e a r s o f
p e s s i m i s m , to o u r n o t h a v i n g f o u n d a n y t h i n g to b i n d us a l l
t o g e t h e r i n a c o m m o n effort f o r a c o m m o n cause. T h e l a c k
o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e w e o w e to t h e fact t h a t , w h i l e w e h a v e
so f a r b e e n s p a r e d a n d w e s h a l l n o t cease to bless t h e
circumstances a l l the horrors o f large-scale i n d u s t r y , o f
t h e l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r y t h a t has u n l e a s h e d o n e o f t h e
greatest w o r l d crises o f a l l t i m e , w e h a v e to a d m i t t h a t o u r
r u r a l l i f e , life i n o u r s m a l l t o w n s a n d o u r v i l l a g e s , is
a b s o l u t e l y i n h u m a n a n d i n d e f e n s i b l e . T h o u g h S p a i n is
m o r e t h a n l a r g e e n o u g h to s u p p o r t f o r t y m i l l i o n i n habitants, the system, because o f a n a b s u r d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
l a n d ownership a n d an inconceivable backwardness of
i r r i g a t i o n n e t w o r k s , is s u c h t h a t t w o m i l l i o n f a m i l i e s at
least l i v e i n f a r w o r s e c o n d i t i o n s t h a n h o u s e h o l d a n i m a l s
a n d almost t h a n w i l d animals. F o r instance I myself a m
the M e m b e r o f the Cortes for a p a r t o f A n d a l u s i a ; i n the
c o u r s e o f t h e e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n I h a d to g o to a v i l l a g e
called Prado del R e y w i t h m y friend a n d comrade
F r a n c i s c o M o r e n o . W h e n w e a r r i v e d at t h e v i l l a g e , w h e r e
I d o n o t t h i n k a n y o n e h a d ever v e n t u r e d before, n o t e v e n
for the purpose o f canvassing, it was p o u r i n g w i t h r a i n .
T h e streets w e r e m o r e l i k e r a v i n e s , l i n e s w i t h l a i r s f a r
viler t h a n a n y where farmers keep their livestock. W e
f o u n d people there w h o h a d not the vaguest n o t i o n o f
culture, h u m a n companionship, comfort or hygiene.
S i n c e i t was a c o l d d a y , w e w e r e t r a v e l l i n g b y c a r a n d w e
were n a t u r a l l y w e a r i n g o u r overcoats. W h e n we tr i ed out
o u r election p r o p a g a n d a , the people o f P r a d o d e l R e y
c a m e o u t o f t h e i r houses a n d s t a r t e d p e l t i n g us w i t h stones.
I c a n tell y o u that i n the depths o f m y heart I was h o p i n g
that none o f t h e m w o u l d hit me i n the neck; but I c a n tell
y o u also t h a t i n t h e d e p t h s o f m y h e a r t I h a d to a d m i t t h a t ,
c o m i n g as w e d i d i n cars a n d w e a r i n g r e l a t i v e l y p l e a s a n t
o v e r c o a t s , w e w e r e p r o v i d i n g those p e o p l e o f P r a d o d e l

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R e y w i t h e v e r y excuse f o r t h r o w i n g a l l t h e i r stones a t us.

W e l l t h e n , the v e r y fact that there are people i n S p a i n
l i v i n g l i k e t h a t , t h e f a c t t h a t S p a i n has n o h i s t o r i c a l issue
i n t h e w o r l d t o l i v e f o r a n d is s u b j e c t e d t o a s o c i a l s y s t e m
t h a t is t o t a l l y u n j u s t , is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e fact t h a t S p a i n ' s
r e v o l u t i o n is s t i l l o u t s t a n d i n g . A n d s i n c e t h e p e o p l e a r e
i n s t i n c t i v e l y a w a r e o f t h i s , w h e n S e p t e m b e r 1 3 t h , 1923,
c a m e t o pass, t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t those t w o
flagstones,
w h i c h h a v e k e p t t h e l i f e o f S p a i n so d r e a r y , so m e a n , so
d o l e f u l , w e r e f i n a l l y g o i n g t o be s m a s h e d f r o m a b o v e a n d
f r o m b e l o w . T h a t is w h y t h e p e o p l e w e r e o n t h e s i d e o f t h e
r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p e r i m e n t o f S e p t e m b e r 1 3 t h , 1923, a n d
i f the d i c t a t o r s h i p f a i l e d , i t f a i l e d n o t because i t h a n d l e d
t h e affairs o f state i n e f f i c i e n t l y , n o t b e c a u s e i t g a v e s h e l t e r
to some dishonest d e a l or other; w i t h tragic grandeur,
i t f a i l e d a n d y o u c a n see t h a t w e a r e a b l e t o say this
w i t h o u t offending e a c h other i n a n y w a y because i t
f a i l e d t o f u l f i l its r e v o l u t i o n a r y m i s s i o n .
See h o w I l e a v e t o o n e s i d e a l l p e r s o n a l feelings a n d
divest myself o f a l l passion, however understandable, i n
o r d e r t o l o o k at t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e
d i c t a t o r s h i p f r o m this p o i n t o f v i e w .
But y o u w i l l readily understand that m y disquisition
w o u l d serve n o p u r p o s e i f I c o n f i n e d m y s e l f t o a m o r e o r
less l i t e r a r y essay o n a h i s t o r i c a l process l o n g past. I f these
d e b a t e s a r e o f a n y use a t a l l , t h e y are u s e f u l i n so f a r as t h e y
h o l d lessons f o r w h a t c a m e after, a n d I b e l i e v e i t t o be
r a t h e r u s e f u l t o h e e d these lessons a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ,
w h e n w e c a n see t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f A p r i l 1 4 t h , 1931,
s h u n t i n g i t s e l f o n t o t h e s a m e s i d i n g as t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f
S e p t e m b e r 1 3 t h , 1923. {Senor Trabal: 'Where is the man
responsible for the

siding?')

*
O n A p r i l 1 4 t h , 1931, w e s a w a p h e n o m e n o n o f p o p u l a r
r e j o i c i n g s i m i l a r t o tlie o n e t h a t o c c u r r e d o n S e p t e m b e r

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1 3 t h , 1923. O n A p r i l 1 4 t h , 1931, a m i l l e n a r i a n i n s t i t u t i o n
c o l l a p s e d ; I feel s u r e t h a t a l l o f y o u m u s t respect those
w h o s e h e a r t s w e r e filled w i t h p a i n f u l s o r r o w o n t h a t
occasion at the sight o f the d o w n f a l l o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n that
h a d lasted m a n y centuries a n d that h a d m a n y times
afforded S p a i n m o m e n t s o f g l o r y . B u t aside f r o m this,
a s i d e f r o m this p a i n w h i c h set a f e w a p a r t f r o m t h e j o y
o f t h e m a j o r i t y , A p r i l 1 4 t h flooded S p a i n w i t h t h e s a m e
k i n d o f j o y as t h a t s p a r k e d off" b y S e p t e m b e r 13th, 1923.
{Murmurings.
Several Honourable
Members
make remarks
which cannot be heard.) T h o s e i n t e r r u p t i n g m e s e e m a l l t o o
e a g e r to d i s p u t e a q u a n t i t a t i v e assessment, w h e n i n fact I
a m m a k i n g a q u a l i t a t i v e assessment, w h i c h is w h y I a m
s p e a k i n g o f t h e s a m e k i n d o f j o y . F o r w h a t m a d e those w h o
w e r e h a p p y at t h a t t i m e so h a p p y w a s t h e h o p e t h a t w e
w e r e o n c e a g a i n p u t t i n g ourselves i n a p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e
flagstone
of a want of ambition a n d historical purpose
w o u l d b e b r o k e n f r o m a b o v e a n d t h e flagstone o f a w a n t
o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e w o u l d be b r o k e n f r o m b e l o w . W i t h r e g a r d
t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l aspect, t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f A p r i l 1 4 t h
seemed to h o l d out the promise that S p a i n w o u l d be given
b a c k a c o m m o n p u r p o s e a n d a c o m m o n m i s s i o n . I t is n o t ,
i n f a c t , so s i m p l e t o g l e a n w h a t e x a c t l y t h i s m i s s i o n w a s ;
b u t the r e v o l u t i o n o f A p r i l 14th was l u c k y e n o u g h to h a v e
a g o o d t u n e . S e n o r G i l R o b l e s believes t h a t p o l i t i c a l
m o v e m e n t s d o n o t n e e d a g o o d t u n e . B u t t h e r e has n e v e r
been a n interesting political movement without a good
t u n e , a n d the r e v o l u t i o n o f A p r i l 14th h a d one, a p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d o n e . . . [Senor Trabal: 'The Riego Anthem.'

Laughter.) N o t t h e R i e g o A n t h e m , b u t t h e s p l e n d i d t u n e
contained p r i m a r i l y i n the m e m o r a b l e manifesto p e n n e d
b y O r t e g a y G a s s e t , M a r a i i o n a n d P^rez d e A y a l a . T h a t
m a n i f e s t o , w r i t t e n i n t h e v e r y finest p r o s e o f those masters
o f prose, spoke o f m o v i n g full steam ahead o n a n e w
c o u r s e , o f a l l o f us g e t t i n g t o g e t h e r o n a n e w , u n b l e m i s h e d
and enviable undertaking.

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T h a t is w h a t i t s a i d , m o r e o r less, b e c a u s e I a m q u o t i n g f r o m m e m o r y . {Senor Teodomiro Menendez:

'Musically
speaking it was quite a street band, make no mistake!'

Laughter.) I d o n o t k n o w w h a t i t w a s ' m u s i c a l l y s p e a k i n g ' ;

but, g i v e n o u r h o p e that a n e w course h a d r e a l l y been
f o u n d a t t r a c t i v e e n o u g h to m a k e a l l o f us g o o n b o a r d
s h i p t o g e t h e r , i t was t h a t t u n e w h i c h c o n v i n c e d m o s t o f us
w h o went to the polls o n A p r i l 12th. A n d then, w i t h
r e g a r d to the social b a c k g r o u n d , the r e v o l u t i o n o f A p r i l
1 4 t h b r o u g h t its m o s t p r o f o u n d a n d m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g
c o n t r i b u t i o n n o t h i n g less t h a n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e
socialists i n t o a g o v e r n m e n t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y p r o l e t a r i a n .
T h i s was i n d e e d a fascinating p r o p o s i t i o n ; for once the
socialists s t o p p e d b e i n g a class m o v e m e n t , a n e x c l u s i v e l y
proletarian movement, a n d signed u p i n a movement that
h a d w e l l a n d t r u l y a n a t i o n a l l o o k a b o u t it. I t was to be
h o p e d a n d p r o b a b l y this was the instinctive j u s t i f i c a t i o n for a l l the r e j o i c i n g o n A p r i l 14th that w i t h the
c o - o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l i s t s , r e l e a s e d a t last f r o m n a r r o w
class interests, t h e i m p e t u s , t h e sense o f p u r p o s e , t h e
n a t i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y w e h a d so l o n g b e e n l a c k i n g , m i g h t
be r e c o v e r e d o n c e m o r e .
A l a s , t h e p r o m i s e s o f A p r i l 1 4 t h h a v e r e m a i n e d as
u n f u l f i l l e d as e v e r those o f S e p t e m b e r 13th. A n d t h e b l a m e
f o r t h i s m u s t g o , i n i t i a l l y , to t h e first r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t s ; f o r these g o v e r n m e n t s h a d a s p l e n d i d o p p o r t u n i t y
i n t h e i r g r a s p t o m a k e a r e a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d t o d o so
without arousing animosity; they c o u l d have made a
r e v o l u t i o n for everyone, the r e v o l u t i o n everyone was
needing. Instead, nobody knows w h y (and none of y o u
w i l l be a b l e to refute t h i s ) , t h e y chose to w h i l e a w a y t h e
t i m e t o y i n g w i t h w h a t a m o u n t s t o a caste l e g i s l a t i o n a n d
p r e p a r i n g p e t t y t r i a l s , w h e n n o t h i n g erodes a r e g i m e q u i t e
as m u c h as a n y a t t e m p t t o e l u c i d a t e t h e l i a b i l i t i e s o f
previous regimes; they a m u s e d themselves s e a r c h i n g for
a l l t h e s m a l l t h i n g s l i k e l y to d i v i d e a p e o p l e r a r e l y so u n i t e d

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as o n t h a t A p r i l 1 4 t h , 1931, w h e n v e r y f e w i n d e e d a b stained f r o m the general rejoicing.

B u t i t so h a p p e n s t h a t , after t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , w h e n i t
l o o k e d as t h o u g h p e o p l e w e r e r e f r a i n i n g f r o m t h r o w i n g
t h e r e p u b l i c ' s n a t i o n a l s p i r i t o u t o f t h e w i n d o w as t h e y
h a d been d o i n g , w h e n w e h a d got past the t i m e w h e n the
r e p u b l i c d i d a l l i t c o u l d to s e e m a n t i - n a t i o n a l , w e n o w
h a v e a r e p u b l i c w h i c h , j u s t as i t stops s e e t h i n g w i t h
r e s e n t m e n t , t h r o w s o u t o f t h e w i n d o w t h e o t h e r h a l f o f its
c o n t e n t , a l l t h e s o c i a l c o n t e n t w h i c h s e e m e d to j u s t i f y its
e x i s t e n c e . B e c a u s e i t so h a p p e n s t h a t y o u h a v e n o w
d e c i d e d to d o w i t h o u t t h e socialists a n d a r e r e p e a l i n g a
n u m b e r of social laws, w h i c h m a y have been good or m a y
have been b a d , without i n any w a y replacing t h e m w i t h
n e w ones. A t this v e r y m o m e n t y o u a r e u p h o l d i n g t h e
p r i n c i p l e o f a u t h o r i t y at a n y cost, y o u a r e g i v i n g s o c i a l i s t
t o w n c o u n c i l s t h e sack, o f t e n w i t h g o o d r e a s o n ; b u t at this
v e r y m o m e n t t h e r e p u b l i c is b e i n g g o v e r n e d i n e x a c t l y
t h e s a m e c o n s e r v a t i v e v e i n as i n t h e y e a r 1921. Y o u w i l l
r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t I m y s e l f h a v e n o t t h e slightest
c a u s e t o w a n t t o see a r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e streets; I d o n o t
t h i n k t h a t t h e r e is a n y n e e d f o r us w h a t s o e v e r to o r g a n i z e
a n y street r i o t s ; b u t i t seems t o m e t h a t i f t h e r e p u b l i c
fails to i m p l e m e n t t h e s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n i t h a d p r o m i s e d ,
i f t h e s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n is n o t i m p l e m e n t e d c a l m l y a n d
s e r e n e l y b y those i n g o v e r n m e n t , t h e r e c a n b e n o t t h e
slightest j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i n s o f g o v e r n m e n t are at this t i m e i n the hands o f the r e p u b l i c .
I f y o u d i s a g r e e , t e l l m e w h e t h e r y o u c a n see m u c h o f
a d i f f e r e n c e w i t h d u e respect to t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d ,
m o s t o f w h o m a r e as i r r e p r o a c h a b l e as w e r e those o t h e r s
b e t w e e n a l l these c o n s e r v a t i v e e l e m e n t s , w i t h t h e i r
exquisite manners a n d infinitely peaceable intentions, w h o
s u p p o r t the present g o v e r n m e n t o f the r e p u b l i c , a n d the
P a t r i o t i c U n i o n w h i c h s u p p o r t e d the g o v e r n m e n t o f the
dictatorship.
{Murmurings.)

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{The Speaker: 'We are duty bound to warn Senor Primo de

Rivera that this session cannot be extended and must end at
quarter to one.')
W i t h t h e five m i n u t e s left to m e a n d a n o t h e r t h r e e w h i c h
t h e S p e a k e r w i l l g i v e m e as a p r e s e n t , I h o p e t o c o m e to t h e
e n d o f m y speech.
I d o w a n t t o say a l l t h i s , a n d I a m d e l i g h t e d t o see t h a t
m y w o r d s , instead o f r a i s i n g the temperature, have spread
a c e r t a i n g o o d w i l l a b r o a d . I h a d to say a l l this i n o r d e r to
ask y o u to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i f y o u n g p e o p l e a r e at p r e s e n t
out o f t o u c h w i t h the r u l i n g parties a n d the o p p o s i t i o n
p a r t i e s , i t is n o t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i t c h i n g t o p l a y at b e i n g
f a s c i s t s - a b o u t - t o w n . N o t h i n g c o u l d be f u r t h e r f r o m o u r
m i n d s . I f o n e has r e a c h e d , as I h a v e d o n e , a p o l i t i c a l
p o s i t i o n at t h e e n d o f a r o a d as d r a m a t i c as t h e o n e I
h a v e h a d t o t r a v e l , w h e r e I h a v e h a d to suflfer m u c h i n
m y i n n e r m o s t b e i n g , o n e does n o t step i n t o t h e o u t s i d e
w o r l d , o n e does n o t g i v e u p one's p e a c e a n d q u i e t , one's
p r o f e s s i o n , one's n o r m a l w a y o f l i f e , t h e c h a n c e t o c u l t i v a t e
one's m i n d , t h e c h a n c e to l i v e f a r f r o m t h e noise a n d
b u s t l e i n t h a t s i l e n c e w h i c h a l o n e c a n g i v e rise to t h e m o s t
f r u i t f u l w o r k , o n e does n o t g i v e u p a l l t h a t , I say, f o r t h e
p l e a s u r e o f r a i s i n g one's a r m to s a l u t e a n d t o a n n o y t h e
H o n o u r a b l e M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r , w h o fines o n e f r o m
t i m e t o t i m e . T h a t is n o t w h y . W e b e h a v e t h e w a y w e d o
because o u r generation, w h i c h m a y still have some t h i r t y
o r f o r t y years to l i v e , refuses to be r e s i g n e d to l i v i n g y e t
a g a i n w i t h i n the n a r r o w confines i m p o s e d b y a l a c k o f
historical purpose o n the one h a n d a n d a lack of social
j u s t i c e o n t h e o t h e r . O n c e a g a i n these a r e t w o c l e a r l y
s e p a r a t e m i s s i o n s . W e h a v e a g o v e r n m e n t t h a t does n o t
b e a r a n y g r u d g e , b u t w h i c h is n o t r e v o l u t i o n a r y e i t h e r ;
a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d w e h a v e y o u socialists s u b m e r g e d
o n c e a g a i n i n t h e class s t r u g g l e a n d d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m t h e
n a t i o n a l m i s s i o n w h i c h y o u h a d at o n e t i m e t a k e n as y o u r
own.

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N o t l o n g a g o , D o n F e r n a n d o d e los Ri'os w a s s p e a k i n g
here a b o u t the works o f the S p a n i s h M i s s i o n s [in the N e w
W o r l d ] ; a l i t t l e l a t e r h e s p o k e to m e i n the c o r r i d o r s a b o u t
the emotions w i t h w h i c h i n A m e r i c a he h a d f o l l o w e d the
traces o f t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u i s t a d o r s ; a n d I s a i d to D o n
F e r n a n d o d e los R i o s : T h e d a y y o u a p p l y these t h i n g s y o u
a r e t e l l i n g us, this S p a n i s h e m o t i o n y o u p u t i n t o y o u r
w o r d s w h e n y o u address us, t o t h e t r a d e u n i o n s , n o o n e
w i l l dare a n y longer to stand i n the w a y o f the Socialist
P a r t y ; for i f the Socialist P a r t y makes enemies for itself
a n d m a y d o so m o r e a n d m o r e e v e r y d a y , since t h e
S o c i a l i s t Y o u t h o r g a n i z a t i o n is m o v i n g a w a y f r o m this
n a t i o n a l s p i r i t , i t is b e c a u s e t h e S o c i a l i s t P a r t y w i l l insist
o n tarting itself u p w i t h a n anti-national interpretation
w h i c h is c o l d l y i r r e l e v a n t to S p a n i s h life. I f t h e S o c i a l i s t
P a r t y one d a y p l e d g e d itself to a n a t i o n a l destiny, a n d ,
e q u a l l y , i f t h e r e p u b l i c , w i t h its n a t i o n a l p r e t e n s i o n s , o n e
d a y a c q u i r e d socialist substance, that d a y we w o u l d n o
l o n g e r h a v e to go a b o u t s a l u t i n g w i t h o n e a r m r a i s e d h i g h ,
n e i t h e r w o u l d w e h a v e to l a y ourselves o p e n a n y l o n g e r to
b e i n g s t o n e d o r , w h a t is w o r s e , to b e i n g m i s u n d e r s t o o d ;
t h a t d a y , t h e d a y S p a i n r e c o v e r e d its m i s s i o n c o n s i s t i n g
o f these t w o t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , m o s t o f us w o u l d , b e l i e v e m e ,
go b a c k q u i e t l y to o u r v a r i o u s professions.
A n d i f this n o c t u r n a l session, this n e c r o l o g i c a l session
as I c a l l e d i t e a r l i e r i f this d e b a t e , d u r i n g w h i c h I h a v e
h a d to l i s t e n t o s o m e s o r r y t h i n g s n o t m a n y , t h o u g h ,
s i n c e y o u h a v e b e e n t a c t f u l e n o u g h to steer c l e a r o f t h e m
m o s t o f t h e t i m e i f this d e b a t e w o u l d o n l y p e r s u a d e us
t o t h i n k o f t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d its w o r k s as o f s o m e t h i n g
t h a t is settled o n c e a n d f o r a l l , t h a t is c a n c e l l e d respectfully, historically, objectively, w i t h due acknowledgment
o f services r e n d e r e d , w i t h d u e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a l l its
uprightness, w i t h due acknowledgment o f the a d m i r a b l e
self-sacrifice o f h i m w h o w a s its i n c a r n a t i o n , a n d i f i t
w o u l d o n l y p e r s u a d e us to m a k e c o m m o n cause, r a t h e r

A N

A S S E S S M E N T

O F

T H E

D I C T A T O R S H I P

I23

t h a n to k e e p s n i p i n g at e a c h o t h e r , w i t h a w i l l to a c h i e v i n g
together something utterly S p a n i s h a n d p r o f o u n d l y social,
then I promise y o u not on m y o w n behalf w h i c h matters
least o f a l l , b u t o n b e h a l f o f h i m w h o c a n n o l o n g e r s p e a k
b u t w h o w o u l d h a v e felt j u s t t h e s a m e I w o u l d h o l d a l l
t h e u n f a i r n e s s a n d a l l t h e bitterness t o be h a p p i l y t h i n g s
o f t h e past. {Hear! Hear! Applause.)

LETTER TO GENERAL

FRANCO

M a d r i d , S e p t e m b e r 2 4 t h , 1934
D e a r G e n e r a l , These moments I spend w r i t i n g to y o u m a y
w e l l be the last c h a n c e we h a v e o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h
e a c h o t h e r ; m y last c h a n c e t o serve S p a i n b y w r i t i n g t o
y o u . T h i s is w h y I d o n o t h e s i t a t e t o t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y ,
t h o u g h at first s i g h t i t m a y s e e m i m p e r t i n e n t o f m e . I feel
sure t h a t at t h i s p e r i l o u s t i m e y o u w i l l g l e a n f r o m t h e v e r y
first l i n e s t h e t r u e m e a n i n g o f m y p u r p o s e a n d w i l l n o t
find i t d i f f i c u l t to f o r g i v e m y t a k i n g t h i s l i b e r t y .
T h e i d e a c a m e to m e , m o r e o r less v a g u e l y , as I w a s t a l k i n g a few days ago w i t h the M i n i s t e r o f the I n t e r i o r . Y o u
k n o w , o f c o u r s e , w h a t is a f o o t : n o t o n e o f those r i o t o u s
u p r i s i n g s i n t h e streets, w h i c h t h e c i v i l g u a r d has a l w a y s
p u t d o w n w i t h ease, b u t a m a s t e r l y c o u p a l o n g t h e l i n e s
l a i d d o w n b y T r o t s k y , w h i c h m a y c o n c e i v a b l y be l e d b y
T r o t s k y h i m s e l f (there is g o o d r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t he
m a y be i n S p a i n ) . T h e arms raids have revealed two
t h i n g s : o n the one h a n d , evidence that there are some r e a l
a r m o u r i e s a b o u t ; o n the other, the l u d i c r o u s insignificance
o f the a c t u a l hauls o f arms. I n other words, the a r m o u r i e s
are still in existence. T h e y c o n t a i n first-rate w e a p o n s , m a n y
o f t h e m o f b e t t e r q u a l i t y t h a n those i s s u e d to t h e r e g u l a r
a r m y . A n d these w e a p o n s w i l l be i n e x p e r t h a n d s ; w h i l e
the orders the handlers obey w i l l i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d be v e r y
c o m p e t e n t l y g i v e n . A l l this a g a i n s t a b a c k c l o t h o f r a m p a n t
s o c i a l i n d i s c i p l i n e ( y o u w i l l h a v e seen t h e l i t e r a r y a b a n d o n
o f t h e w o r k i n g - c l a s s press), o f c o m m u n i s t p r o p a g a n d a i n
t h e b a r r a c k s a n d e v e n i n t h e c i v i l g u a r d , w i t h t h e state
t o t a l l y d i v e s t e d o f a n y p r o f o u n d a n d r e s p o n s i b l e sense o f
a u t h o r i t y . ( O n e c a n n o t possibly mistake the M i n i s t e r
124

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T O

G E N E R A L

F R A N C O

125

o f the Interior's frivolous chatter a n d the t i m i d halfm e a s u r e s h e o r d e r s t h e p o l i c e to t a k e f o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s

o f a u t h o r i t y . ) A p p a r e n t l y t h e g o v e r n m e n t is d e c i d e d n o t to
s e n d t r o o p s i n t o t h e streets i n t h e e v e n t o f a r e b e l l i o n . T h a t
leaves i t w i t h o n l y t h e c i v i l g u a r d a n d the assault g u a r d .
B u t , h o w e v e r s p l e n d i d these forces a r e , t h e y a r e g r o s s l y
o v e r s t r e t c h e d as t h e y h a v e to c o v e r t h e w h o l e o f S p a i n ,
a n d they are i n the disadvantageous p o s i t i o n o f h a v i n g
r e l i n q u i s h e d t h e i n i t i a t i v e , so t h a t t h e y m u s t a w a i t t h e
assault at s o m e p o i n t o f t h e e n e m y ' s c h o i c e . Is i t u n t h i n k a b l e t h a t at a g i v e n p o i n t t h e b a n d o f a t t a c k e r s m i g h t
o u t n u m b e r t h e forces o f o r d e r a n d be b e t t e r a r m e d t h a n
t h e y ? I t seems to m e t h a t this is b y n o m e a n s a n i m p o s s i bility. Therefore, persuaded that it was m y d u t y , I app r o a c h e d the M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r w i t h t h e offer to p u t
u n i t s o f o u r b o y s at h i s d i s p o s a l , i n case h e m i g h t i n a n
e m e r g e n c y w a n t to issue t h e m w i t h g u n s ( w h i c h t h e y
w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , be h o n o u r b o u n d t o r e t u r n f o r t h w i t h )
a n d use t h e m as a u x i l i a r i e s . I a m n o t s u r e t h a t t h e
M i n i s t e r e v e n g r a s p e d w h a t I was s a y i n g . H e w a s as
o p t i m i s t i c as e v e r ; b u t h i s was n o t t h e o p t i m i s m o f o n e
w h o l u c i d l y evaluates the strength o f each side a n d k n o w s
t h a t his o w n forces a r e s u p e r i o r ; r a t h e r , i t w a s t h e
o p t i m i s m o f one w h o has never even stopped to consider
the matter. Believe me, w h e n I said to h i m w h a t I have
s a i d to y o u , a n d m o r e , a b o u t t h e d a n g e r s a h e a d , his f a c e
e x p r e s s e d t h e s u r p r i s e o f s o m e o n e w h o t h i n k s o f these
t h i n g s f o r t h e v e r y first t i m e .
I t is n o t t h a t m y r e s o l v e to go out into the street with a gun
in defence of Spain h a d w a n e d b y t h e e n d o f t h i s m e e t i n g ;
b u t t h a t r e s o l v e is n o w a c c o m p a n i e d b y w h a t a m o u n t s to
t h e c e r t a i n t y t h a t those o f us w h o w o u l d get i n v o l v e d
c o u l d b u t h o n o u r a b l y s h a r e i n a defeat. C o m p a r e d w i t h
those i n t e n t o n a t t a c k i n g t h e S p a n i s h state, w h o a r e
p r o b a b l y c a l c u l a t i n g a n d c o m p e t e n t , t h e S p a n i s h state,
r u n as i t is b y a m a t e u r s , s i m p l y does not exist.

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P R I M O

D E

R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

C o u l d a s o c i a l i s t v i c t o r y be c o n s i d e r e d a m e r e p e r i p e t e i a
o f h o m e politics ? O n l y the most superficial analysis w o u l d
see m a t t e r s i n t h i s l i g h t . A s o c i a l i s t v i c t o r y has t h e s i g n i ficance o f 3, foreign invasion; n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e essence o f
s o c i a l i s m is a l t o g e t h e r a l i e n t o t h e p e r m a n e n t s p i r i t o f
S p a i n ; not o n l y because the i d e a o f the f a t h e r l a n d meets
w i t h d i s d a i n i n a socialist regime, b u t because socialism
does a c t u a l l y r e c e i v e its i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l .
A n y n a t i o n w o n o v e r t o s o c i a l i s m i m m e d i a t e l y sinks to t h e
rank of a colony or protectorate.
B u t q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h a t , t h e r e is o n e d e c i s i v e e l e m e n t
i n t h e i m p e n d i n g d a n g e r w h i c h l i k e n s i t t o a w a r across
f r o n t i e r s , a n d i t is t h i s : a s o c i a l i s t u p r i s i n g is b o u n d t o be
a c c o m p a n i e d b y a probably irreversible secession o f C a t a l o n i a . T h e S p a n i s h state h a s s u r r e n d e r e d a l m o s t a l l t h e
i n s t r u m e n t s o f defence to t h e G e n e r a l i d a d a n d left i t free
t o p r e p a r e those o f a t t a c k . I t is w e l l k n o w n t h a t s o c i a l i s m
a n d t h e G e n e r a l i d a d are i n c o l l u s i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r .
T h u s , i n C a t a l o n i a the r e v o l u t i o n w i l l not need to take
p o w e r : it already has power. A n d i n t h e first i n s t a n c e , i t
m e a n s t o use t h i s p o w e r to p r o c l a i m t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f
C a t a l o n i a . W h i c h w i l l be i r r e v e r s i b l e , for t h e reasons I
s h a l l set o u t p r e s e n t l y . I r e a l i z e t h a t , b a r r i n g a t o t a l
c a t a s t r o p h e , t h e S p a n i s h state c o u l d r e t a k e t h e t e r r i t o r y
o f C a t a l o n i a b y f o r c e . B u t t h i s b r i n g s us t o t h e m o s t
f a n t a s t i c p a r t : i t is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e e v e r c a u t i o u s G e n e r a l i d a d w o u l d n o t h a v e got i n v o l v e d i n a n y p r o j e c t o f
r e v o l u t i o n w i t h o u t first h a v i n g sent o u t feelers a b r o a d . Its
connections w i t h a c e r t a i n n e i g h b o u r i n g p o w e r are w e l l
k n o w n . S o i t is b y n o m e a n s u n l i k e l y , r a t h e r t h e c o n t r a r y ,
that i f an independent R e p u b l i c of C a t a l o n i a were
p r o c l a i m e d , some other c o u n t r y m i g h t recognize the n e w
r e p u b l i c . A n d i f t h a t is t h e case, h o w c o u l d C a t a l o n i a be
r e c o v e r e d ? A n i n v a s i o n w o u l d be t a k e n b y t h e rest o f
E u r o p e as a n a c t o f a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t a p e o p l e w h o h a d
o p t e d f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e b y a n act o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n .

LETTER

TO

GENERAL

FRANCO

127

S p a i n w o u l d not o n l y have C a t a l o n i a against her, but a l l

t h e H i s p a n o p h o b i a o f the E u r o p e a n p o w e r s .
A l l these g l o o m y p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h e n o r m a l d i s c h a r g e o f
a b s u r d , c h a o t i c a n d d e p r e s s i n g t i m e s , w h e n S p a i n has lost
a l l sense o f h i s t o r i c d e s t i n y a n d has s t o p p e d c a r i n g , h a v e
p r o m p t e d m e to b r e a c h m y previous silence w i t h r e g a r d to
y o u r s e l f b y m e a n s o f this l o n g l e t t e r . S u r e l y y o u m u s t h a v e
g i v e n s o m e t h o u g h t to t h e p r o b l e m , w h e t h e r t h e p r e s e n t
d a n g e r s a r e c o n f i n e d to the S p a n i s h h o m e f r o n t o r w h e t h e r
they have already taken o n the proportions o f a n e x t e r n a l
t h r e a t , i n t h a t t h e y c o m p r o m i s e t h e s u r v i v a l o f S p a i n as a
u n i f i e d w h o l e . I a m w r i t i n g to y o u j u s t i n case m y a r g u m e n t s m i g h t be o f use to y o u i n y o u r m e d i t a t i o n s o n t h i s
subject. T h o u g h I h a v e m y o w n i d e a s a b o u t w h a t S p a i n
r e a l l y n e e d s a n d t h o u g h I h a d h o p e d to see a process o f
g r a d u a l r i p e n i n g , I n o w believe, faced w i t h a situation
w h i c h brooks no postponement, that I a m d o i n g m y d u t y
b y s e n d i n g y o u these l i n e s . P l e a s e G o d t h a t w e a l l d o t h e
r i g h t t h i n g i n the service o f S p a i n .
Y o u r s most sincerely.
Signed: J O S E

ANTONIO PRIMO

DE

RIVERA

MANIFESTO TO THE MEMBERSHIP

OF T H E SPANISH F A L A N G E OF
THE J.O.N.S.
M a d r i d , O c t o b e r 13th, 1934
N o w that we have done tlie d u t y that circumstances
c a l l e d f o r , b y c o n t r i b u t i n g w i t h o u r efforts t o t h e defeat
o f the almost t o t a l l y v a n q u i s h e d a n t i - S p a n i s h m o v e m e n t ,
i t is for us a m a t t e r o f l i f e a n d d e a t h to s a l v a g e at a l l cost
a r i g o r o u s style a n d d o c t r i n e f r o m t h e c o n f u s i o n w h i c h
t h r e a t e n s to e n g u l f u s . I t is t h e r e f o r e essential t h a t a l l
m e m b e r s o f o u r m o v e m e n t e x e r t , as o f n o w , t h e g r e a t e s t
e n t h u s i a s m a n d d i l i g e n c e i n a n a l l - o u t effort t o m a k e
o u r f i r m c o m m i t m e n t to t h e f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p l e s w i d e l y
known.
I.

A G A I N S T

C O N F U S I O N

A v i c t o r y over a separatist m o v e m e n t c a n generate e n o u g h

historical a n d n a t i o n a l v i t a l i t y for h a l f a century. B u t
t h e v i c t o r s m u s t k n o w h o w to e x t r a c t this s u b s t a n c e , t h i s
v i t a l i t y , f r o m t h e i r success a n d t h e y m u s t i n t h e i r m i n d s
be d e e p l y a n d u n e q u i v o c a l l y a w a r e o f t h e essence o f
a n o t h e r S p a i n . W e a r e n o t c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h i s w i l l be t h e
case. T h e m o r e t h a n a n t i q u a t e d style o f those i n p o w e r ,
the conservative, self-centred a n d anti-heroic w a y i n w h i c h
the parties at present m a k i n g u p the r u l i n g c o a l i t i o n
express t h e m s e l v e s , a l l l e n d s w e i g h t to t h e p r e d i c t i o n t h a t
t h e o p p o r t u n i t y w i l l be w a s t e d . T h o u g h O c t o b e r 7 t h
c o u l d h a v e b e e n a n e w b e g i n n i n g , i t w i l l be s u b m e r g e d i n
t h e s t i c k y m i x t u r e o f o t h e r , lesser dates. T h e P o p u l i s t s , t h e
R a d i c a l s , the D e m o c r a t s a n d the A g r a r i a n s w i l l manage
not to glean a n y heroic consequences f r o m the event. T h e
128

MANIFESTO

TO SPANISH F A L A N G E

OF J.O.N.S.

129

t r e a s u r e o f n a t i o n a l consciousness, i n a p l i c i t i n t h e v i c t o r y
o f S p a n i s h n e s s o v e r s e p a r a t i s m , w i l l be f r i t t e r e d a w a y i n
' p a t r i o t i c a s s e m b l i e s ' , i n m o t i o n s o f t h a n k s a d d r e s s e d to
the g o v e r n m e n t a n d i n alliances between the c h a m p i o n s
of p u b l i c order. O u r y o u n g people w i l l definitely not take
p a r t i n a n y such masquerades. I n the s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n
of yesterday a n d a l l times, they w i l l preserve i n t a c t the
n o b l e spirit o f reconquest for the m o m e n t w h e n there w i l l
be n o h a l f - m e a s u r e s a n d n o s h a r i n g , b u t t o t a l v i c t o r y .

II.

AGAINST 'ORDER'.

A WARNING !

I t is f a i r l y o b v i o u s t h a t f o r t h e p e o p l e c o m m o n l y c a l l e d
r i g h t - w i n g e r s t h e first d e l e c t a b l e r e s u l t o f w h a t has
h a p p e n e d is t h a t ' o r d e r w i l l b e r e s t o r e d ' . N o w t h a t t h e
f i g h t is o v e r , t h o u g h , o u r y o u n g m i l i t a n t s a r e to h a v e
n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r to d o w i t h m a n o e u v r e s o f this k i n d .
W e t o o w a n t o r d e r , b u t a n o t h e r o r d e r , d i f f e r e n t to t h e
c o r e . W e c o n s i d e r t h e p r e v a i l i n g s o c i a l s y s t e m , w h i c h has
j u s t b e e n r e s c u e d f r o m r e v o l u t i o n , to be E S S E N T I A L L Y
UNJUST. W e o p p o s e d t h e r e v o l u t i o n b e c a u s e i t w a s
M a r x i s t a n d a n t i - S p a n i s h ; b u t w e a r e n o t a b o u t to d e n y
that the desperation o f the socialist, syndicaUst a n d
a n a r c h i s t masses has its d e e p - r o o t e d j u s t i f i c a t i o n , a
j u s t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h w e a c c e p t e n t i r e l y . N o o n e c o u l d be
angrier or m o r e disgusted w i t h a social order w h i c h
m a i n t a i n s vast masses o n t h e b r i n k o f s t a r v a t i o n a n d
t o l e r a t e s t h e g i l d e d idleness o f a few. A l l o u r m e m b e r s
e v e r y w h e r e w i l l m a k e this c r y s t a l c l e a r a n d b e h a v e i n
strict accordance w i t h the f o l l o w i n g m a n d a t e : once the
last g u n o f t h e r e v o l t has b e e n s i l e n c e d , a l l c o - o p e r a t i o n
w i t h t h e e l e m e n t s o f o r d e r is c a t e g o r i c a l l y f o r b i d d e n . N o
m e m b e r o f the F a l a n g e m a y j o i n a n y c i t i z e n ' s g r o u p ,
l i a i s o n c o m m i t t e e o r the l i k e .

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PRIMO

DE RIVERA:

III.

AGAINST

SELECTED

WRITINGS

COMPROMISE

I t is f a i r l y o b v i o u s ( a n d this is b u t o n e specific i n s t a n c e o f
the general t r e n d o f confusion) that the r e v o l u t i o n a r y
events w i l l n o t h a v e a p r o p e r l y c l e a r - c u t a n d severe
outcome.
F o r e v e r y t h i n g is b e i n g d o n e m e a n w h i l e to m a k e sure
that the organizers o f the r e v o l u t i o n w i l l enjoy i m p u n i t y ,
that the Statute o f C a t a l o n i a w i l l s u r v i v e * a n d that some
a r r a n g e m e n t is n e g o t i a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i s t t r a d e u n i o n s ,
w h i c h t h e g o v e r n m e n t hopes to b e a b l e to ' t a m e ' w i t h t h e
assistance o f Professor B e s t e i r o .
N o t one of o u r members m a y consider h i m s e l f exempted
f r o m t h e d u t y to c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t a l l t h i s . W e insist t h a t
the r e a l p o l i t i c a l leaders o f the u p r i s i n g m u s t be
firmly
p u n i s h e d ; some things c a n o n l y e n d decorously i n tragedy,
b e c o m i n g soiled a n d vile i f they end i n a p a n t o m i m e .
W e insist o n t h e t o t a l a b r o g a t i o n o f t h e S t a t u t e o f C a t a l o n i a : a C a t a l o n i a p u r g e d o f separatist leanings c a n l o o k
f o r w a r d to c e r t a i n d e c e n t r a l i z i n g r e f o r m s , j u s t l i k e a n y
other S p a n i s h r e g i o n ; b u t o u r brief experience o f the
S t a t u t e has s h o w n i t to be a v e r i t a b l e s p a w n i n g - g r o u n d
o f s e p a r a t i s m , a n d its s u r v i v a l i n s p i t e o f s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n c a n o n l y be t h e w o r k o f t r a i t o r s . F i n a l l y , w e insist o n
a t o t a l r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c spheres, a
ruthless dissection o f the m u r k y u n d e r g r o w t h o f the
U . G . T . a n d the Socialist P a r t y , considering it shameful
t o m a k e a d e a l w i t h t h e m o d e r a t e socialists a n d c a r r y o n
t h i s ruthless s t o c k - t a k i n g b e h i n d a s m o k e - s c r e e n
of
o u t w a r d peace a n d quiet.

IV.

AGAINST

SACRIFICING

T H E ARMED

FORCES

W i t h far g r e a t e r d e v o t i o n t h a n t h e p r e s e n t r u s h o f ' p u b l i c
h o m a g e ' c a n p o s s i b l y express, w e m u s t at this t i m e s h a r e
* T h e C a t a l a n Statute was passed i n 1 9 3 2 , g i v i n g a u t o n o m y to C a t a l o n i a .

,1

M A N I F E S T O

T O

SPANISH

F A L A N G E

O F J.O.N.S.

I3I

the proud and silent sentiments of our army, our navy, our
civil guard, our assault guard, our carabineers, our police
and security forces. It is they who have suffered the
consequences of the kind of political stupidity that allows
storms to gather, it is they who always eventually bear the
brunt of these storms on their long-suffering shoulders.
In these days our armed forces have shone with the lustre
of their martyrs. They have, moreover, had to suffer the
horrific sight of their wives and children being tormented.
And yet the uniforms hid neither fear, nor weakness, nor
indiscipline. Military blood has been squandered to
compensate Spain for the misdeeds and treachery of others.
The Spanish armed forces are in need of more than
words of praise and ceremonies. They need to see justice
done. Already the courts martial are proceeding with their
usual severity against those within the ranks who displayed
cowardice or treachery. So, let not the real culprits go
unpunished, the politicians who, out of resentment and
greed, have caused so much and such precious Spanish
blood to flow in irretrievable abundance. Let the Spanish
Falange of the J.O.N.S. raise its voice more stoutly and
sincerely, demanding justice on behalf of the armed
institutions, whose voices are duty bound to silence.
These orders are to be transmitted urgently by the national
and provincial offices of the Falange and the J.O.N.S., to
all members of the movement, with strict instructions to
observe them and spread them abroad. The leaders shall
make certain that they be strictly adhered to by everyone
and if anyone should violate them, their names are to be
given to headquarters, so that appropriate measures may
be taken.
JOSE
A N T O N I O
P R I M O
A R R I B A

E S P A N A

D E

R I V E R A

The Leader

GUIDELINES OF T H E F A L A N G E :
T H E 26 P O I N T S
Written i n November, 1934

N A T I O N .

D E S T I N Y .

E M P I R E

I. We believe in the supreme reality of Spain. Its

strengthening, elevation and aggrandizement is the urgent
collective task of all Spaniards. The accomplishment of
this task must have relentless priority over all individual,
group or class interests.
II. Spain is an indivisible destiny in universal terms.
Any plot against this indivisible whole is repulsive. A l l
separatism is a crime we shall not forgive.
The prevailing constitution, in so far as it foments
disintegration, offends against the indivisible nature of
Spain's destiny. We therefore insist that it be repealed
forthwith.
III. We are committed to the empire. We declare that
Spain's historical fulfilment is the empire. We demand for
Spain a prominent position in Europe. We will not tolerate
either international isolation nor foreign interference.
Regarding the countries of Spanish America, our aim is
the unification of culture, economic interests and power.
Spain lays claim to being the spiritual axis of the Spanishspeaking world on the grounds of her predominance in
world affairs.
IV. Our armed forces on land, at sea and in the air
must be sufficiently strong and efficient to secure total
independence and a fitting world status for Spain at all
times. We shall give back to the land, sea and air forces
all the public dignity they merit and we shall see to it
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O F T H E F A L A N G E

I33

that a martial outlook pervades all Spanish life in their

image.
V . Spain will again look to the sea routes for her glory
and her wealth. Spain must aim to become a great
seafaring power, for times of danger and for trade.
We demand for our fatherland equal status amongst
navies and on the air routes.
T H E

S T A T E .

T H E I N D I V I D U A L .

F R E E D O M

VI. Ours will be a totalitarian state in the service of

the fatherland's integrity. All Spaniards will play a part
therein through their membership of famihes, municipalities and trade unions. None shall play a part therein
through a political party. The system of political parties
will be resolutely abolished, together with all its corollaries: inorganic suffrage, representation by conflicting
factions and the Cortes as we know it.
VII. Human dignity, the integrity of the individual
and individual freedom are eternal and intangible values.
But the only way to be really free is to be part of a
strong and free nation.
No one will be permitted to employ his freedom against
the unity, the strength and the freedom of the fatherland.
Rigorous discipline will prevent any attempt to poison
or split the Spanish people or to incite them to go against
the fatherland's destiny.
VIII. The National Syndicalist state will permit any
private initiative that is compatible with the collective
interest and will indeed protect and stimulate those which
are particularly beneficial.
T H E

E C O N O M Y .

W O R K .

T H E CLASS

S T R U G G L E

I X. In the economic sphere, we think of Spain as one

huge syndicate of all those engaged in production. We

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W R I T I N G S

shall organize Spanish society along corporative lines,

by means of a system of vertical unions representing the
various branches of production, in the service of national
economic integrity.
X . We reject the capitalist system, which disregards the
needs of the people, dehumanizes private property and
transforms the workers into shapeless masses prone to
misery and despair. Our spiritual and national awareness
likewise rejects Marxism. We shall channel the drive of
the working classes, nowadays led astray by Marxism,
and demand their direct participation in the formidable
task of the national state.
X L The National Syndicalist state will not stand cruelly
aloof from economic conflicts between men, neither will it
look on impassively as the stronger class subjugates the
weaker. Our regime will make the class struggle downright impossible, since all those co-operating in production
will constitute an organic whole therein.
We deplore and shall at all cost prevent the abuses of
partial vested interests as well as anarchy in the system
of labour.
X I L The primary purpose of wealth is to effect an
improvement in the standard of living of all the people
and this will be the declared policy of our state. It is
intolerable that great masses of people live in poverty,
while a few enjoy every luxury.
XIII. The state will recognize private property as a
valid means of attaining individual, family and social
ends and will protect it against being abused by high
finance, speculators and money-lenders.
X I V . We favour the nationalization of banking and the
takeover by public corporations of the major public
services.
X V . All Spanish citizens are entitled to employment.
The pubhc institutions will provide for the maintenance of
those who are involuntarily out of work.

G U I D E L I N E S

O F T H E F A L A N G E

I35

While we are moving towards the new total structure,

we shall retain and intensify all the advantages the
workers derive from the current social legislation.
X V I . Every Spaniard who is not an invalid is duty
bound to work. The National Syndicalist state will not
have the slightest regard for those who do not fulfil any
function, but expect to live like guests at the expense
of other people's eflforts.
T H E

L A N D

X V I I . We must at all cost raise the standard of living

in the rural areas, on which Spain will always depend for
her food. For this reason we commit ourselves to the strict
implementation of an economic and social reform of
agriculture.
X V I I I . We shall strengthen agricultural production
(economic reform) by means of the following measures:
By guaranteeing the farmer an adequate minimum price
for all his produce.
By seeing to it that much of what is nowadays absorbed
by the cities in payment for their intellectual and commercial services is returned to the land, in order to endow
rural areas sufl[iciently.
By organizing a real system of national agricultural
credit which will lend the farmers money at low rates of
interest, thereby freeing them from usury and patronage.
By spreading education pertaining to matters of agriculture and animal husbandry.
By rationalizing production according to the suitability
of the land and the outlets available for the various
products.
By promoting a protectionist tariflF policy covering
agriculture and the raising of cattle.
By speeding up the construction of a hydraulic network.

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By rationalizing the size of holdings, with the elimination both of vast estates that are not fully exploited and
smallholdings that are uneconomic by reason of their
low output.
X I X . We shall achieve a social organization of agriculture by means of the following measures:
By redistributing all the arable land so as to promote
family holdings and by giving farmers every encouragement to join the union.
By rescuing the masses of people, who are exhausting
themselves scratching on barren soil, from their present
poverty and transferring them to new holdings of arable
land.
X X . We shall launch a tireless campaign of afforestation and stock-breeding, imposing severe sanctions on
whoever obstructs it and even resorting temporarily to
the obligatory mobilization of all Spanish youth for the
historic task of rebuilding our country's wealth.
X X I . The state will have powers to confiscate without
compensation any land whose ownership has been
acquired or enjoyed illicitly.
X X I I . It will be one of the National Syndicalist state's
preferred aims to give villages back their communal
property.
E D U C A T I O N .

R E L I G I O N

X X I I I . It is a fundamental mission of the state to impose

a rigorous discipline on education which will produce a
stout national spirit and fill the souls of future generations
with joyful pride in their fatherland.
All men will receive pre-military training to prepare
them for the honour of admission to Spain's national and
popular armed forces.
X X I V . Culture will be organized in such a way that no
talent will go to waste for lack offinance.All the deserving
will have easy access even to higher education.

G U I D E L I N E S

O F T H E F A L A N G E

I37

X X V . Our movement integrates the CathoHc religion

traditionally glorious and predominant in Spain into
national reconstruction.
The Church and the state will agree by concordat on the
delimitation of their respective spheres, but that does not
mean that any interference from the Church will be
tolerated nor any activity likely to undermine the dignity
of the state or the integrity of the nation.
T H E

N A T I O N A L

R E V O L U T I O N

X X V I . The Spanish Falange of the J.O.N.S. wants the

establishment of a new order, as set out in the foregoing
principles. So that it may prevail in the conflict with the
present order, the Spanish Falange aims at a national
revolution.
Its style will be trenchant, ardent and militant. Life is a
militia and must be lived in a spirit purified by service
and sacrifice.
JOSE

A N T O N I O

ADDRESSING T H E SYNDICATE OF
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
(S.E.U.)
Speech made at the ceremony of the S.E.U.'s foundation,
Valladolid, January 2ist, 1935
From La Nacion, January 21st, 1935
The days are gone when it was enough to be just a
university student, a poet or an artist. The times we live in
sweep us along and simply do not permit us to shut ourselves away in ivory towers. They were a feature of those
sour times when the sense of the world's oneness had
broken down, when everyone thought he could make an
isolated world of his own life. Recovering from just such
a period, our generation must restore the oneness of the
world; for those of us gathered here, the immediate task
will be to restore the oneness of Spain. The nineteenth
century ran its course under the sign of disintegration;
there was no faith any more in any of the unitarian values
like religion, the empire ... these were despised even,
because of the intrusion of positivism into the sphere of
metaphysics. Relative values, instrumental values, were
raised to the level of absolutes: freedom which before
was respected only when it was orientated towards good;
the will of the people which was assumed to be always
in the right, regardless of what it was the people wanted;
progress taken in the sense of its material and technical
manifestations.
But unconditional freedom thrust men, and in due
course whole peoples, into frightful conflicts; it exacerbated nationalism and caused the European war.
The will of the people forced politicians to elaborate
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A D D R E S S I N G

T H E S . E . U .

crude versions of their programmes in order to obtain

votes and was responsible for the loss of any kind of
worthwhile political doctrine, of any kind of continuity.
And the worship of undefined progress led to extreme
industrialization, to capitalism (which is the outcome of
the need for great economic power, imposed by free
competition), to the dehumanizing of private property,
replaced now by the technical monstrosity of impersonal
capital, to the ruin of small-scale production, to the
transformation of the masses into a shapeless proletariat,
and finally to the terrible crises of recent years.
Socialism, the mirror-image of capitalism, managed an
effective criticism of the latter, but failed to produce a
remedy, because it disregarded any assessment of man as a
spiritual value; thus in Russia, we witness the inhumanity
of a situation where state capitalism has not yet been
surpassed and where it is more unlikely every day that
communism can ever be attained.
That was the state the world was in when our time came.
How could we possibly ignore the tragedy of our time ?
Let us be good students, but let us also play an active part
in the tragedy of our people; like Matias Montero, a
magnificent student if ever there was one, who was taken
from us by treacherous murder and who died with his soul
and his eyes overflowing with the light of our Spain of the
Catholic kings, the Spain of which our yoke and our
arrows are the emblem.
The remedy against the evils of disintegration consists
in trying to find a unitarian conception once more, in
thinking of Spain as indivisible, as a harmonious synthesis
suspended high above any conflict between regions,
classes or parties. Let us not turn to the Right, which for
the sake of perfecting a political architecture forgets the
hunger of the masses, nor to the Left, which in an effort
to redeem the masses leads them astray from their
national destiny. We want to recover a unique national

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W R I T I N G S

destiny and profound social justice, two things that are

inseparable from each other. And since we come up
against obstacles that resist the achievement of this
purpose, we are determined revolutionaries so as to
destroy them.
But you must never forget that this task of restoring
unity makes it essential for us to be firmly united amongst
ourselves. We think of life as being an act of service:
every office is an arduous task and all tasks are equally
noble, from the most delightful, that of obedience, to the
harshest of all, that of giving the orders.
Leadership is the supreme burden; it imposes every
kind of sacrifice, including the loss of privacy; it requires
a daily measure of guess-work in spheres to which no rules
apply, and this is compounded with the oppressive
responsibility of having to take action. That is why
leadership must be looked upon with humility, as a position of service; but for this very reason there can be no
question, whatever may happen, of deserting from the
leadership out of impatience, or discouragement, or
cowardice.

SPAIN A N D B A R B A R I S M
Speech made at the Teatro Calderon, Valladolid,
March 3rd, 1935
A year ago tomorrow, in this very theatre, the Spanish
Falange of the J.O.N.S. first brought itself to the attention
of Spain.
The preceding days had seen the fusion of the units
of the J.O.N.S. with the Spanish Falange, irrevocably
joined since then in the Spanish Falange of the J.O.N.S.
That occasion was its first propagandistic event, and with
the verve of all thrusting phenomena it ended in gun-fire.
To begin by shooting is almost always the best way of
getting to understand one another. In the course of this
year we have come a long way, and we must now aim
to conduct ourselves with a certain degree of maturity
unforeseeable perhaps in 1934. At the end of one
year our movement must have found its intellectual
profile.
Some people, when they thought of us, believed they
were seeing in the street the shock-troops of something
which would in due course be taken in hand by sensible
people; now they no longer think that way, and we
ourselves feel distinctly that we are not merely the
vanguard, but the whole army of a new order which must
be implanted in Spain; I say, must be implanted in Spain,
and I add ambitiously, for that is the Spanish way: of a
new order which Spain is destined to transmit to Europe
and the world.
The ages can be divided into Classic ages and Middle
Ages: the latter are distinguished by the quest for unity;
the former are those which have found such unity. The
141

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Classic ages, complete in themselves, came to an end

solely through decline, through catastrophe, through
barbarian invasion. Rome bears witness to this process.
Her middle age, her period of growth, lasts from Cannae
to Actium; her classic age from Actium to the death of
Marcus Aurelius; her decline from Commodus to the
invasion of the barbarians. At the time in Rome when the
two dissolving factors which ultimately were to bring
about her destruction began to stir, Rome was complete,
Rome was the unity of the earth; there was nothing left for
her to do. All that was external had been achieved, and
Rome had no inner life; her religion did not go beyond
regular ceremonies; her morals were of the people rather
than of the soul, military, civic, morals magnificent
levers in times of construction, useless once the building
is over. That is why an exhausted Rome sought refuge in
two movements that stood for a return to the inner life:
firstly, the Stoicism of our own Seneca, which remains an
intellectual, uneflTusive attitude; then, Christianity, which
was the denial of Roman principles, the religion of the
meek and the persecuted, which went so far as to deny
Caesar his divinity and even his priestly status. Christianity undermined the foundations of Rome in ferment,
but it took a catastrophe, the invasion of the barbarians,
for Rome to disintegrate altogether.
We have now reached precisely the end of the era which
is like that following the Middle Ages and that which
came after the Classical age of Rome. With Rome
destroyed, it was as though history was lying fallow.
Gradually new bursts of culture started sprouting. The
roots of unity took hold throughout Europe. Then came
the thirteenth century, the century of St Thomas. In that
time the idea common to all was that of 'metaphysical'
unity, unity in God; when there are such absolute truths,
everything is explained, and the whole world, which in
this case meant Europe, functioned with the most perfect

SPAIN

A N D

B A R B A R I S M

economy of all time. The universities of Paris and Salamanca were reasoning the same matters in the same Latin.
The world had found itself Very soon there was to be the
Spanish empire, the embodiment of historical, physical,
spiritual and theological unity.
Anxiety and restlessness begin to surface towards the
third decade of the eighteenth century; society no longer
believes in itself; neither does it believe any more with the
vigour of former times in any superior principle. This lack
of faith, emphasized by the dreariness of a society that is
once more immutable, inclines feeble spirits towards
escapism: a return to nature.
Jean Jacques Rousseau is representative of this negation,
and because he lost faith in the existence of absolute truths
he created his Social Contract, wherein he elaborates the
theory that things move in accordance with the norms not
of reason but of will. Soon economists appear and begin
to interpret history in terms of such notions as merchandise, value and exchange. With the coming of large-scale
industry, artisans are transformed into a proletariat.
When the demagogue appears on the scene, he finds the
proletarian masses reduced to despair and receptive to
ideas, and what had seemed indefinite progress blows up
with the war of 1914. Europe's attempt at suicide.
The Europe of St Thomas was a Europe enlightened by
one and the same way of thinking. The Europe of 1914
made it clear that it had no wish to be a whole. A product
of the European war was the creation of legions of men
out of work; in the wake of the catastrophe the factories
were demobilized, turning out great hosts of unemployed
men; industry was in chaos, competition arose between
factories, and tariff barriers were raised. In this situation,
and moreover with all faith in eternal principles gone by
the board, what does the future hold for Europe? Without
a doubt another invasion of the barbarians.
But there are two views of this: the catastrophic view.

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which holds such an invasion to be inevitable and considers all that is good to be lost and exhausted, and which
merely trusts that after the catastrophe a new Middle
Ages will germinate; and then our own view, which
aspires to throwing a bridge across the invasion of the
barbarians, to taking for ourselves, without a catastrophe
in-between, all that may be fertile in the new age while
salvaging all the spiritual values of civilization from the
age in which we now live.
That is our new task in the face of Russian communism,
which is the barbarian invasion we are threatened with.
Communism does contain an element worth taking up:
its self-denial and sense of solidarity. However, being as it
is a barbarian invasion, Russian communism goes too far
and rejects anything that smacks of historical and spiritual
values; it is anti-patriotic, devoid of faith in God. Hence
our efforts to save the absolute truths, the historic values,
so that they may not perish.
How can this ever be achieved? That is a question to
which there is beginning to emerge an answer, here in
Castile, in Spain.
One of the alleged solutions is social-democracy.
Basically, social-democracy preserves capitalism; it just
keeps throwing sand into the mechanism. That is sheer
madness.
Another alleged solution is the totalitarian state. But
there is no such thing as a totalitarian state. Certain
nations have found dictators of genius, who have been up
to the task of substituting themselves for the state; but
that cannot be imitated, and in Spain, for the time being,
we shall have to wait for such a genius to appear. Germany
and Italy are examples of what is called the totalitarian
state, but notice how they are not only not similar, but
even radically unhke each other; their totalitarianism can
be traced back to opposite points of departure. The
totalitarian state of Germany can be traced back to a

SPAIN

A N D

B A R B A R I S M

people's capacity for trusting its racial instinct. The

German people are in a frenzy of self-assertion; Germany
is experiencing a super-democracy. Rome, on the other
hand, is undergoing the experience of having a genius
with a classical mind wanting to forge a people from
above. The German movement is Romantic in kind, its
course is the same as ever; that is where the Reformation
sprang from and even the French Revolution, since the
Declaration of Human Rights is a replica of the North
American constitution fathered by German Protestant
thinking.
Neither social-democracy nor any attempt to set up a
totalitarian state without a genius would suffice to prevent
the catastrophe. There are ointments of another kind,
which we in Spain apply lavishly: I am referring to
confederations, blocs and coalitions. All of these are based
on the assumption that the union of several dwarfs can
result in a giant. Such remedies must be approached with
caution. And let us not allow their verbiage to take us by
surprise. There are some such movements which make a
show of religion being the mainstay of their programme,
but which take a stand only when material advantages are
at issue; which are prepared, in exchange for some
moderation in the sphere of agrarian reform or for a nip
into the property of the clergy, to forego the crucifix in
schools or the abolition of divorce.
Other such blocs claim, for instance, to be corporativists.
That is but a hollow phrase; or else, let us ask the first
person to broach the subject with us. What do you mean
by corporativism ? How does it work ? What solution does
it bring, for example, to international problems ? Hitherto,
the best attempt has been made in Italy, and there it is
only one integrated part of a perfect political mechanism.
In order to try and bring about harmonious relations
between employers and workers, there exists something
like the mixed arbitration we have here, vastly magnified:

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a confederation of employers and another of workers, and

at the top a liaison body. To date, the corporative state
does not exist; neither do we know whether it is a good
thing. Italy's corporative legislation is, as Mussolini himself has said, a point of departure and not a point of
arrival, which is what our politicians claim corporativism
to be.
When the world is unhinged, that unhingement cannot
be cured by means of technical plasters; it takes an entire
new order to achieve that. And this order must spring once
again from the individual. May those hear us who accuse
us of professing a state-pantheism: we consider the
individual to be the basic unit, for this is the meaning of
Spain, which has always considered man to be the
embodiment of eternal values. Man must be free, but
there cannot be freedom except within an order.
Liberalism told men that they could do as they liked, but
failed to provide them with an economic order which
would guarantee such freedom. An organized economic
guaranty is therefore essential; but given the present
economic chaos, there cannot be an organized economy
without a strong state, and only a state in the service of a
unitarian destiny can be strong without being tyrannical.
That is how the strong state serving the consciousness of
unity is the real guarantor of individual freedom. By
contrast, the state which does not feel itself to be the
servant of a supreme unity is constantly fearful of seeming
tyrannical. That is the case with our Spanish state: what
holds back its arm from doing justice after a bloody
revolution is the awareness of its lack of an inner justification, its lack of a mission to fulfil.
Spain can have a state that is strong, because Spain in
itself is a unitarian destiny of universal dimensions. And
the Spanish state can limit itself to carrying out the
essential functions of power, leaving not only arbitration
but the entire regulation of many economic aspects to

SPAIN

A N D

B A R B A R I S M

147

entities which can look back on a great tradition: to the

unions, which will no longer be parasitic constructions,
as they are in the present conception of labour relations,
but the vertically integrated association of all those working together in each branch of production.
The new state will have to set about reorganizing the
Spanish countryside as a whole. Not all of Spain is fit to
live in: many lands, which merely perpetuate the misery
of those who till them, will have to revert to desert or in
many cases to forest. Large numbers of people will have
to be moved to arable lands, where there will have to be
a profound economic and social reform of agriculture
involving improvement and rationalization of crops,
irrigation, educational schemes for farmers, adequate
prices, tariff protection for agriculture, and cheap credit
on the one hand, and family holdings and union-run farms
on the other. That will be a true return to nature, not in
the sense of the eclogue, propounded by Rousseau, but in
the sense of the georgic, which epitomizes the profound,
stern and ritual way of understanding the land.
The same global view employed in the reorganization
of agriculture must be applied to the reorganization of the
entire economy. What does it mean to harmonize capital
and labour? Labour is a human function, just as property
is a human attribute. But property is not synonymous with
capital; capital is an economic instrument, and, being
an instrument, it must be used for the benefit of the whole
economy, not for anyone's personal benefit. Reservoirs of
capital must be like reservoirs of water; they are intended
not for a few to organize boat races on the surface, but for
regulating the flow of rivers and for moving the turbines of
waterfalls.
Certainly a great deal of resistance will have to be overcome before these things can come to pass. Many selfish
interests will oppose us, but it must always be our watchword that we are not concerned with saving material

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W R I T I N G S

values. Property as we have known it hitherto is coming

to an end; it will be eliminated, in one way or another, by
the masses, who have not only a certain amount of justification for doing so, but the strength to do it. No one can
possibly save the material values; what matters is that the
breakdown of things material must be prevented from
entailing the destruction of essential spiritual values.
These are the values we want to save at all cost, even in
exchange for the sacrifice of all economic advantages.
They are well worth sacrificing to the glory of seeing
Spain, our Spain, halt the final invasion of the barbarians.

BEFORE A PARTING OF T H E
W A Y S IN W O R L D P O L I T I C A L A N D
ECONOMIC HISTORY
Lecture given at the Circulo Mercantil of Madrid,
A p r i l gth, 1935*

Do not think that I take personal credit for the applause

you have just accorded to me. To do that, I should have
to feel, at this moment, less than the vast gratitude that I
do feel at having been invited to speak from this platform,
whence so many authoritative voices have spoken, and less
sense of responsibility for the enterprise I am now undertaking; firstly, because of the importance of this platform
itself and the gratitude I owe to Don Mariano Matesanz
for his most affectionate words; and secondly because I
tell you that it is no easy matter, on this particular
evening, to choose what tone I should give to my address.
I naturally presume that none of you expect to hear me
deliver a political harangue. To do that would be a very
poor response to the open hospitality of this free platform.
But in addition to that, I think that, at present, with a
number of Spaniards, a large number of Spaniards,
assembled here and with the crushing anxiety about
Spain that is hanging over each and all of us, it would be
so out of keeping to confine ourselves to peripheral comments, to small details of Spanish policy, that if we did so
we should move far away from the demands of a great
and tragic political situation. If I were to attempt this
evening to make it clear whether the Cortes is going to
meet fairly soon, or whether the groups that were until
* The translation of this lecture was provided by Senorita Pilar Primo de
Rivera.

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P R I M O

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W R I T I N G S

recently friendly are going to make peace fairly soon

much as I might enjoy myself and seek to bring enjoyment
to you, I am certain that we should be wasting one of the
occasions when we meet in order to deal with the tragic
and pressing events which fill us with apprehension.
So I cannot deliver a pohtical harangue. But neither can
I give an academic dissertation; that would not suit your
mood. Moreover, I am not qualified to give one; neither
is this the time for dilettante academic dissertations. As a
rule, when serious matters are expressed in academic
dissertations it is because a hecatomb is approaching
in Europe; and that which is approaching Spain, as part
of Europe, began in certain drawing-rooms, perhaps the
most refined ones that the history of drawing-rooms has
ever seen. If you like (and with this we can introduce a
certain variety into these first moments which are somewhat nervous, partly because of your benevolent curiosity,
partly through my natural emotion, and also perhaps
partly through something that is not quite right in this
apparatus in front of me) if you like, I say, we may
imagine ourselves transferred to those drawing-rooms of
which I was speaking.
Let us imagine for a moment that we are in the last
third of the eighteenth century. From the thirteenth
century to the sixteenth, the world lived a strong, solid
life in a full harmony; the world revolved upon an axis.
In the sixteenth, this already began to be doubted. The
seventeenth century introduced free examination and
began to doubt everything. The eighteenth century
already believed in nothing; or, if you prefer, the elegant
ehte of the eighteenth century beheved in nothing, not
even in themselves. They began to attend the first plays
and lectures in which the men of letters and philosophers
of the period made mockery of that very society which so
eagerly exalted them. We observe that the best satires
against eighteenth-century society were applauded and

BEFORE A PARTING

OF T H E W A Y S

I5I

e x t o l l e d b y the v e r y s o c i e t y t h a t w a s b e i n g s a t i r i z e d . I n
this e n v i r o n m e n t o f the eighteenth c e n t u r y , t h a t c e n t u r y
w h i c h r e d u c e d e v e r y t h i n g to c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d i r o n y , w e
find t w o v e r y d i f f e r e n t figures: t h a t o f a G e n e v a p h i l o sopher a n d that of a Scottish economist.
T h e G e n e v a p h i l o s o p h e r is a s i c k l y m a n , d e l i c a t e a n d
r e f i n e d ; h e is a p h i l o s o p h e r w h o as S p e n g l e r tells us
h a p p e n s t o a l l R o m a n t i c s , a n d t h i s m a n was b y n o w a
direct precursor o f R o m a n t i c i s m was fatigued b y the
sense o f l i v i n g i n t o o h e a l t h y , t o o v i r i l e a n d t o o r o b u s t a
society. H e was crushed b y the w e i g h t o f such a fully
a d u l t society, a n d felt, as i t w e r e , c o n s t r a i n e d to l e a v e i t ,
to r e t u r n t o n a t u r e , t o free h i m s e l f f r o m d i s c i p H n e ,
harmony and rule.
T h i s y e a r n i n g f o r n a t u r e is the k e y n o t e o f a l l his
w r i t i n g s : t h e r e t u r n to f r e e d o m . T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f his
b o o k s , w h o s e i n f l u e n c e w a s to last t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d o n l y b e g a n to lose its g r i p i n p r a c t i c a l l y o u r o w n t i m e s , does n o t , as y o u h a v e so o f t e n r e a d ,
b e g i n a b s o l u t e l y , b u t i t a l m o s t does, w i t h a sentence w h i c h
is a s i g h . I t r e a d s : ' M a n is b o r n free, a n d finds h i m s e l f
e v e r y w h e r e i n fetters.' T h i s p h i l o s o p h e r , as y o u a r e a l l
aware, was c a l l e d J e a n J a c q u e s R o u s s e a u ; the book was
c a l l e d The Social Contract.
The Social Contract seeks to d e n y t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f those
authorities c u s t o m a r i l y accepted b y reason o f either a
supposedly d i v i n e a p p o i n t m e n t or one based u p o n tradit i o n . H e seeks t o d e n y t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f these p o w e r s a n d
to b e g i n b u i l d i n g afresh o n t h e basis o f his o w n n o s t a l g i a
f o r f r e e d o m . H e s a y s : ' M a n is f r e e : m a n is free b y n a t u r e
a n d c a n n o t i n a n y w a y d i v e s t h i m s e l f o f b e i n g free. T h e r e
c a n n o t be a n y s y s t e m b u t t h a t w h i c h he a c c e p t s o f his
o w n free w i l l ; his f r e e d o m he c a n n e v e r r e n o u n c e , b e c a u s e
t h i s w o u l d be e q u i v a l e n t to r e n o u n c i n g his q u a l i t y o f
b e i n g h u m a n . M o r e o v e r , i f he w e r e t o r e n o u n c e f r e e d o m ,
h e w o u l d be e n t e r i n g i n t o a n a g r e e m e n t v o i d f o r w a n t o f

152

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SELECTED WRITINGS

v a l u e r e c e i v e d i n e x c h a n g e ; h e c a n n o t b u t be free a n d
u n r e n o u n c e a b l y free. C o n s e q u e n t l y , n o f o r m o f state c a n
p o s s i b l y arise i n o p p o s i t i o n to t h e free w i l l s o f those w h o
m a k e u p a s o c i e t y ; t h e o r i g i n o f p o l i t i c a l societies m u s t
h a v e b e e n c o n t r a c t . T h i s c o n t r a c t , t h e a g g r e g a t e o f these
w i l l s , e n g e n d e r s a h i g h e r w i l l , a w i l l w h i c h is n o t t h e s u m
t o t a l o f t h e o t h e r s , b u t self-subsistent. I t is a d i f f e r e n t ego,
s u p e r i o r a n d i n d i f f e r e n t to the p e r s o n a l i t i e s t h a t p r o d u c e d
it b y their presence. V e r y w e l l : this sovereign w i l l , this w i l l
n o w d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e o t h e r w i l l s , is t h e o n l y o n e t h a t
m a y l e g i s l a t e ; this is t h e o n l y o n e t h a t m a y i m p o s e i t s e l f
o n m e n w i t h o u t their h a v i n g a n y c l a i m against it, because
i f t h e y t u r n e d a g a i n s t i t t h e y w o u l d be t u r n i n g a g a i n s t
t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s s o v e r e i g n w i l l c a n n e i t h e r e r r n o r seek
t h e e v i l o f its subjects.'
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e h a v e t h e Scots e c o n o m i s t . T h e
Scots e c o n o m i s t is a n o t h e r t y p e o f m a n : h e is a f o r m a l ,
p r e c i s e m a n , s i m p l e i n his tastes, s o m e w h a t V o l t a i r i a n ,
rather abstracted a n d somewhat
melancholy.
This
e c o n o m i s t , before h e was o n e , e x p o u n d e d l o g i c i n G l a s g o w
University, a n d later, m o r a l philosophy. A t that time
m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y was composed o f several quite different
t h i n g s : n a t u r a l theology, ethics, j u r i s p r u d e n c e a n d politics.
H e h a d e v e n w r i t t e n a b o o k i n t h e y e a r 1759, a b o o k
e n t i t l e d Theory of Moral Feeling; b u t i n r e a l i t y i t is n o t this
b o o k t h a t o p e n e d t h e gates o f i m m o r t a l i t y to h i m . T h e
b o o k t h a t o p e n e d t h e gates o f i m m o r t a l i t y to h i m is
e n t i t l e d Investigations Concerning the Wealth of Nations. T h e
Scots e c o n o m i s t , as y o u h a v e a l l guessed b y n o w , w a s
A d a m Smith.
N o w , for A d a m S m i t h t h e e c o n o m i c w o r l d was a n a t u r a l
c o m m u n i t y created b y the d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r . T h i s
d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r was not a conscious p h e n o m e n o n ,
s o u g h t b y those w h o h a d s p l i t u p t h e tasks a m o n g t h e m selves; i t was a n u n c o n s c i o u s p h e n o m e n o n , a s p o n t a n e o u s
p h e n o m e n o n . M e n h a d been g o i n g o n s p l i t t i n g u p the

BEFORE

P A R T I N G OF T H E WAYS

I53

work without any c o m m o n understanding; no one, i n

p r o c e e d i n g to m a k e this d i v i s i o n , h a d been g u i d e d b y the
i n t e r e s t o f t h e o t h e r s , b u t m e r e l y b y u t i l i t y to h i m s e l f .
W h i c h c o m e s to t h i s , t h a t e a c h o n e , i n s e e k i n g this
u t i l i t y to h i m s e l f , h a d a r r i v e d at h a r m o n y w i t h t h e u t i l i t y
o f t h e rest. A n d so, i n this s p o n t a n e o u s , free s o c i e t y , t h e r e
a p p e a r : first, l a b o u r , w h i c h is t h e sole s o u r c e o f w e a l t h ;
n e x t , b a r t e r , t h a t is to say t h e e x c h a n g e o f t h e t h i n g s w e
p r o d u c e ourselves f o r t h e t h i n g s p r o d u c e d b y o t h e r s ;
t h e n , m o n e y , w h i c h is a m e r c h a n d i s e t h a t e v e r y o n e is
c e r t a i n w i l l be a c c e p t e d b y t h e r e s t ; finally, c a p i t a l , w h i c h
is t h e s a v i n g o f t h a t w h i c h w e h a v e n o t h a d to s p e n d ,
t h e s a v i n g o f p r o d u c e d w e a l t h i n o r d e r to be a b l e , w i t h i t ,
t o g i v e life to fresh e n t e r p r i s e s . A d a m S m i t h b e l i e v e d t h a t
c a p i t a l was t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n o f i n d u s t r y :
' c a p i t a l m a k e s i n d u s t r y p o s s i b l e , ' to use his o w n w o r d s .
B u t a l l this h a p p e n s a u t o m a t i c a l l y , as I s a y : n o o n e has
m a d e a n y a g r e e m e n t f o r t h i s to w o r k t h u s , a n d n e v e r t h e less i t w o r k s t h u s a n d m u s t w o r k t h u s . M o r e o v e r A d a m
S m i t h c o n s i d e r s t h a t i t ought to w o r k t h u s , a n d h e is so
sure a n d so p l e a s e d w i t h this p r o o f h e has b e e n s t r i n g i n g
t o g e t h e r , t h a t he t u r n s to t h e state, the s o v e r e i g n h e
also c a l l s i t t h e s o v e r e i g n a n d h e s a y s : ' T h e best
t h i n g t h a t y o u c a n d o is n o t to i n t e r f e r e w i t h a n y t h i n g .
L e t t h i n g s be as t h e y a r e . T h e t h i n g s o f e c o n o m y a r e v e r y
delicate; don't touch them, and i f y o u don't touch them
t h e y ' l l w o r k b y themselves a n d w o r k w e l l . '
Rousseau's b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1762; that of A d a m
S m i t h was p u b l i s h e d i n 1776, n o t m a n y y e a r s l a t e r . S o f a r ,
t h e y a r e t w o d o c t r i n a l d i s q u i s i t i o n s : o n e thesis p u t f o r w a r d
b y a philosopher, a n d one p u t f o r w a r d by a n economist.
B u t n o w w e see t h a t a t t h e s t o r m y e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y t h e r e o c c u r s w h a t w a s b o u n d to o c c u r , i n o r d e r
t h a t those t h e o r e t i c a l theses m a y be p u t to t h e test f o r t h w i t h . A s i f w e w e r e i n a c i n e m a , l o o k i n g at o n e o f those
films w h i c h m a k e d i f f e r e n t events pass before o u r eyes.

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WRITINGS

a n d b r i n g f o r w a r d t o w a r d s us, as i f a r i s i n g o u t o f a d i s t a n t
b a c k g r o u n d a n d a d v a n c i n g towards the screen,
figures
r e p r e s e n t i n g dates ( s u c h as 1908, 1911, 1917), so t h i s
e v e n i n g w e c a n i m a g i n e ourselves to be s e e i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g figures l e a p i n g o n to t h e s c r e e n 1765, 1767, 1769,
1770, 1785, a n d finally 1789. T h e first five dates c o r r e s p o n d to t h e i n v a s i o n o f m a c h i n e r y , m a c h i n e r y t h a t is
a b o u t to t r a n s f o r m i n d u s t r y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e s p i n n i n g a n d
w e a v i n g i n d u s t r i e s ; t h e y c o r r e s p o n d to t h e i n v e n t i o n o f
t h e first m e c h a n i c a l s p i n n i n g - j e n n y , t h e first s t e a m - e n g i n e ,
t h e first w e a v i n g - m a c h i n e . . . T h e last d a t e , 1789, needless
t o say, is t h a t o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . T h e R e v o l u t i o n
finds R o u s s e a u ' s p r i n c i p l e s r e a d y - m a d e , a n d a c c e p t s t h e m .
I n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1789, i n t h a t o f ' 9 1 , i n t h a t o f ' 9 3 , i n
t h a t o f t h e e i g h t h y e a r , t h e r e is f o r m u l a t e d , i n a l m o s t
exactly the words used b y R o u s s e a u , the p r i n c i p l e o f
n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y : ' I n p r i n c i p l e a l l s o v e r e i g n t y essent i a l l y resides i n t h e n a t i o n . N o c o r p o r a t i o n , n o i n d i v i d u a l , c a n exercise a u t h o r i t y t h a t does n o t e m a n a t e
e x p r e s s l y t h e r e f r o m . ' D o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t u n i v e r s a l suff r a g e is a l w a y s a d m i t t e d at t h e s a m e t i m e as t h a t d e c l a r a t i o n is m a d e ; o n l y i n o n e o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e
F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n t h a t o f 1793, w h i c h n e v e r c a m e to
be a p p H e d ^ i s t h a t suflTrage e s t a b l i s h e d . I n t h e o t h e r s
i t w a s n o t ; i n t h e o t h e r s , suffrage is r e s t r i c t e d , a n d i n t h e
constitution o f the e i g h t h year it even disappears. B u t the
p r i n c i p l e is a l w a y s e n u n c i a t e d : ' A H s o v e r e i g n t y lies
essentially i n the n a t i o n . '
H o w e v e r , t h e r e is o n e t h i n g i n t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y
c o n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h w a s n o t i n The Social Contract, n a m e l y
the d e c l a r a t i o n o f the rights o f m a n . A s I just said,
R o u s s e a u d i d not a d m i t that the i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d m a k e
a n y r e s e r v a t i o n s i n face o f t h a t s o v e r e i g n w i l l , t h a t
s o v e r e i g n ego f o r m e d b y t h e n a t i o n a l w i l l . R o u s s e a u d i d
not a d m i t i t ; the R e v o l u t i o n a r y constitutions d i d . B u t
R o u s s e a u was i n the right. I n the course o f t i m e , the

B E F O R E

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OF

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I55

p o w e r o f assemblies w a s to r e a c h s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t i n
r e a l i t y the p e r s o n a l i t y o f m a n d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d i t w a s
a n i l l u s i o n to t r y to c l a i m , a g a i n s t t h a t p o w e r , a n y k i n d
o f rights w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l m i g h t have reserved for
himself.
L i b e r a l i s m (it m a y be d e s c r i b e d t h u s b e c a u s e t h e
raising of a b a r r i e r against t y r a n n y was just w h a t the
R e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n s t i t u t i o n s a i m e d a t ) , l i b e r a l i s m has its
g r e a t p e r i o d , the o n e i n w h i c h i t establishes a l l m e n as
e q u a l before t h e l a w , a v i c t o r y f r o m w h i c h t h e r e c a n n o w
be n o retrocession. B u t w i t h this v i c t o r y once a c h i e v e d ,
a n d its g r e a t p e r i o d o v e r , l i b e r a l i s m b e g i n s to find i t s e l f
w i t h n o t h i n g to d o , a n d spends its t i m e d e s t r o y i n g itself.
N a t u r a l l y e n o u g h , w h a t R o u s s e a u t e r m e d the sovereign
w i l l b e c o m e s r e d u c e d to the w i l l o f t h e m a j o r i t y . A c c o r d i n g
t o R o u s s e a u , i t was the m a j o r i t y t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h r o u g h
its f a c u l t y o f d i v i n i n g a n d e x p r e s s i n g the s o v e r e i g n w i l l ,
b u t i n p r a c t i c e t h r o u g h its v i c t o r y o v e r t h e d i s s i d e n t
m i n o r i t y w h i c h should p r e v a i l over a l l ; the achievem e n t o f this m a j o r i t y i m p l i e d t h a t t h e p a r t i e s h a d to e n t e r
i n t o c o n f l i c t so as to w i n m o r e votes t h a n t h e i r r i v a l s , t h a t
t h e y h a d to m a k e p r o p a g a n d a a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e r , after
first h a v i n g c o m e i n t o b e i n g . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t is p r e c i s e l y
u n d e r the thesis o f s u p p o s e d l y i n d i v i s i b l e n a t i o n a l
s o v e r e i g n t y t h a t o p i n i o n s a r e m o s t d i v i d e d , f o r as e a c h
g r o u p seeks t h a t its o w n w i l l s h a l l be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e
p r e s u m p t i v e sovereign w i l l , the groups g r o w m o r e a n d
m o r e o b l i g e d to d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s , to a d o p t d i s t i n c t i v e
a t t i t u d e s , to fight, to d e s t r o y o n e a n o t h e r a n d to t r y to
w i n the electoral battles. T h u s it comes a b o u t that i n
t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f the l i b e r a l s y s t e m ( o f c o u r s e , t h i s
e x a m i n a t i o n o r r e v i e w w h i c h has b e e n s u m m e d u p i n a
f e w m i n u t e s is a process l a s t i n g m a n y y e a r s ) , i n this
d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i b e r a l s y s t e m the p a r t i e s b e c o m e so
b r o k e n u p that, i n some parts o f E u r o p e w h e n a regime
has r e a c h e d its last g a s p , as i t d i d i n t h e G e r m a n y o f t h e

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d a y s j u s t before H i t l e r , t h e r e h a v e b e e n n o less t h a n
t h i r t y - t w o p a r t i e s . I s h o u l d n o t d a r e to state w h a t t h e y
a l l arc i n S p a i n because I m y s e l f d o not k n o w . I n d e e d , I
d o n o t e v e n k n o w t h e ones r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e C o r t e s , f o r
a p a r t f r o m a l l t h e g r o u p s o f f i c i a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d a n d those
fused i n t o p a r l i a m e n t a r y b l o c s , a n d a p a r t f r o m t h e
members w h o , either alone or w i t h one or two b o s o m
f r i e n d s , p a r a d e u n d e r a g r o u p d e n o m i n a t i o n , t h e r e is i n
t h e C o r t e s as D o n M a r i a n o M a t e s a n z is a w a r e o n e
extraordinarily o d d t h i n g : two minorities, each composed
o f ten g e n t l e m e n , a n d each c a l H n g themselves I n d e p e n d e n t M i n o r i t i e s ; b u t , m a r k y o u , n o t b e c a u s e as m i n o r i t i e s
t h e y a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e rest, b u t because e a c h o n e o f
t h e i r c o m p o n e n t i n d i v i d u a l s r e g a r d s h i m s e l f as b e i n g
i n d e p e n d e n t o f a l l t h e o t h e r s . S o t h a t those w h o b e l o n g
to these m i n o r i t i e s to w h i c h n e i t h e r D o n M a r i a n o
M a t e s a n z n o r I belong, since we are i n d e p e n d e n t a l t o g e t h e r those w h o b e l o n g to these m i n o r i t i e s o w e t h e i r
g r o u p i n g t o g e t h e r a n d t h e i r c o n n e c t i n g l i n k s o l e l y to
t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n o t e o f not b e i n g i n a g r e e m e n t . I n
o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o n l y t h i n g t h e y a g r e e a b o u t is t h a t t h e y
d o n ' t agree a b o u t a n y t h i n g . A n d , n a t u r a l l y , a p a r t f r o m
this p u l v e r i z i n g o f parties, or, r a t h e r , o n e m e r g i n g f r o m
this p u l v e r i z a t i o n o f parties t h r o u g h the c o n d i t i o n a l u n i o n
o f one o r t w o parties, w e t h e n observe the p h e n o m e n o n
t h a t the m a j o r i t y h a l f the Cortes plus one, or h a l f the
C o r t e s p l u s t w o feels i n v e s t e d w i t h t h e f u l l s o v e r e i g n
p o w e r o f t h e n a t i o n to e x p l o i t o r c r u s h t h e rest, n o t
m e r e l y t h e rest o f t h e m e m b e r s b u t t h e rest o f t h e S p a n i s h
p e o p l e . I t feels i t s e l f to be t h e h o l d e r o f a l i m i t l e s s p o w e r
o f s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n ; i n o t h e r w o r d s i t feels i t s e l f e n d o w e d
w i t h a u t h o r i t y to c a r r y t h r o u g h a n y t h i n g t h a t i t t h i n k s fit,
w i t h o u t p a y i n g a n y f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n to a n y k i n d o f
p e r s o n a l j u d g m e n t , j u r i d i c a l o r h u m a n , as f a r as t h e rest
o f m a n k i n d is c o n c e r n e d .
J e a n J a c q u e s R o u s s e a u h a d foreseen s o m e t h i n g o f t h i s

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k i n d w h e n he s a i d : ' V e r y g o o d ; b u t as t h e s o v e r e i g n w i l l
is i n d i v i s i b l e a n d m o r e o v e r i n c a p a b l e o f e r r o r , i f b y
c h a n c e a m a n e v e r finds h i m s e l f i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t l i e
s o v e r e i g n w i l l , i t is t h e m a n w h o is i n e r r o r ; a n d a t s u c h a
t i m e , w h e n t h e s o v e r e i g n w i l l c o n s t r a i n s h i m to s u b m i t to
i t , i t is d o i n g n o t h i n g else b u t c o m p e l l i n g h i m to be free.'
O b s e r v e the sophistry; a n d just consider whether, for
instance, w h e n we m e m b e r s o f the R e p u b l i c a n P a r l i a m e n t ,
u n d e n i a b l y the representatives o f the n a t i o n a l sovereignty,
i n c r e a s e y o u r taxes o r i n v e n t s o m e o t h e r u n c o m f o r t a b l e
l a w t o a n n o y y o u w i t h , i t has e v e r o c c u r r e d to y o u t o
t h i n k t h a t , i n this a c t o f r a i s i n g y o u r taxes o r a n n o y i n g
y o u a little m o r e , we have been c a r r y i n g out the benevol e n t task o f m a k i n g y o u a l i t t l e m o r e free w h e t h e r y o u
liked it or not.
S u c h , i n a v e r y b r i e f a n d s l i g h t l y c o n f u s e d s y n o p s i s , has
been the history o f p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m .
I n t h e s a m e w a y as R o u s s e a u f o u n d t h a t t h e F r e n c h
R e v o l u t i o n a d o p t e d h i s p r i n c i p l e s a l i t t l e l a t e r , so A d a m
S m i t h h a d the l u c k , r a r e l y a t t a i n e d b y a n y w r i t e r , o f seeing
E n g l a n d also a d o p t his e c o n o m i c p r i n c i p l e s . S h e o p e n e d
h e r d o o r s to t h e free p l a y o f s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d , w h i c h ,
a c c o r d i n g to A d a m S m i t h , w o u l d w i t h o u t more ado or
e x e r t i o n b y a n y o n e else p r o d u c e e c o n o m i c e q u i l i b r i u m .
A n d i n f a c t , e c o n o m i c l i b e r a l i s m t o o h a d its h e r o i c age o f
l i f e , a m a g n i f i c e n t l y h e r o i c age. W e m u s t n e v e r v i l i f y t h e
f a l l e n , n e i t h e r t h e p h y s i c a l l y f a l l e n , t h e m e n w h o as m e n ,
e v e n i f t h e y w e r e o u r e n e m i e s , m e r i t a l l t h e respect d u e
to t h e i r h u m a n q u a l i t y a n d d i g n i t y , n o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l l y
fallen. E c o n o m i c l i b e r a l i s m d i d have a great p e r i o d , a
m a g n i f i c e n t p e r i o d o f s p l e n d o u r ; its i n i t i a t i v e b r o u g h t
a b o u t the e n o r m o u s e x p a n s i o n i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
h i t h e r t o u n e x p l o i t e d w e a l t h , t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y , e v e n to t h e
lowest i n c o m e groups, o f great inventions a n d c o n veniences; while competition a n d abundance u n d e n i a b l y
r a i s e d the s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g f o r m a n y p e o p l e . H o w e v e r ,

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what was to bring economic liberahsm to its death was the

fact that very soon it was to give birth, as its own c h i l d , to
that tremendous phenomenon, perhaps the most tremendous of our epoch, which is k n o w n as capitalism; and
from now o n , I think we are no longer relating ancient
history.
I should like us once a n d for a l l to be clear among
ourselves on the matter of words. W h e n we speak of
capitalism, we are not referring to private property; the
two things are not only different, but one might almost
describe them as opposed. O n e effect of capitalism was
just the annihilation, almost entirely, of private property
i n its traditional forms. This is reasonably clear i n everyone's m i n d , but it m a y not be superfluous for me to devote
a few words of further explanation to the subject. C a p i t a lism is the transformation, more or less rapidly, of what
is the direct link between a m a n a n d his goods, into an
instrument of power. T h e property of former times, the
property of the craftsman, of the small producer, of the
small trader, was as it were a projection of the i n d i v i d u a l
upon his goods. H e was their proprietor i n so far as he was
able to have these goods, use them, enjoy them, exchange
t h e m ; i f you like, it is practically i n those words that the
conception of property has resided, for centuries, i n
R o m a n law. But i n proportion as capitalism grows more
perfect and complicated, y o u w i l l observe how the
relationship between a m a n and his goods becomes more
distant, and how a series of technical instruments of
domination begins to come between them. W h a t was the
direct, h u m a n , elementary projection of relationship
between a m a n a n d his goods gets more, involved;
symbols begin to be introduced w h i c h cover the representation of a property-relationship, but they are symbols
that tend more and more to replace the living presence
of the m a n ; and when capitalism reaches its final stage of
perfection, the real proprietor of the former property is

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no longer a m a n , nor a group of men, but an abstraction

r e p r e s e n t e d b y slips o f p a p e r ; t h i s is t h e case i n w h a t is
c a l l e d the a n o n y m o u s c o m p a n y . T h e a n o n y m o u s c o m p a n y is t h e r e a l p r o p r i e t o r o f a w h o l e h e a p o f l e g a l r i g h t s ,
a n d to s u c h a p o i n t h a s i t d e h u m a n i z e d itself, to s u c h a
p i t c h is i t i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e h u m a n p r o p r i e t o r o f those
r i g h t s , t h a t t h e e x c h a n g e o f shares b y t h e i r h o l d e r s has
n o effect u p o n t h e j u r i d i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o r t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e c o m p a n y as a w h o l e .
T h u s this great c a p i t a l , this t e c h n i c a l c a p i t a l , this
c a p i t a l w h i c h attains huge p r o p o r t i o n s , not o n l y has
n o t h i n g to d o , as I s a i d , w i t h p r o p e r t y i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y
h u m a n sense o f t h e w o r d , b u t is h o s t i l e to i t . T h a t is w h y
o n m a n y o c c a s i o n s , w h e n I see h o w e m p l o y e r s a n d
w o r k m e n , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e a c h t h e stage o f v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t
e v e n to t h e p o i n t o f f a l l i n g v i c t i m s to o u t r a g e s t h a t express
a s a v a g e h a t r e d p a s t a l l r e p a i r , I t h i n k to m y s e l f t h a t
n e i t h e r side is a w a r e t h a t t h e y a r e p r o t a g o n i s t s i n a n
e c o n o m i c struggle, certainly, but one i n w h i c h , n i n e
t i m e s o u t o f t e n , b o t h lots o f t h e m a r e o n t h e s a m e side.
T h e o t h e r side, o p p o s e d to b o t h e m p l o y e r s a n d w o r k m e n ,
is t h e p o w e r o f c a p i t a l i s m , t h e t e c h n i q u e o f
financec a p i t a h s m . I f t h i s is n o t t r u e , t h e n t e l l m e , y o u w h o h a v e
far m o r e experience t h a n I h a v e i n such things, h o w
o f t e n h a v e y o u h a d to g o to t h e g r e a t c r e d i t houses to ask
for e c o n o m i c a i d , w e l l aware that they charge y o u interest
at t h e r a t e o f 7 o r 8 p e r c e n t , a n d e q u a l l y a w a r e t h a t this
m o n e y w h i c h t h e y l e n d y o u does n o t b e l o n g to t h e
i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t is l e n d i n g i t , b u t b e l o n g s to those w h o h a v e
deposited it a n d w h o are r e c e i v i n g i j o r 2 per cent
i n t e r e s t themselves ? T h i s h u g e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t t h e y c h a r g e
y o u f o r p a s s i n g t h e m o n e y f r o m o n e h a n d to a n o t h e r
weighs j o i n t l y u p o n y o u a n d u p o n y o u r w o r k m e n , w h o
m a y b e e v e n n o w a r e w a i t i n g r o u n d a c o r n e r to k i l l y o u .
I t is t h i s f i n a n c e - c a p i t a l , t h e n , w h i c h has b e e n t r a v e l l i n g
t o w a r d s its o w n c o l l a p s e i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s . N o t e t h a t its

l6o

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D E

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c o l l a p s e o c c u r s i n t w o w a y s : first, f r o m the s o c i a l p o i n t o f
v i e w (as i n d e e d w a s a l m o s t t o be e x p e c t e d ) , a n d s e c o n d ,
f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f c a p i t a l i s t t e c h n i q u e itself, as w e
a r e s h o r t l y a b o u t to see.
F r o m t h e s o c i a l p o i n t o f v i e w y o u w i l l see t h a t I a m
g o i n g to f i n d m y s e l f q u i t e i n v o l u n t a r i l y i n a g r e e m e n t o n
m o r e t h a n one p o i n t w i t h the c r i t i c i s m m a d e b y K a r l
M a r x ; as i n fact a l l o f us, n o w t h a t w e h a v e flung ourselves
i n t o p o l i t i c s , h a v e to s p e a k o f h i m c o n s t a n t l y , as w e h a v e
a l l h a d to d e c l a r e ourselves M a r x i s t s o r a n t i - M a r x i s t s . T o
some people n a t u r a l l y n o t to a n y o f y o u K a r l
M a r x a p p e a r s as a sort o f U t o p i a - s p i n n e r . W e h a v e e v e n
seen i n p r i n t t h e e x p r e s s i o n ' t h e U t o p i a n d r e a m s o f K a r l
M a r x ' . Y o u a r e o n l y t o o w e l l a w a r e t h a t i f t h e r e has b e e n
one m a n i n the w o r l d w h o was n o t a d r e a m e r , that m a n
w a s K a r l M a r x . T h e o n e t h i n g his i m p l a c a b l e s p i r i t d i d
w a s to p l a n t h i m s e l f d o w n before t h e l i v i n g r e a l i t y o f t h e
B r i t i s h e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the M a n c h e s t e r factories,
a n d deduce that w i t h i n that economic structure there were
at w o r k a n u m b e r o f c o n s t a n t factors w h i c h w o u l d e n d b y
d e s t r o y i n g i t . T h i s is w h a t K a r l M a r x s a i d i n a b o o k o f
a p p a l l i n g b u l k , w h i c h h e w a s n o t a b l e to c o m p l e t e i n his
l i f e t i m e , b u t a b o o k , to t e l l t h e t r u t h , as i n t e r e s t i n g as i t is
b u l k y ; a b o o k o f the most closely reasoned dialectic a n d o f
e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n g e n u i t y ; a b o o k , as I say, o f p u r e c r i t i c i s m ,
i n w h i c h , after p r o p h e s y i n g t h a t t h e s o c i e t y b a s e d o n this
s y s t e m w o u l d e n d b y d e s t r o y i n g itself, h e d i d n o t e v e n t a k e
t h e t r o u b l e t o say w h e n o r i n w h a t f o r m its d e s t r u c t i o n
w a s to c o m e u p o n i t . H e d i d n o m o r e t h a n s a y : G i v e n
s u c h a n d s u c h p r e m i s e s , I d e d u c e t h a t t h i s is g o i n g to e n d
b a d l y . A n d t h e n he d i e d , e v e n before p u b l i s h i n g V o l u m e s
T w o a n d T h r e e o f his w o r k , a n d h e w e n t t o t h e o t h e r
w o r l d (I d a r e n o t say to H e l l , as t h a t w o u l d be a r a s h
j u d g m e n t ) , w i t h o u t t h e slightest s u s p i c i o n t h a t o n e d a y
a S p a n i s h a n t i - M a r x i s t w a s t o arise w h o w o u l d r a n k h i m
a m o n g t h e poets.

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T h i s K a r l M a r x l o n g since a u g u r e d the s o c i a l c o l l a p s e
of capitahsm w h i c h I a m discussing w i t h y o u now. H e saw
t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g t h i n g s at least w e r e g o i n g t o o c c u r .
F i r s t , t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l w h i c h c a n n o t f a i l to be
p r o d u c e d b y large-scale i n d u s t r y . Small-scale i n d u s t r y
w o r k e d w i t h practically two ingredients alone: labour a n d
r a w m a t e r i a l . I n p e r i o d s o f c r i s i s , these t w o t h i n g s w e r e
easy to r e d u c e : less r a w m a t e r i a l w a s b o u g h t , t h e n u m b e r
o f hands e m p l o y e d was r e d u c e d , a n d p r o d u c t i o n was
r o u g h l y e q u a t e d to t h e m a r k e t ' s d e m a n d s . B u t l a r g e - s c a l e
i n d u s t r y comes i n t o b e i n g , a n d large-scale i n d u s t r y , a p a r t
f r o m that element w h i c h M a r x calls v a r i a b l e c a p i t a l ,
e m p l o y s a vast p a r t o f its reserves i n fixed c a p i t a l a vast
part, far exceeding the v a l u e o f the r a w materials a n d
w a g e s o f l a b o u r ; a n d i t sets u p g r e a t i n s t a l l a t i o n s o f
m a c h i n e r y w h i c h cannot be instantaneously r e d u c e d .
H e n c e , i f p r o d u c t i o n is to r e p a y t h i s vast c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
fixed c a p i t a l , t h e r e is n o t h i n g this t y p e o f i n d u s t r y c a n d o
b u t p r o d u c e o n a n e n o r m o u s scale, as i t d o e s ; a n d as i t
produces cheaper b y d i n t o f i n c r e a s i n g the v o l u m e o f
p r o d u c t i o n , it invades the s m a l l producers' d o m a i n ,
r u i n i n g t h e m o n e b y o n e , a n d ends b y a b s o r b i n g t h e m a l l .
T h i s l a w o f a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l was p r e d i c t e d b y
M a r x , a n d t h o u g h s o m e say i t has n o t b e e n f u l f i l l e d , w e
a r e b e g i n n i n g to see t h a t i t h a s , f o r E u r o p e a n d t h e w o r l d
a r e f u l l o f trusts, h u g e p r o d u c e r s ' f e d e r a t i o n s a n d o t h e r
t h i n g s t h a t y o u k n o w m o r e a b o u t t h a n I d o , l i k e these
m a g n i f i c e n t o n e - p r i c e stores, w h i c h c a n a f f o r d to sell a t
d u m p i n g rates b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w y o u c a n n o t s t a n d m o r e
t h a n a few m o n t h s ' c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e m , whereas they,
o n the c o n t r a r y , b y b a l a n c i n g some
establishments
a g a i n s t others a n d s o m e b r a n c h e s a g a i n s t o t h e r s , c a n f o l d
their arms a n d await your complete annihilation.
T h e s e c o n d p h e n o m e n o n t h a t s u p e r v e n e s is p r o l e tarianization. Craftsmen displaced f r o m their positions,
craftsmen w h o have been the owners o f their o w n means

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o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d w h o h a v e n a t u r a l l y h a d to sell this since

i t is n o w useless t o t h e m , a n d s i m i l a r l y s m a l l m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d s m a l l t r a d e r s , c o n t i n u e to get e c o n o m i c a l l y
c r u s h e d b y this huge, colossal, irresistible a d v a n c e o f b i g
c a p i t a l , a n d e n d b y b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the proletariat,
a n d p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d . M a r x describes this i n r e m a r k a b l y
d r a m a t i c t e r m s , a n d says t h a t these m e n , after s e l l i n g t h e i r
products, selling the means they h a d o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g
t h e i r p r o d u c t s a n d s e l l i n g t h e i r houses, h a v e n o w n o t h i n g
left t o s e l l , a n d t h e n t h e y r e a l i z e t h a t t h e y themselves
c a n be a f o r m o f m e r c h a n d i s e , t h e i r v e r y l a b o u r c a n be a
f o r m o f m e r c h a n d i s e , a n d t h e y r u s h to t h e m a r k e t to h i r e
themselves o u t i n t e m p o r a r y slavery. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n ,
t h e n , t h e p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f v a s t masses, a n d t h e i r
c o n g l o m e r a t i o n r o u n d c i t y f a c t o r i e s , is a n o t h e r s y m p t o m
o f the social b a n k r u p t c y o f capitalism.
Y e t t h e r e is s t i l l o n e m o r e to b e p r o d u c e d , a n d t h a t is
u n e m p l o y m e n t . I n t h e first d a y s o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
m a c h i n e r y t h e w o r k m e n resisted its i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e
w o r k s h o p s . T h e y r e c k o n e d t h a t these m a c h i n e s , w h i c h
c o u l d do the w o r k o f twenty, a h u n d r e d , or four h u n d r e d
w o r k m e n , w e r e g o i n g to d i s p l a c e t h e m . A s those w e r e t h e
days o f f a i t h i n 'indefinite progress', the economist o f the
day said w i t h a smile: 'These ignorant w o r k i n g m e n do
n o t r e a l i z e t h a t w h a t t h i s is g o i n g to d o is to i n c r e a s e
p r o d u c t i o n , develop trade, p r o v i d e a greater v o l u m e o f
business; there w i l l be r o o m for machines a n d for m e n . '
B u t it p r o v e d that there was not r o o m , for i n m a n y parts
m a c h i n e s have d i s p l a c e d almost a l l the m e n , to the most
outrageous degree. F o r example, i n C z e c h o s l o v a k i a n
b o t t l e p r o d u c t i o n these d a t a o c c u r t o m y m i n d i n
w h i c h 8 , 0 0 0 w o r k m e n w e r e e m p l o y e d , n o t i n 1880 b u t i n
1920, t h e r e a r e a t t h i s m o m e n t o n l y 1,000 e m p l o y e d , b u t
t h e o u t p u t o f bottles has nevertheless i n c r e a s e d .
T h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f m e n b y m a c h i n e s is n o t a c c o m p a n i e d b y even the c o m p e n s a t i o n r o m a n t i c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d

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to t h e m a c h i n e i n f o r m e r t i m e s , t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n w h i c h
c o n s i s t e d i n r e l i e v i n g m e n o f the h e a v y b u r d e n o f l a b o u r .
I t was s a i d : ' N o , the m a c h i n e s w i l l d o o u r w o r k , the
m a c h i n e s w i l l free us f r o m t o i l . ' T h i s p o e t i c a l c o m p e n s a t i o n does n o t exist, f o r w h a t t h e m a c h i n e s h a v e d o n e has
been not to reduce the men's w o r k i n g day, but, w h i l e
m a i n t a i n i n g it u n c h a n g e d for the r e d u c t i o n i n w o r k i n g
h o u r s is d u e to d i f f e r e n t causes to d i s p l a c e a l l t h e
s u r p l u s m e n . I t is c l e a r t h a t w o r k m e n ' s w a g e s h a v e
increased; but here a g a i n w e must repeat everything
t r u t h f u l l y , j u s t as w e f i n d i t i n t h e statistics. I n t h e p e r i o d
o f p r o s p e r i t y f r o m 1922 to 1929 i n t h e U n i t e d States, d o
y o u k n o w h o w m u c h t h e t o t a l v o l u m e o f w a g e s p a i d to
w o r k m e n went u p ? W e l l , i t went u p b y 5 per cent. A n d
do you know how m u c h dividends o n capital went up
d u r i n g the same p e r i o d ? W e l l , it was 86 p e r cent. T e l l
m e i f t h a t is a f a i r w a y o f s h a r i n g t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f
mechanization!
B u t it was p r e d i c t a b l e that c a p i t a l i s m s h o u l d l e a d to
this s o c i a l c o l l a p s e . W h a t w a s less p r e d i c t a b l e w a s t h a t
c a p i t a l i s m s h o u l d also suffer a t e c h n i c a l c o l l a p s e , w h i c h is
p e r h a p s w h a t is b r i n g i n g i t t o s u c h d e s p e r a t e s t r a i t s .
F o r i n s t a n c e , p e r i o d i c crises h a v e b e e n a p h e n o m e n o n
o f large-scale i n d u s t r y , a n d result f r o m just that cause I
m e n t i o n e d before, w h e n I d e a l t w i t h t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f
capital. T h e irrecoverable expenditure o f the o r i g i n a l
i n s t a l l a t i o n is d e a d - w e i g h t e x p e n d i t u r e w h i c h c a n i n n o
case be r e d u c e d as t h e m a r k e t s h r i n k s . O v e r - p r o d u c t i o n ,
t h e o v e r - p r o d u c t i o n o n a v i o l e n t scale w h i c h I s p o k e o f
before, ends b y s a t u r a t i n g t h e m a r k e t s . T h e n u n d e r c o n s u m p t i o n o c c u r s , a n d t h e m a r k e t a b s o r b s less t h a n t h e
f a c t o r i e s a r e d e l i v e r i n g to i t . I f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f o r m e r ,
small-scale e c o n o m i c system h a d been preserved, p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d d e c l i n e i n p r o p o r t i o n to d e m a n d b y m e a n s o f a
d i m i n u t i o n o f the intake of r a w materials a n d l a b o u r . B u t
as this c a n n o t be d o n e i n t h e case o f l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r y ,

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l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r y is r u i n e d ; t h a t is to say, l a r g e - s c a l e
i n d u s t r y has to face p e r i o d s o f w o r s e crisis t h a n s m a l l scale i n d u s t r y . T h i s is t h e first c o l l a p s e o f its e r s t w h i l e
pride.
A f t e r w a r d s , however, one o f the most pleasing a n d
a t t r a c t i v e notes o f t h e h e r o i c age o f l i b e r a l c a p i t a h s m
fails also, t h a t p r i d e o f its e a r l i e s t d a y s w h i c h s a i d : T
have n o n e e d whatsoever o f p u b l i c assistance; n a y , I
request t h e p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s to l e a v e m e i n p e a c e a n d n o t
to i n t e r f e r e i n m y a f f a i r s . ' I n a v e r y s h o r t s p a c e o f t i m e ,
c a p i t a l i s m b o w s its h e a d i n this d o m a i n a l s o , a n d as s o o n
as t h e p e r i o d s o f crisis a r r i v e , i t has r e c o u r s e t o p u b l i c
a s s i s t a n c e ; a n d so w e h a v e seen h o w the m o s t p o w e r f u l
c o n c e r n s h a v e r e s o r t e d to t h e b e n e v o l e n c e o f t h e state
e i t h e r to g a i n t a r i f f p r o t e c t i o n o r to o b t a i n
financial
s u p p o r t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , to q u o t e a w r i t e r h o s t i l e to t h e
c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m , t h e c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h is so h a u g h t y a n d
r e f r a c t o r y i n t h e m a t t e r o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f its p r o f i t s is
t h e first to b e g , w h e n t h i n g s a r e g o i n g b a d l y , f o r t h e
s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f its losses.
F i n a l l y , a n o t h e r a d v a n t a g e o f free e x c h a n g e a n d l i b e r a l
economics consisted i n the s t i m u l a t i o n afforded
by
competition. It was s a i d : ' B y competing i n a n open
m a r k e t , a l l producers w i l l be c o n t i n u a l l y perfecting their
p r o d u c t s , a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f those w h o b u y t h e m w i l l get
b e t t e r a n d b e t t e r . ' B u t l a r g e - s c a l e c a p i t a l i s m has a u t o matically eliminated competition by placing all product i o n i n t h e h a n d s o f a few p o w e r f u l c o n c e r n s .
T h u s h a v e c o m e a b o u t a l l t h e results w e h a v e s e e n :
crisis, p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n , p a r a l y s i s , t h e c l o s i n g o f f a c t o r i e s ,
the huge a r r a y o f proletarians w i t h o u t e m p l o y m e n t , the
E u r o p e a n w a r , the post-war days a n d m a n , w h o
aspired to live u n d e r a l i b e r a l economic a n d p o l i t i c a l
s y s t e m a n d u n d e r l i b e r a l p r i n c i p l e s t h a t filled s u c h a
p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c life w i t h s u b s t a n c e a n d h o p e ,
c a m e i n t h e e n d to find h i m s e l f r e d u c e d to t h i s a p p a l l i n g

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State. F o r m e r l y h e w a s a c r a f t s m a n o r a s m a l l m a n u facturer, perhaps a m e m b e r o f some privileged c o r p o r a t i o n , o r a c i t i z e n o f a p o w e r f u l m u n i c i p a l i t y . T o d a y h e is

n o n e o f these t h i n g s . M a n has b e e n g r a d u a l l y s t r i p p e d
o f a l l his a t t r i b u t e s , h e has b e e n left n o t h i n g b u t his
i n d i v i d u a l c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; h e has n o t h i n g n o w ,
h e has o n l y d a y a n d n i g h t ; h e has n o t e v e n a p i e c e o f l a n d
o f his o w n to set his foot o n , o r a h o u s e to l o d g e i n . T h e
citizenship of old, complete, h u m a n , integral a n d full,
has b e e n r e d u c e d to these t w o p i t i a b l e t h i n g s : a n u m b e r
o n t h e e l e c t o r a l r o l l , a n d a n u m b e r i n t h e q u e u e at t h e
f a c t o r y gates.
A n d t h e n l o o k at t h e d o u b l e p r o s p e c t f o r E u r o p e . O n
t h e o n e h a n d , t h e nearness o f a possible w a r : E u r o p e ,
despairing, out of gear, nerve-wracked, m a y w e l l rush
i n t o another w a r . A n d o n the other h a n d , the a t t r a c t i o n
o f R u s s i a , the a t t r a c t i o n o f A s i a , f o r y o u s h o u l d n o t f o r g e t
t h e A s i a t i c i n g r e d i e n t i n w h a t is c a l l e d R u s s i a n c o m m u n i s m , i n w h i c h t h e r e is as m u c h o r m o r e o f t y p i c a l l y
a n a r c h i s t i c a n d A s i a t i c i n f l u e n c e as t h e r e is o f G e r m a n i c
M a r x i a n i n f l u e n c e . L e n i n p r o c l a i m e d , as the last stage i n
t h e r e g i m e he s o u g h t to i m p l a n t he p r o c l a i m e d i t i n
the b o o k he p u b l i s h e d s h o r t l y before t h e t r i u m p h o f t h e
R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n t h a t i n t h e e n d a stateless a n d
classless society w o u l d c o m e a b o u t . T h i s last stage h a d a l l
the features o f t h e a n a r c h i s m o f B a k u n i n a n d K r o p o t k i n ;
b u t to r e a c h this stage i t was necessary to pass t h r o u g h
a n o t h e r m o s t g r i e v o u s a n d M a r x i a n o n e , the d i c t a t o r s h i p
o f the proletariat, a n d L e n i n , w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c y n i c a l
i r o n y , o b s e r v e d : ' T h i s stage w i l l n o t be free o r j u s t . T h e
state's m i s s i o n is to o p p r e s s ; a l l states o p p r e s s ; t h e w o r k i n g class state t o o w i l l h a v e to b e a n o p p r e s s o r . W h a t w i l l
o c c u r is t h a t i t w i l l be o p p r e s s i n g t h e r e c e n t l y e x p r o p r i a t e d
class, t h e class t h a t h i t h e r t o o p p r e s s e d it. T h e state w i l l n o t
be free o r j u s t . A n d , m o r e o v e r , t h e t r a n s i t i o n to t h e f i n a l
stage, t h a t v e n t u r e s o m e stage o f c o m m u n i s t a n a r c h i s m .

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w i l l c o m e a b o u t w e k n o w n o t w h e n . ' T h a t t i m e is o n e t h a t
i t has n o t r e a c h e d yet, a n d p r o b a b l y n e v e r w i l l r e a c h . T o
a E u r o p e a n consciousness, to t h e consciousness o f a
E u r o p e a n b o u r g e o i s i e o r p r o l e t a r i a t , this is a m a t t e r f o r
d r e a d a n d despair. T r u e , w h a t they have reached i n that
c o u n t r y is d i s s o l u t i o n i n m u l t i p l i c i t y o f n u m b e r , a n d
o p p r e s s i o n b e n e a t h t h e i r o n h e e l o f t h e state. B u t t h e
d e s p a i r i n g E u r o p e a n p r o l e t a r i a t , w h i c h c a n find n o
e x p l a n a t i o n o f its o w n e x i s t e n c e i n E u r o p e , l o o k s o n t h e
R u s s i a n t h i n g as a m y t h , as a r e m o t e p o s s i b i H t y o f
l i b e r a t i o n . O b s e r v e to w h a t a pass w e h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t
b y t h e final d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c
l i b e r a l i s m , p l a c i n g vast masses o f E u r o p e a n s i n t h i s
f r i g h t f u l d i l e m m a : e i t h e r a f r e s h w a r , w h i c h w i l l be t h e
s u i c i d e o f E u r o p e , o r else c o m m u n i s m , w h i c h w i l l m e a n
h a n d i n g E u r o p e o v e r to A s i a .
A n d m e a n w h i l e , w h a t o f S p a i n ? I n a c t u a l fact, o u r
political liberalism a n d our economic liberahsm have
been almost spared the t r o u b l e o f d e c a y i n g because they
have b a r e l y at a n y t i m e existed. Y o u a l r e a d y k n o w w h a t
p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m meant. Elections, u n t i l quite recent
times, were a r r a n g e d i n the M i n i s t r y o f the I n t e r i o r , a n d
t h e r e was e v e n a l a r g e n u m b e r o f S p a n i a r d s w h o c o n g r a t u l a t e d t h e m s e l v e s t h a t t h i s was so. A n g e l G a n i v e t ,
one o f the most b r i l l i a n t o f S p a n i a r d s , b a c k i n the year
1887, s a i d m o r e o r less t h i s : ' F o r t u n a t e l y , w e h a v e i n
S p a i n o n e a d m i r a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n , n a m e l y t h e encasillado
s y s t e m . T h i s a v o i d s t h e h o l d i n g o f e l e c t i o n s , for o n t h e d a y
w h e n e l e c t i o n s a r e h e l d t h e results w i l l b e v e r y serious.
O b v i o u s l y , i n o r d e r to g a i n t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e masses, v e r y
c r u d e a n d easily c o m p r e h e n d e d ideas must be p u t i n t o
c i r c u l a t i o n , b e c a u s e d i f f i c u l t i d e a s c a n n o t be b r o u g h t
h o m e t o a m u l t i t u d e ; a n d as i t w i l l t h e n be t h e case t h a t
t h e m o s t g i f t e d m e n w i l l n o t feel v e r y e a g e r to w a l k a b o u t
t h e streets s h a k i n g h a n d s w i t h t h e w o r t h y electors a n d
t a l k i n g fatuities to t h e m , it w i l l e n d u p i n the t r i u m p h o f

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those f r o m w h o m f a t u i t i e s p r o c e e d as a n a t u r a l a n d
t y p i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ' S o m e y e a r s l a t e r I t h i n k i t w a s
i n 1893 r e c a l c i t r a n t a n d t e n a c i o u s as e v e r o f his
a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c a t t i t u d e , h e w e n t so f a r as t o s a y : T a m
a n e n t h u s i a s t i c a d m i r e r o f u n i v e r s a l suffrage, o n o n e
c o n d i t i o n t h a t n o b o d y votes.' A n d h e a d d e d : ' L e t i t
n o t be t h o u g h t t h a t this is m e r e l y a j o k e i n b a d taste. I
r e a l i z e t h a t i n essence, i n p r i n c i p l e , a l l m e n s h o u l d t a k e
p a r t i n t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s affairs o f state, j u s t as I f i n d t h e
perfect s i t u a t i o n f o r m a n is to b e a p a t e r f a m i l i a s ; b u t as
t h e t w o t h i n g s a r e so d i f f i c u l t , I a d v i s e a l l t h e m e n I see
o n t h e w a y t o c o n t r a c t i n g m a r r i a g e n o t to d o so, a n d
those w h o m I find p r e p a r e d f o r v o t i n g , I a d v i s e n o t to v o t e .
F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e has n o n e e d o f t h i s
c o u n s e l b e c a u s e i t h a s i t s e l f d e c i d e d n o t to v o t e . '
S u c h , i n d e e d , has b e e n o u r p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m . A n d
w h e n it stopped b e i n g l i k e that a n d there were r e a l
elections, w e witnessed the sight o f a p a r l i a m e n t w h i c h ,
c o n v i n c e d that electoral victory e m p o w e r e d it to d o whate v e r i t s a w fit, d i d so i n d e e d , e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f c r u s h i n g
t h e rest o f h u m a n i t y .
B u t a p a r t f r o m this
fluctuation
between the l i b e r a l
r e g i m e w h i c h h a d n o existence a n d t h e C o r t e s w h i c h h a d
t o o m u c h , w e d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e S p a n i s h state,
the
S p a n i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state as w e see i t d e l i n e a t e d i n its
f u n d a m e n t a l c h a r t e r a n d a n c i l l a r y statutes, d o e s n o t
e x i s t ; i t is a m e r e j o k e , a m e r e s i m u l a c r u m o f existence.
T h e S p a n i s h state does n o t exist i n a n y o n e o f its m o s t
i m p o r t a n t institutions. W e , for e x a m p l e , are m e m b e r s o f
t h e C o r t e s ; t h e C o r t e s has o n e p r i m o r d i a l d u t y ; t h i s
p r i m o r d i a l d u t y consists i n a p p r o v i n g a n e c o n o m i c b i l l
e a c h y e a r . W e a r e at p r e s e n t l i v i n g u n d e r a n e c o n o m i c
l a w w h i c h was passed y o u a l l k n o w this, because y o u
have been told by people w i t h more authority t h a n I
f o r t h e y e a r 1934. I t w a s a p p a r e n t l y l i q u i d a t e d w i t h a
d e f i c i t o f 592 m i l l i o n pesetas; this d e f i c i t s h o u l d i n r e a l i t y

l68

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W R I T I N G S

be a b o u t Boo m i l l i o n , b e c a u s e s o m e o f t h e o b h g a t i o n s
w h i c h h a d been contracted were still p e n d i n g payment.
A n d w i t h the b u d g e t i n t h a t state, w h i c h a l l o f us w h o a r e
m e m b e r s o f t h e C o r t e s h a v e c o n d e m n e d as a b o m i n a b l e ,
w e h a v e e n t e r e d u p o n t h e y e a r 1935. W e h a v e b e e n t o o
l a z y to d r a f t a fresh b u d g e t , a n d so w e h a v e s t a r t e d t o
p r o l o n g the life o f t h e o l d o n e b y q u a r t e r l y p e r i o d s ; b u t
i n t h e first q u a r t e r l y p e r i o d , as i f i t w e r e t o o s m a l l , w e
a l r e a d y a d d e d to i t a s u m w h i c h I t h i n k w a s 73 m i l l i o n i n
e x t r a e x p e n d i t u r e , a n d after t h a t a series o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y
c r e d i t s w i l l be a d d e d , t h a n k s to w h i c h , w h e n this b u d g e t is
l i q u i d a t e d , w e s h a l l p r o u d l y d i s p l a y t o t h e eyes o f E u r o p e
the l i q u i d a t i o n o f a budget w h i c h i n the course o f n o m o r e
t h a n t w e l v e m o n t h s s w i n d l e s the c o u n t r y o u t o f 1,000
m i l l i o n pesetas.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h e n w e h a v e t h a t to face, a n d t h e w i n e
p r o b l e m w h i c h brooks no delay, a n d the w h e a t p r o b l e m ,
a n d t h e u n e m p l o y m e n t p r o b l e m , w h i c h is a r e a l a n x i e t y
a n d a real disgrace, we members o f the Cortes decide one
d a y to g r a n t ourselves a short h o l i d a y for C a r n i v a l , a
c a r n i v a l that n o b o d y celebrates a n y longer, b u t w h i c h
w e m e m b e r s o f t h e C o r t e s h a v e to c e l e b r a t e , f o r s o m e
reason that I cannot understand.
A n d what about u n e m p l o y m e n t ? W e have
about
7 0 0 , 0 0 0 o u t o f w o r k . 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 , i n a c o u n t r y t h a t is n o t
r e c o v e r i n g f r o m w a r , i n a c o u n t r y t h a t has n o t e v e n h a d
l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r y a n d is n o t , t h e r e f o r e , l i q u i d a t i n g t h e
crisis o f l a r g e - s c a l e c a p i t a l i s m ! W e h a v e 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 u n e m p l o y e d , w h o s e p h y s i c a l e x i s t e n c e is a sheer m i r a c l e
every m o r n i n g . W e l l , I don't k n o w h o w l o n g we have
b e e n t a l k i n g a b o u t those 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 u n e m p l o y e d . A s t r o n g
m i n o r i t y s a i d t h a t i t w a s g o i n g t o c o n t r i b u t e 100 m i l l i o n
pesetas f o r t h e r e l i e f o f these 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 u n e m p l o y e d . T h e n
a n o t h e r m i n o r i t y , w h i c h does n o t a l l o w i t s e l f to be o u t d o n e
i n these affairs, a m i n o r i t y w h i c h is n o w b o t h m i n o r i t y a n d
t o t a l i t y , b e c a u s e i t fills t h e g o v e r n m e n t e n t i r e l y , s a i d :

B E F O R E

P A R T I N G

OF

T H E W A Y S

169

' 1 0 0 m i l l i o n ? i , o o o m i l l i o n ! W e a r e g o i n g to g i v e

i,ooo

million!'
N o w y o u w i l l see. T h i s i , o o o m i l l i o n has b e e n the subject
of

study

and

distribution by

the

government

which

administers o u r c o u n t r y . O u t o f this i , o o o m i l l i o n w h i c h
is e a r m a r k e d f o r t h e r e l i e f o f u n e m p l o y m e n t , 750 m i l h o n
pesetas a r e a p p l i e d to t h e b u i l d i n g o f p u b l i c edifices. Y o u
w i l l a p p r e c i a t e t h a t t h e e r e c t i o n o f p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s does
n o t s e e m to be a w a y o f n o r m a l i z i n g t h e e c o n o m y . I t is
t o be h o p e d t h a t w e s h a l l n o t use u p 750 m i l l i o n pesetas
a y e a r i n e r e c t i n g p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s . B u t i t is also t h e case
t h a t w h e n w e take t h e figures o f u n e m p l o y m e n t , w e

find

that m o r e t h a n 400,000 u n e m p l o y e d , out o f the 700,000

t h a t t h e r e are a l t o g e t h e r , a r e r u r a l w o r k e r s , w h o w i l l n o t
see a s i n g l e peseta o f t h e 750 m i l l i o n .
S u c h is o u r state, a state w h i c h , o n p e r s o n n e l ( a n d I

find

i t m o s t p r o p e r t h a t the state p e r s o n n e l s h o u l d d r a w t h e i r
p a y ; they h a v e n o t s e i z e d p u b l i c office b y f o r c e ; t h e y h a v e
c o m e i n b e c a u s e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o p e n e d its d o o r s to
t h e m ; t h u s i n a l l this t h e r e is n o c e n s u r e o f the staff w h o
serve i n p u b l i c office) w h i c h spends o n p e r s o n n e l ,
repeat,

according

to

highly

reliable

estimates,

1,350

m i l h o n pesetas a y e a r , a p a r t f r o m the 313 m i l l i o n w h i c h

goes t o state p e n s i o n e r s .
A g a i n , I w o u l d s a y : this w o u l d b e a l l v e r y w e l l i f this
state s e r v e d s o m e p u r p o s e . B u t t h i s l u x u r i o u s state, this
state w h i c h d e p r i v e s i t s e l f o f n o t h i n g , this state w h i c h w e
m a i n t a i n w i t h a l l t h e taxes,

a l l the c o n t r i b u t i o n s , a n d

furthermore a l l that we l e n d it each year, w h i c h w i l l soon

be u n a b l e to g o o n a s k i n g b e c a u s e n o b o d y w i l l t r u s t i t ,
this state c a r r i e s o u t n o services. T o d a y , i n d e e d , i t has
c e r t a i n l y got t h e m a l l o r g a n i z e d . I h a v e b e e n t o l d (I h a v e
not checked it, b u t I tell y o u w h i c h things are u n c h e c k e d
so t h a t y o u m a y r e c e i v e t h e m as s u c h ) t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l
pests are d e a l t w i t h b y the state i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r :
w h e n t l i e r c is a n o u t b r e a k i n t h e c o u n t r y , the o w n e r o f t h e

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l a n d files a p e t i t i o n f o r t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e pest.
N a t u r a l l y , b y t h e t i m e t h a t t h e file is d e a l t w i t h , t h e r e is
n o n e e d to b o t h e r a b o u t e x t e r m i n a t i o n .
N e i t h e r d i d e c o n o m i c l i b e r a l i s m r e a l l y c o m e to f a i l i n
S p a i n , b e c a u s e t h e best p e r i o d o f e c o n o m i c l i b e r a l i s m , t h e
h e r o i c age o f c a p i t a l i s m i n its o r i g i n a l stages, w a s n e v e r
e x p e r i e n c e d , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , b y S p a n i s h c a p i t a l at a l l .
H e r e , b i g business r e s o r t e d to state a i d f r o m t h e o u t s e t ;
n o t o n l y d i d t h e y n o t reject i t , b u t t h e y a p p l i e d f o r i t , a n d
f r e q u e n t l y as y o u a r e a w a r e a n d a l l r e m e m b e r t h e y
n o t o n l y got state a i d , n o t o n l y set a b o u t n e g o t i a t i n g
p r o t e c t i v e increases i n tariffs, b u t t u r n e d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s
themselves i n t o a w e a p o n for the purpose o f e x t r a c t i n g
e v e r y sort o f c o n c e s s i o n f r o m t h e S p a n i s h state.
N o w i n t h i s S p a i n w h i c h has n e v e r b e e n h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d a n d is n o t o v e r p o p u l a t e d ; w h i c h d i d n o t g o
t h r o u g h the w a r ; w h e r e w e still h a v e the possibility o f
restoring handicrafts, w h i c h largely r e m a i n i n existence;
where we have a strong, close-knit, disciplined a n d h a r d y
mass o f s m a l l p r o d u c e r s a n d s m a l l - s c a l e m e r c h a n t s ; w h e r e
w e h a v e a series o f s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s i n t a c t ; i n s u c h a S p a i n ,
w h a t a r e w e w a i t i n g f o r i n o r d e r to r e g a i n o u r c h a n c e a n d
t o p l a c e ourselves o n c e m o r e , a m b i t i o u s as i t m a y s o u n d ,
at t h e h e a d o f E u r o p e i n a f e w y e a r s ' t i m e ? W e l l , w e a r e
w a i t i n g for the parties o f the Left a n d the parties o f the
R i g h t to r e a l i z e t h a t those t w o t h i n g s a r e i n s e p a r a b l e ; a n d
n o w y o u see t h a t I d o n o t b l a m e t h e m f o r a n y t r i f l i n g
i n c i d e n t , I b l a m e t h e m f o r this i n c a p a c i t y to t a c k l e t h e
a l l - r o u n d p r o b l e m o f m a n ' s i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o his n a t i v e l a n d .
T h e p a r t i e s o f t h e L e f t d o see m a n , b u t t h e y see h i m
w i t h o u t r o o t s . T h e c o n s t a n t f a c t o r o f t h e Leftists is to t a k e
a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e l o t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , as a g a i n s t a l l
h i s t o r i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , a l l p o l i t i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , as i f these
w e r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y t e r m s . T h a t is w h y L e f t i s m is d i s i n t e g r a t i v e ; i t is a c c o r d i n g l y c o r r o s i v e ; i t is i r o n i c a l , a n d
a l t h o u g h e n d o w e d w i t h a b r i l l i a n t collection o f talents, it

B E F O R E

PARTING

OF

T H E WAYS

17I

is n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y p r o n e to d e s t r u c t i o n , a n d h a r d l y e v e r
m u c h g o o d at b u i l d i n g u p . R i g h t i s m : t h e p a r t i e s o f t h e
R i g h t e n v i s a g e t h e scene f r o m j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e a n g l e .
T h e y also insist o n l o o k i n g at i t w i t h o n l y o n e eye, i n s t e a d
o f l o o k i n g at i t s q u a r e l y w i t h b o t h eyes. R i g h t i s m w a n t s
t o p r e s e r v e t h e f a t h e r l a n d , w a n t s to c o n s e r v e u n i t y , w a n t s
to c o n s e r v e a u t h o r i t y ; b u t i t neglects this a n g u i s h o f m a n ,
t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e n e i g h b o u r , w h o has n o t h i n g to eat.
T h i s is s t r i c t l y t h e t r u t h , a n d b o t h sides c l o a k t h e i r
i n s u f f i c i e n c y w i t h a c l o u d o f w o r d s : the first i n v o k e t h e
fatherland without w h o l l y feeling or w h o l l y serving i t ;
t h e others p a l l i a t e t h e i r d i s d a i n , t h e i r i n d i f f e r e n c e to t h e
deep p r o b l e m of every m a n , w i t h formulae w h i c h i n
r e a l i t y are o n l y a c l o u d o f words w i t h n o m e a n i n g . H o w
often h a v e w e h e a r d m e n o f t h e R i g h t s a y : ' W e l i v e i n a
n e w age, w e m u s t set u p a s t r o n g state, w e m u s t h a r m o n i z e
c a p i t a l a n d l a b o u r , w e h a v e to seek a c o r p o r a t i v e f o r m o f
e x i s t e n c e ' ? I assure y o u t h a t n o n e o f t h a t m e a n s a t h i n g ,
i t is a l l m e r e w i n d b a g g e r y . H a r m o n i z i n g c a p i t a l a n d
l a b o u r ... this is as i f I w e r e to s a y : ' I a m g o i n g to h a r m o n i z e m y s e l f w i t h this c h a i r . ' C a p i t a l I h a v e a l r e a d y
taken u p some time i n distinguishing capital f r o m private
p r o p e r t y is a n e c o n o m i c i n s t r u m e n t w h i c h m u s t serve
t h e e n t i r e e c o n o m y , a n d h e n c e m u s t n o t be a n i n s t r u m e n t
for the a d v a n t a g e a n d privilege o f the few w h o h a d the
l u c k to get i n first. S o t h a t w h e n t h e y t a l k o f h a r m o n i z i n g
c a p i t a l a n d l a b o u r , w h a t is m e a n t is t h a t a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t
p r i v i l e g e d m i n o r i t y m u s t c o n t i n u e to be n o u r i s h e d u p o n
the exertions o f a l l , the exertions o f b o t h workers a n d
e m p l o y e r s a fine w a y o f s o l v i n g t h e s o c i a l p r o b l e m a n d
interpreting economic justice!
A n d the c o r p o r a t i v e state? T h a t ' s another t h i n g . N o w
a l l are partisans o f the c o r p o r a t i v e state; they t h i n k that
i f t h e y are n o t p a r t i s a n s o f t h e c o r p o r a t i v e state, p e o p l e
a r e g o i n g to r e p r o a c h t h e m f o r n o t h a v i n g s h a v e d this
m o r n i n g , or s o m e t h i n g o f the k i n d .

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PRIMO DE R I V E R A :

SELECTED

Vi'RITINGS

T h i s S t u f f a b o u t t h e c o r p o r a t i v e state is a n o t h e r p i e c e
o f w i n d b a g g e r y . M u s s o l i n i , w h o has s o m e i d e a o f w h a t t h e
c o r p o r a t i v e state m e a n s , m a d e a s p e e c h w h e n he i n a u g u r ated the twenty-two corporations a few m o n t h s ago, a n d
i n i t h e s a i d : ' T h i s is n o m o r e t h a n a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t ; i t is
n o t a d e s t i n a t i o n . ' U p to t h e p r e s e n t m o m e n t , c o r p o r a t i v e
o r g a n i z a t i o n m e a n s n o t h i n g else, a p p r o x i m a t e l y a n d o n
general lines, t h a n t h i s : the w o r k m e n f o r m one great
f e d e r a t i o n ; t h e e m p l o y e r s (the g i v e r s o f w o r k , as t h e y a r e
called i n Italy) f o r m another great federation; a n d
b e t w e e n these t w o g r e a t f e d e r a t i o n s the state erects as i t
w e r e a sort o f c o n n e c t i n g - p i e c e . A s a p r o v i s i o n a l s o l u t i o n i t
is a l l r i g h t ; b u t n o t e c a r e f u l l y t h a t this is a d e v i c e v e r y
s i m i l a r , o n a g i g a n t i c scale, t o o u r o w n Jurados
Mixtos.
T h i s d e v i c e has h i t h e r t o m a i n t a i n e d t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n
o f l a b o u r u n c h a n g e d o n t h a t basis w h i c h c a p i t a l i s t
economics h a d fashioned for i t ; the p o s i t i o n still obtains
i n w h i c h o n e g i v e s e m p l o y m e n t a n d t h e o t h e r h i r e s o u t his
o w n l a b o u r i n o r d e r to l i v e . I n a f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h
seems r e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d w h i c h is v e r y o l d ( b e c a u s e i t is
the structure w h i c h the ancient E u r o p e a n guilds h a d ) ,
w e s h a l l r e a c h t h e stage o f n o t b u y i n g a n d s e l l i n g l a b o u r
as m e r c h a n d i s e , a n d o f n o t k e e p i n g u p t h i s b i l a t e r a l
l a b o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p ; b u t a l l w h o t a k e p a r t i n t h e task,
a l l w h o f o r m a n d c o m p l e t e t h e n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y , w i l l be
constituted i n v e r t i c a l syndicates, w h i c h w i l l not need
p a r a l l e l committees or liaison m a c h i n e r y , because they
w i l l o p e r a t e o r g a n i c a l l y , as f o r e x a m p l e t h e a r m y f u n c t i o n s
w i t h o u t its h a v i n g o c c u r r e d to a n y o n e to f o r m p a r a l l e l
c o m m i t t e e s o f m e n a n d officers.
A n d w i t h these v a g u e i d e a s o f a c o r p o r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e state, a n d t h a t o f t h e s t r o n g state, a n d t h a t o f
h a r m o n i z i n g c a p i t a l a n d l a b o u r , the representatives o f
t h e r i g h t - w i n g p a r t i e s r e a l l y b e l i e v e t h e y h a v e s o l v e d the
social question a n d adopted a juster a n d more m o d e r n
political position.

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P A R T I N G OF T H E WAYS

173

A l l t h a t is j u s t a y a r n . T h e o n l y w a y to solve t h e s o c i a l
q u e s t i o n is t o c h a n g e t h e e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n f r o m
a b o v e d o w n w a r d s . T h i s r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e e c o n o m y is n o t
g o i n g to consist as i t is b e i n g p u t a b o u t t h a t w e i n t e n d
b y p e o p l e w h o say a n y t h i n g t h a t c o m e s to t h e i r ears
w i t h o u t d e v o t i n g five m i n u t e s t o a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f i t
is n o t g o i n g to consist i n t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
b y t h e state, i n state p a n t h e i s m .
T h e total r e v o l u t i o n , the t o t a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f E u r o p e ,
m u s t b e g i n w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l , because he w h o has
suffered m o s t f r o m t h i s d i s r u p t i o n , h e w h o has b e e n
r e d u c e d to a sheer m o l e c u l e , w i t h o u t p e r s o n a l i t y , w i t h o u t
s u b s t a n c e , w i t h o u t c o n t e n t , w i t h o u t e x i s t e n c e , is t h e
hapless i n d i v i d u a l w h o has b e e n left to t h e last i n r e c e i v i n g
the a d v a n t a g e s o f l i f e . A l l t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , a l l t h e n e w
r e v o l u t i o n , a l l t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e state a n d a l l t h e
e c o n o m i c r e o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l be d e s i g n e d t o a l l o w t h e
a d v a n t a g e s t o b e e n j o y e d b y those h u g e masses u p r o o t e d
b y l i b e r a l economics a n d the c o m m u n i s t attack.
Is t h i s t o b e c a l l e d a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l b y t h e
state ? W h a t h a p p e n s i n t h i s s y s t e m is t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l
w i l l h a v e t h e s a m e d e s t i n y as t h e state. T h e state w i l l h a v e
t w o q u i t e c l e a r a i m s , as w e h a v e a l w a y s s a i d : o n e ,
o u t w a r d s , to s t r e n g t h e n t h e f a t h e r l a n d ; t h e o t h e r , i n w a r d s , to m a k e a l a r g e r n u m b e r o f m e n h a p p i e r a n d to
a l l o w t h e m their h u m a n i t y a n d to give t h e m m o r e share
i n h u m a n life. A n d o n the d a y w h e n the i n d i v i d u a l a n d
t h e state, i n t e g r a t e d i n o n e c o m p l e t e h a r m o n y , r e s t o r e d
to one complete h a r m o n y , have a single a i m , a single
d e s t i n y , a s i n g l e l o t i n l i f e , t h e n i n d e e d t h e state m a y be
s t r o n g w i t h o u t b e i n g t y r a n n i c a l , f o r i t w i l l b e u s i n g its
s t r e n g t h f o r its subjects' g o o d a n d p r o s p e r i t y a l o n e .
T h i s is e x a c t l y w h a t S p a i n o u g h t to b e s e t t i n g a b o u t at
the present h o u r . S p a i n o u g h t to assume the role o f
h a r m o n i z e r o f man's destiny a n d that o f the f a t h e r l a n d ;
o u g h t to r e a l i z e t h a t m a n c a n n o t b e free, is n o t free, unless

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S E L E C T E D

WRITINGS

h e Hves as a m a n , a n d h e c a n n o t l i v e as a m a n unless he is
assured o f a c e r t a i n m i n i m u m l i v e l i h o o d , a n d he c a n n o t
h a v e t h a t m i n i m u m l i v e l i h o o d unless t h e e c o n o m y is
d e s i g n e d o n d i f f e r e n t bases w h i c h w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e
possibility o f enjoyment for m i l l i o n s a n d m i l l i o n s o f m e n ,
a n d t h e e c o n o m y c a n n o t be so d e s i g n e d w i t h o u t a s t r o n g
o r g a n i z i n g state, a n d t h e r e c a n n o t b e a s t r o n g o r g a n i z i n g
state e x c e p t i n t h e s e r v i c e o f a g r e a t u n i t y o f d e s t i n y , w h i c h
is t h e f a t h e r l a n d ; a n d t h e n see h o w e v e r y t h i n g w o r k s
b e t t e r , see h o w a n e n d w i l l be p u t to t h a t t i t a n i c , t r a g i c
s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n m a n a n d t h e state w h i c h feels i t s e l f to b e
m a n ' s o p p r e s s o r . W h e n t h a t is a c h i e v e d ( a n d i t c a n b e
a c h i e v e d , a n d t h e r e lies t h e k e y to t h e existence o f E u r o p e ,
f o r E u r o p e w a s l i k e t h a t w h e n i t w a s E u r o p e , a n d so s h a l l
E u r o p e a n d S p a i n h a v e to b e c o m e a g a i n ) , w e s h a l l k n o w
t h a t i n e v e r y o n e o f o u r acts, i n o u r m o s t f a m i l i a r acts, i n
t h e h u m b l e s t o f o u r d a i l y tasks, w e a r e s e r v i n g n o t o n l y
o u r modest i n d i v i d u a l destiny, but the destiny o f S p a i n ,
o f E u r o p e a n d the w o r l d , the total a n d h a r m o n i o u s
destiny o f the C r e a t i o n .

SPEECH O N T H E SUBJECT OF
THE SPANISH R E V O L U T I O N
M a d e at the M a d r i d C i n e m a , M a d r i d , M a y 19th, 1935

C o m r a d e s : T h e f u n c t i o n at t h e T e a t r o C o m e d i a , w h i c h
has b e e n m e n t i o n e d s e v e r a l t i m e s h e r e this m o r n i n g , w a s
a p r e h i d e . It h a d a l l the w a r m t h , a n d still r e t a i n e d , i f y o u
l i k e , a l l the i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , o f c h i l d h o o d . T o d a y ' s e v e n t
is c h a r g e d w i t h t h e g r a v e s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i t is a n o p p o r t u n i t y to a c c o u n t f o r a l o n g d a y o f a y e a r a n d a h a l f , a n d
i t is also t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w p h a s e w h i c h is c e r t a i n t o
e n d i n the definitive t r i u m p h i n S p a i n o f the S p a n i s h
F a l a n g e o f t h e J . O . N . S . B y this m i l e s t o n e o n o u r r o a d , a n d
a l r e a d y i n the l i g h t o f h i s t o r y , r i g o r o u s p r e c i s i o n a n d
s p e c i f i c a t i o n a r e e x p e c t e d o f us, a n d i t is m y d u t y to
f u r n i s h t h a t this m o r n i n g e v e n t h o u g h i n t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f
t h i s d u t y I m a y h a v e to sacrifice s o m e o f t h e e l o q u e n c e I
m i g h t p e r h a p s be a b l e t o a t t a i n a n d s o m e o f t h e v e r y
g r a t i f y i n g flattery o f y o u r a p p l a u s e .
O u r m o v e m e n t a n d w h e n I speak o f o u r m o v e m e n t
I a m r e f e r r i n g e q u a l l y to t h e S p a n i s h F a l a n g e a n d to t h e
J . O . N . S . , since b o t h a r e b y n o w i r r e m i s s i b l y j o i n e d
flows n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f A p r i l 14th, as
O n e s i m o R e d o n d o has r i g h t l y s a i d . I t was o n A p r i l 14th,
1931, t h a t w e first a p p e a r e d o v e r S p a i n . T h i s d a t e as
y o u a l l k n o w has b e e n r e g a r d e d f r o m v e r y d i f f e r e n t
p o i n t s o f v i e w ; l i k e a l l dates o f h i s t o r i c s i g n i f i c a n c e i t has
been l o o k e d u p o n w i t h a g o o d deal of dullness a n d a g o o d
d e a l o f i g n o r a n c e . W e , w h o a r e as f a r r e m o v e d f r o m those
w h o s m a s h coats o f a r m s o n h o u s e fronts as f r o m those w h o
m e r e l y h a n k e r after p a l a c e r i g a d o o n s , m u s t seek to e v a l u a t e
175

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WRITINGS

e x a c t l y a n d , I r e p e a t , i n the l i g h t o f h i s t o r y the s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f A p r i l 14th w i t h r e g a r d to o u r m o v e m e n t .
I n t r u t h i t m u s t be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y was n o t d e m o l i s h e d o n A p r i l 14th, 1931. T h e
Spanish m o n a r c h y h a d been the historical tool o f one
o f t h e greatest u n i v e r s a l c o n c e p t s . I t h a d f o u n d e d a n d
s u s t a i n e d a n e m p i r e , a n d i t h a d d o n e so p r e c i s e l y t h a n k s
t o w h a t was its b a s i c v i r t u e , n a m e l y t h e fact t h a t i t was a
s i n g l e a u t h o r i t y . W i t h o u t a s i n g l e a u t h o r i t y y o u get
n o w h e r e . B u t t h e m o n a r c h y c e a s e d q u i t e s o m e t i m e a g o to
be a s i n g l e a u t h o r i t y . A l r e a d y i n t h e r e i g n o f P h i l i p I I I , i t
was not the k i n g w h o r u l e d ; the k i n g r e m a i n e d the visible
s i g n ; b u t t h e exercise o f p o w e r b e c a m e t h e d o m a i n o f his
f a v o u r i t e s , his m i n i s t e r s : o f L e r m a , O l i v a r e s , A r a n d a ,
G o d o y . B y the t i m e C h a r l e s I V c a m e a l o n g , t h e m o n a r c h y
was n o m o r e t h a n a s i m u l a c r u m , w i t h o u t s u b s t a n c e . T h e
m o n a r c h y , w h i c h h a d its b e g i n n i n g s i n t h e e n c a m p m e n t s ,
s h u t i t s e l f a w a y i n t h e C o r t e s . N o w t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e are
i m p l a c a b l e realists; the S p a n i s h people w h o d e m a n d
t h a t t h e i r p a t r o n saints b r i n g t h e m r a i n w h e n n e e d b e ,
a n d w h o t u r n t h e m a b o u t o n t h e i r a l t a r s , face to t h e w a l l ,
i f t h e y f a i l t o d e l i v e r the g o o d s t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e , I
say, d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d this s i m u l a c r u m o f a m o n a r c h y
w i t h o u t p o w e r ; this is w h y o n A p r i l 1 4 t h , 1931, t h a t
s i m u l a c r u m f e l l f r o m its p l a c e w i t h o u t e v e n a p a r t y o f
halberdiers entering the fray.
B u t w h a t h a p p e n e d t h e n ? R a r e l y has t h e r e b e e n a
m o m e n t m o r e propitious for the o p e n i n g , w i t h the e n d o f
one chapter, of a n e w a n d great chapter i n o u r country's
h i s t o r y . I t w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e b l o o d l e s s n a t u r e o f A p r i l 14th,
t h e fact t h a t a n i n s t i t u t i o n w a s r e m o v e d w i t h o u t b l o o d s h e d
a n d w i t h o u t h a r m , almost u n m o u r n c d , that opened u p a
v a s t h i s t o r i c a l p l a i n w h e r e o n to g a l l o p . T h e r e was n o n e e d
to s u b s t a n t i a t e r e s e n t m e n t s , n o n e e d to e x a c t h a r s h j u s t i c e , h a r d l y t h e n e e d e v e n to d r y a n y tears. A h e a d l a y a
clear hope for a n entire p e o p l e ; y o u w i l l r e m e m b e r the

SPEECH

ON T H E SPANISH R E V O L U T I O N

177

r e j o i c i n g o f A p r i l 14th, a n d s u r e l y m a n y o f y o u w i l l h a v e
j o i n e d i n the r e j o i c i n g . L i k e a l l instances o f p o p u l a r
r e j o i c i n g , i t w a s i n c o h e r e n t a n d u n p e r c e p t i v e o f its o w n
e x p l a n a t i o n ; b u t b e n e a t h t h e surface, l i k e a l l p o p u l a r
m o v e m e n t s , i t was v e r y p r e c i s e l y a n d p r o f o u n d l y c o h e r e n t .
T h e r e j o i c i n g o f A p r i l 14th w a s y e t a g a i n a r e u n i o n o f t h e
S p a n i s h people w i t h the age-old nostalgia for their still
o u t s t a n d i n g r e v o l u t i o n . T h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e m u s t h a v e its
r e v o l u t i o n a n d b e l i e v e d t h a t this h a d f i n a l l y c o m e o n
A p r i l 14th, 1931. T h e p e o p l e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n
h a d c o m e b e c a u s e t h a t d a y s e e m e d to h a r b o u r t h e p r o m i s e
o f two l o n g yearned-for things: firstly, the restitution o f a
collective n a t i o n a l s p i r i t ; a n d then the l a y i n g d o w n o f
m a t e r i a l , h u m a n e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r a h a r m o n i o u s life o f a l l
S p a n i a r d s together.
W a s i t t o o m u c h to e x p e c t t h e m e n o f A p r i l 1 4 t h to be
i m b u e d w i t h a collective n a t i o n a l spirit? M a n y things
c o u l d be s a i d a g a i n s t t h e m ; b u t p e r h a p s s o m e o f these
v e r y t h i n g s c o n s t i t u t e d the best g a u g e o f t h e i r p r o m i s e . I t
s e e m e d t h a t t h e m e n o f A p r i l 14th w e r e f i n d i n g t h e i r w a y
b a c k to p a t r i o t i s m a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e f i n d i n g t h e i r w a y
b a c k b y the best p o s s i b l e r o a d : t h e b i t t e r r o a d o f c r i t i c i s m .
T h a t w a s t h e i r p r o m i s e o f f r u i t f u l n e s s : f o r let m e t e l l y o u ,
t h e r e c a n be n o f r u i t f u l p a t r i o t i s m unless i t c o m e s v i a
t h e r o a d o f c r i t i c i s m . W e are n o t m o v e d i n t h e least b y t h e
k i n d o f o p e r e t t a - j i n g o i s m w h i c h revels i n m e d i o c r i t y a n d
i n t h e p r e s e n t pettiness o f S p a i n a n d i n c r u d e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e past. W e l o v e S p a i n a l l t h e m o r e b e c a u s e w e
d o n o t l i k e to see h e r t h e w a y she is. T h o s e w h o l o v e t h e i r
f a t h e r l a n d b e c a u s e t h e y l i k e i t t h e w a y i t is, l o v e i t w i t h
a y e a r n i n g for c o n t a c t , l o v e i t p h y s i c a l l y , s e n s u a l l y . W e
l o v e S p a i n w i t h a y e a r n i n g for p e r f e c t i o n . W e d o n o t l o v e
t h e r u i n a t i o n , the d e c a d e n c e , o f w h a t o u r p h y s i c a l S p a i n
is n o w . W e l o v e t h e e t e r n a l a n d i m m u t a b l e m e t a p h y s i c s
of Spain.
T h e basis o f h u m a n f e l l o w s h i p , t h e m a t e r i a l basis t h a t
12

Ij8

PRIMO DE R I V E R A :

SELECTED

WRITINGS

w o u l d e n a b l e t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e to settle d o w n , has
likewise been o u t s t a n d i n g for m a n y centuries.
T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f c a p i t a l i s m is
u n i v e r s a l . T h i s is n o t t h e t i m e f o r m e t o g o i n t o t h e
t e c h n i c a l aspects o f t h i s . O t h e r speakers h a v e a l r e a d y
t a l k e d o n t h e subject. B e f o r e o t h e r a u d i e n c e s , i n o t h e r
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , I m y s e l f h a v e s p o k e n o f this i n g r e a t e r
detail. T o d a y , addressing a l l o f y o u , I merely w a n t to
p i n - p o i n t t h e c o n t e n t o f c e r t a i n w o r d s , so t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t
b e d i s t o r t e d f o r us.
A s y o u k n o w v e r y w e l l , w h e n we speak o f c a p i t a l i s m ,
w e a r e n o t s p e a k i n g o f p r o p e r t y . P r i v a t e p r o p e r t y is t h e
o p p o s i t e o f c a p i t a l i s m : p r o p e r t y is t h e d i r e c t p r o j e c t i o n
o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l o n m a t t e r ; i t is a b a s i c h u m a n a t t r i b u t e .
C a p i t a l i s m has g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d this p r o p e r t y o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l w i t h the property o f capital, the technical
i n s t r u m e n t o f e c o n o m i c d o m i n a t i o n . W i t h the d r e a d f u l
a n d unfair competition between large capital a n d small
p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , c a p i t a l i s m has g r a d u a l l y a n n i h i l a t e d
craftsmanship, s m a l l industry a n d small-scale agriculture;
i t has g r a d u a l l y d e l i v e r e d e v e r y t h i n g a n d is i n c r e a s i n g l y
d o i n g so i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e b i g trusts, o f t h e b i g
b a n k i n g c o n c e r n s . U l t i m a t e l y , c a p i t a l i s m r e d u c e s bosses
a n d w o r k e r s , e m p l o y e e s a n d e m p l o y e r s , t o t h e selfsame
state o f a n x i e t y , t o t h e s a m e s u b h u m a n c o n d i t i o n o f t h e
m a n d e p r i v e d o f a l l h i s a t t r i b u t e s , w h o s e life is s t r i p p e d o f
a l l m e a n i n g . A n d this I r e a l l y w o u l d l i k e impressed o n
e v e r y b o d y ' s m i n d ; i t is h i g h t i m e f o r us t o stop l e n d i n g
ourselves t o t h e a m b i g u i t y w h i c h m a k e s w o r k i n g - c l a s s
p a r t i e s o u t t o be a n t i - e m p l o y e r s o r w h i c h m a k e s t h e g r o u p s
o f e m p l o y e r s o u t to be a n t a g o n i s t s a n d foes e n g a g e d i n a
fight against the workers. W o r k e r s , industrialists, technicians a n d managers together m a k e u p the entire texture
o f p r o d u c t i o n ; a n d o n the other h a n d w e have the c a p i talist system w h i c h b y means o f expensive credit a n d the
outrageous privileges o f shareholders a n d stockholders

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takes t h e b e t t e r p a r t o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t d o i n g a n y
work, r u i n i n g a n d impoverishing employers, industrialists,
managers a n d workers alike.
C o n s i d e r w h a t a state E u r o p e a n m a n has b e e n r e d u c e d
t o b y c a p i t a l i s m . H e n o l o n g e r has his o w n h o u s e , h e n o
l o n g e r has his i n h e r i t a n c e , he n o l o n g e r has his i n d i v i d u a l i t y , h e n o l o n g e r has h i s c r a f t s m a n ' s s k i l l , h e is n o m o r e
t h a n a n a g g l o m e r a t e d cypher. T h e r e are left-wing d e m a g o g u e s a r o u n d , w h o d e n o u n c e f e u d a l p r o p e r t y a n d say t h a t
t h e w o r k e r s l i v e l i k e slaves. V e r y w e l l : w e , w h o d o n o t
i n d u l g e i n a n y d e m a g o g y , c a n say t h a t f e u d a l p r o p e r t y w a s
m u c h better t h a n capitalist p r o p e r t y , a n d that the workers
a r e w o r s e o f f t h a n slaves. F o r w h i l e g i v i n g t h e l o r d c e r t a i n
rights, feudal property imposed o n h i m a n u m b e r of
o b l i g a t i o n s ; h e h a d to l o o k after the defence a n d e v e n t h e
m a i n t e n a n c e o f his subjects. C a p i t a l i s t p r o p e r t y is c o l d
a n d h e a r t l e s s ; a t best, i t r e f r a i n s f r o m c o l l e c t i n g t h e r e n t ,
b u t i t is i n d i f f e r e n t to t h e fate o f those i t h o l d s i n s u b j e c t i o n .
Slaves were a p a r t o f their lord's i n h e r i t e d f o r t u n e : the
l o r d h a d to take care that the slave d i d not die o n h i m ,
f o r t h e slave cost h i m m o n e y , j u s t l i k e a m a c h i n e , l i k e
a h o r s e ; w h i l e i f a w o r k e r dies n o w a d a y s , t h e g r e a t l o r d s
of capitalist industry k n o w that they have hundreds of
t h o u s a n d s o f s t a r v i n g souls w a i t i n g a t t h e gates to t a k e his
place.
O n e m a n , w h o s e p e r s o n a l i t y is b o t h h o r r i f y i n g a n d
attractive, n a m e l y K a r l M a r x , p r e d i c t e d this w h o l e
s p e c t a c l e w e a r e w i t n e s s i n g , t h e crisis o f c a p i t a l i s m .
N o w a d a y s , e v e r y b o d y keeps c a l l i n g h i m s e l f a M a r x i s t o r
a n a n t i - M a r x i s t . A n d I ask y o u , w i t h t h e r i g o r o u s
conscience-searching I a m p u t t i n g into m y words, w h at
does i t m e a n to be a n t i - M a r x i s t ? D o e s i t m e a n n o t
w a n t i n g M a r x ' s p r e d i c t i o n s to c o m e t r u e ? I n t h a t case w e
are a l l agreed. Does it m e a n that M a r x was m i s t a k e n i n
h i s p r e d i c t i o n s ? I n t h a t case those a r e m i s t a k e n w h o
c l a i m t h a t he e r r e d .

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M a r x ' s p r e d i c t i o n s a r e c o m i n g t r u e m o r e o r less r a p i d l y ,
b u t r e l e n t l e s s l y . W e are m o v i n g t o w a r d s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of c a p i t a l ; we are m o v i n g towards a p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n
o f t h e masses; a n d w e are m o v i n g finally t o w a r d s a s o c i a l
r e v o l u t i o n w h i c h w i l l feature a n extremely h a r s h p e r i o d
of communist dictatorship. A n d such a communist
d i c t a t o r s h i p m u s t h o r r i f y us, E u r o p e a n s , W e s t e r n e r s ,
C h r i s t i a n s t h a t w e a r e , f o r t h a t i n d e e d w o u l d be t h e
dreadful negation of m a n , that indeed w o u l d mean man's
a b s o r p t i o n i n t o a n i m m e n s e a m o r p h o u s mass, w h e r e i n
i n d i v i d u a l i t y w i l l be lost, w h e r e i n t h e c o r p o r e a l v e s t m e n t
o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d his e t e r n a l s o u l w i l l be d i l u t e d .
T a k e g o o d n o t e t h a t t h i s is w h y w e a r e a n t i - M a r x i s t ;
t h a t w e a r e a n t i - M a r x i s t b e c a u s e w e a r e h o r r i f i e d , as
e v e r y W e s t e r n e r is h o r r i f i e d , e v e r y C h r i s t i a n , e v e r y
E u r o p e a n , be h e e m p l o y e r o r p r o l e t a r i a n , b y t h e p r o s p e c t
o f being like some inferior creature i n a n ant-heap. A n d
we are h o r r i f i e d because we k n o w s o m e t h i n g o f that
p r o s p e c t , t h a n k s to c a p i t a l i s m ; c a p i t a l i s m , t o o , is i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d m a t e r i a l i s t i c . T h a t is w h y w e w a n t n e i t h e r
t h e o n e n o r t h e o t h e r ; t h a t is w h y w e w a n t to p r e v e n t
K a r l M a r x ' s prophecies f r o m being fulfilled precisely
because we believe t h e m to be correct. B u t we are
resolutely d e t e r m i n e d to prevent it f r o m h a p p e n i n g ,
u n l i k e those a n t i - M a r x i s t p a r t i e s , w h i c h g o a r o u n d
b e h e v i n g t h a t t h e relentless f u l f i l m e n t o f e c o n o m i c a n d
h i s t o r i c a l l a w s c a n be a v e r t e d b y s a y i n g a f e w k i n d w o r d s
to the workers a n d b y g i v i n g t h e m w o o l l y cardigans for
their children.
I f w e r e a l l y w a n t t o p r e v e n t t h e results foreseen i n t h e
M a r x i s t p r o p h e c y , w e h a v e n o c h o i c e b u t to d i s m a n t l e t h e
u n w i e l d y m a c h i n e whose t u r n i n g wheels i n e v i t a b l y b r i n g
those r e s u l t s ; w e m u s t d i s m a n t l e t h e u n w i e l d y m a c h i n e o f
c a p i t a l i s m , w h i c h leads to social r e v o l u t i o n , to R u s s i a n style d i c t a t o r s h i p . W e m u s t d i s m a n t l e i t , b u t w i t h w h a t
w i l l we replace i t ?

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T o m o r r o w , the d a y after t o m o r r o w , i n a h u n d r e d y e a r s '

t i m e , fools w i l l s t i l l be s a y i n g to u s : y o u w a n t to d i s m a n t l e
i t o n l y to r e p l a c e i t w i t h a n o t h e r state e q u a l l y a b s o r b e n t ,
e q u a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y . I n o r d e r to a r r i v e
a t t h a t r e s u l t , w o u l d w e b o t h e r to p u r s u e t h e u l t i m a t e
effects o f c a p i t a l i s m a n d M a r x i s m d o w n to t h e n u l l i f i c a t i o n o f m a n ? I f we have gone that far a n d i f we w a n t to
p r e v e n t t h a t f r o m h a p p e n i n g , w e m u s t as W e s t e r n e r s ,
as S p a n i a r d s a n d as C h r i s t i a n s b e g i n t h e b u i l d i n g o f
a n e w o r d e r , w i t h m a n , t h e i n d i v i d u a l , as o u r p o i n t o f
d e p a r t u r e ; w e m u s t b e g i n w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l a n d a d v a n c e
t h r o u g h the o r g a n i c units o f m a n , a n d thus we w i l l
p r o c e e d f r o m the i n d i v i d u a l to the f a m i l y , a n d f r o m the
f a m i l y to t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d t h e t r a d e
u n i o n s o n the o t h e r , u n t i l w e finally c o m e to t h e state,
w h i c h w i l l h a r m o n i z e a l l . I n this w a y , i n this p o l i t i c a l cum-historical-cum-moral
conception,
the
economic
s o l u t i o n is i m p l i c i t ; w e s h a l l d i s m a n t l e t h e e c o n o m i c
a p p a r a t u s o f c a p i t a h s t p r o p e r t y , w h i c h sucks u p a l l
profits, a n d replace it w i t h the p r o p e r t y o f the f a m i l y , the
p r o p e r t y o f t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d the p r o p e r t y o f t h e t r a d e
unions.
T h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f this is u r g e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d ,
a n d e v e n m o r e so i n S p a i n . I t is m o r e u r g e n t i n S p a i n
b e c a u s e o u r s i t u a t i o n is at t h e s a m e t i m e w o r s e a n d less
serious t h a n t h a t o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . B e y o n d o u r f r o n t i e r s ,
c a p i t a l i s m has h a d its h e r o i c age o f s p l e n d o u r ; i t has g i v e n
a m a g n i f i c e n t b o o s t to g r e a t w e a l t h a n d g r e a t i n i t i a t i v e s .
B u t S p a n i s h c a p i t a l i s m has b e e n r i c k e t y f r o m t h e o u t s e t ;
f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g i t g a s p e d f o r state a i d a n d t a r i f f
concessions. O u r e c o n o m y w a s m o r e i m p o v e r i s h e d t h a n
almost any other; o u r people l i v e d i n greater misery t h a n
a l m o s t a n y o t h e r . I d o n o t h a v e to t e l l y o u a n y t h i n g a b o u t
t h a t , after w h a t y o u h a v e a l r e a d y h e a r d f r o m t h e c o m r a d e s w h o h a v e s p o k e n before m e . M u c h o f o u r S p a n i s h
c o u n t r y s i d e , so w i d e , so s a d , d r y a n d d i l a p i d a t e d .

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a n d as b o n y as its p e o p l e , seems to a w a i t n o o t h e r fate

t h a n to r e c e i v e t h e b o n e s o f its i n h a b i t a n t s f o r f i n a l
burial.
T h i s l a n d of ours, where s u m m e r turns into w i n t e r
w i t h o u t a u t u m n o r s p r i n g t i m e ; t h i s l a n d o f o u r s , w i t h its
h i l l s b a r e o f trees, w i t h its v i l l a g e s t h a t h a v e n o w a t e r a n d
n o g a r d e n s ; t h i s vast l a n d , w h e r e t h e r e is so m u c h to be
done a n d where 700,000 u n e m p l o y e d w i t h their families
a r e s t a r v i n g b e c a u s e t h e y a r e g i v e n n o w o r k to d o ; this
l a n d o f o u r s , w h e r e i t is a s t r u g g l e t o get a g o o d w h e a t
h a r v e s t , w h e r e , e v e n t h o u g h b r e a d is t h e o n l y f o o d ,
p e o p l e eat less b r e a d t h a n a n y w h e r e else i n W e s t e r n
E u r o p e ; this c o u n t r y o f ours needs t r a n s f o r m i n g m o r e
u r g e n t l y t h a n a n y w h e r e else.
A n d i t w i l l b e easier h e r e t h a n e l s e w h e r e b e c a u s e
c a p i t a l i s m is less s t r o n g i n S p a i n . O u r e c o n o m y is a l m o s t
e n t i r e l y self-sufficient; t h e r e a r e c o u n t l e s s t h i n g s f o r us t o
d o . A n intelligent l a n d r e f o r m , l i k e the one O n e s i m o
R e d o n d o has d e s c r i b e d to y o u , a n d a c r e d i t r e f o r m w h i c h
w o u l d release s m a l l f a r m e r s , s m a l l i n d u s t r i a l i s t s a n d
shopkeepers f r o m the gilt claws o f the usurious banks,
w o u l d t o g e t h e r b e sufficient to e n s u r e t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f
t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e f o r fifty y e a r s to c o m e .
T h e recovery o f a n a t i o n a l spirit a n d the establishment
o f S p a i n o n m o r e equitable social foundations were the
t w o t h i n g s i m p l i c i t l y p r o m i s e d (or so i t s e e m e d to t h e
rejoicing people) b y the so-called r e v o l u t i o n o f A p r i l 14th.
N o w t h e n : has i t k e p t those p r o m i s e s ? H a s i t g i v e n us
b a c k o u r j o y o u s n a t i o n a l s p i r i t ? H a s i t b r o u g h t us t o g e t h e r
i n a c o m m o n national mission?
W h y t a l k a b o u t the w a y i n w h i c h t h e r u l e r s h a v e d i v i d e d
us, t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y h a v e v e x e d us, t h e w a y i n w h i c h
t h e y h a v e p e r s e c u t e d us, t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y h a v e set
us a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r ? I o n l y w a n t to p o i n t o u t a f e w o f the
r e a l acts o f t r e a s o n a g a i n s t t h e n a t i o n w h i c h w e o w e to
the o r i g i n a l t e a m o f A p r i l 14th. F i r s t o f a l l , the Statute o f

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C a t a l o n i a . M a n y o f y o u are f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e F a l a n g e ' s
t h o u g h t s o n this m a t t e r . T h e F a l a n g e k n o w s v e r y w e l l t h a t
S p a i n is a c o u n t r y o f d i v e r s i t y a n d is n o t w o r r i e d b y this
fact. P r e c i s e l y f o r t h i s r e a s o n , S p a i n has f r o m t h e outset
h a d a n i m p e r i a l v o c a t i o n . S p a i n is d i v e r s e a n d p l u r a l i s t i c ,
b u t her various peoples, w i t h their languages, customs a n d
characteristics, are irrevocably u n i t e d a n d e n d o w e d w i t h
a s i n g l e , u n i v e r s a l d e s t i n y . I t does n o t m a t t e r i n t h e least
i f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ties a r e l o o s e n e d , b u t o n o n e
c o n d i t i o n : t h e r e g i o n w h i c h is g i v e n g r e a t e r l a t i t u d e m u s t
have the awareness o f a c o m m o n destiny deeply rooted
i n its s o u l a n d m u s t n e v e r m a k e use o f t h i s l a t i t u d e t o
conspire against that destiny.
W e l l n o w : w i t h n o objection f r o m the r i g h t - w i n g parties
r u l i n g us n o w , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n has b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d to
t h e effect t h a t a u t o n o m y m u s t be g r a n t e d to those r e g i o n s
w h i c h h a v e c o m e o f age, w h i c h h a v e r e a c h e d t h e stage o f
f e e l i n g d i s t i n c t ; t h a t is to say, i n s t e a d o f t a k i n g p r e c a u t i o n s
a n d s e e k i n g t o e x p l o r e w h e t h e r u n i t y m i g h t n o t be
threatened, we are supposed to g r a n t a u t o n o m y precisely
to those r e g i o n s w h e r e u n i t y h a s b e g u n to c r a c k , so t h a t
it w i l l c r u m b l e altogether.
F o r e i g n a f f a i r s : these d a y s a l l o f y o u k n o w s o m e t h i n g
o f t h i s subject b e c a u s e o f w h a t t h e n e w s p a p e r s h a v e b e e n
s a y i n g . F o r f o u r years p a s t S p a i n has f o l l o w e d t h e F r e n c h
l i n e i n f o r e i g n affairs, m o v i n g i n t h e o r b i t o f F r a n c e . T h e r e
is n o r e a s o n w h y t h e fact t h a t S p a i n c a r r i e s o u t a f o r e i g n
p o l i c y i n agreement w i t h friendly powers s h o u l d surprise
us. B u t i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s p h e r e n o n a t i o n ever g i v e s
us a n y t h i n g w i t h o u t r e c e i v i n g s o m e t h i n g i n r e t u r n , a n d
F r a n c e , w h o s e f o r e i g n p o l i c y w e serve, affords us s h a b b y
t r e a t m e n t i n t r a d e a g r e e m e n t s , relegates us to a n i n f e r i o r
p l a n e i n T a n g i e r s a n d negotiates a M e d i t e r r a n e a n
s e t t l e m e n t b e h i n d o u r b a c k s , as t h o u g h w e w e r e n o t
i n v o l v e d i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ; t h a t is to say, o u r o n l y
c o m p e n s a t i o n for serving the foreign p o l i c y o f F r a n c e i n

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t h e w o r l d is t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f s o m e p e d a n t i c m i n i s t e r ' s
o r some ambassador's vanity.
A n d w h a t o f t h e p o l i c y d e s i g n e d to d i s r u p t t h o u g h
s o m e o t h e r w o r d w a s u s e d to d i s r u p t t h e a r m y ,
w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e strongest a n d s t i l l t h e m o s t h e a l t h y
g u a r a n t y o f a l l t h a t is p e r m a n e n t i n S p a i n ? N o n e t h e less,
o u r r u l e r s d i d t h e i r best, w e k n o w n o t w i t h w h a t i n t e n t i o n ,
t o d i s r u p t this g u a r a n t y .
A n d finally w e c o m e to the d e c l a r a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h e
c o n s t i t u t i o n , t h a t S p a i n r e n o u n c e s w a r . W h a t is t h a t
s u p p o s e d to m e a n ? I f i t is m e r e foolishness w i t h n o t h i n g
at t h e b a c k o f i t , g o o d l u c k to its a u t h o r s . I f i t m e a n s t h a t
S p a i n i n t e n d s to be n e u t r a l i n a n y f u t u r e w a r s , t h e n t h i s
declaration should have been followed u p w i t h a n
e x p a n s i o n o f o u r a r m y , n a v y a n d a i r force, since a n a t i o n
w i t h o p e n shores, s i t u a t e d i n o n e o f E u r o p e ' s m o s t
d a n g e r o u s spots, c a n n o t m a k e a n y d e c i s i o n , n o t e v e n
r e g a r d i n g its o w n n e u t r a l i t y , i f i t c a n n o t c o m m a n d
respect. O n l y t h e s t r o n g c a n be n e u t r a l w i t h d i g n i t y . I
k n o w n o t w h e t h e r the a u t h o r s o f t h a t p h r a s e i n t e n d e d to
i m p o s e o n us a n u n d i g n i f i e d n e u t r a l i t y .
A n d i n the social sphere? W a s the l a n d r e f o r m ever
i m p l e m e n t e d ? W a s the credit reform ? Y o u k n o w full w e l l
that the l a n d r e f o r m p u t f o r w a r d b y the m e n o f A p r i l 14th
d i d n o t p r o p o s e to restore m a n ' s s u b s t a n c e , to r e - e n d o w
m a n w i t h his h u m a n , s o c i a l , W e s t e r n , C h r i s t i a n , S p a n i s h
i n t e g r i t y ; i n s t e a d , i t t e n d e d t o w a r d s the c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n
o f a g r i c u l t u r e , the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the peasantry i n t o a
g r e g a r i o u s mass, j u s t l i k e t h e w o r k e r s i n t h e cities. T h a t is
w h a t they were a i m i n g at; a n d not even that have they
d o n e . A t this p o i n t i n t i m e t h e y h a v e h a r d l y g i v e n a p a t c h o f
l a n d to t h e peasants. T h e o n l y p a r t o f t h e L a n d R e f o r m L a w
t h e y h a v e b e g u n to i m p l e m e n t c o r r e s p o n d s to a p a r a g r a p h
t a c k e d o n at t h e last m o m e n t i n a p u r e s p i r i t o f r e p r i s a l . *
* T h e L a n d R e f o r m L a w of 1933 was limited in its application. It dealt
only with large estates in A n d a l u s i a a n d Estremadura.

SPEECH

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A n d w h a t has b e e n d o n e a b o u t t h e financial r e f o r m ?
H a v e the workers, the labourers, the industrialists, or any
o f those t r u l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e w h o l e process o f p r o d u c t i o n ,
b y a n y c h a n c e h a d t h e benefit o f s o m e w i s e m e a s u r e ?
T h e y h a v e been the losers; y o u k n o w w e l l w h a t a p e r i o d
o f crisis t h e y a r e l i v i n g t h r o u g h . O n the o t h e r h a n d ,
n e i t h e r t h e profits o f t h e b i g i n d u s t r i e s n o r t h e profits o f
the banks have d i m i n i s h e d .
I n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s t o r y , t h e m e n o f A p r i l 1 4 t h b e a r the
terrible responsibility o f h a v i n g cheated the S p a n i s h
r e v o l u t i o n a n e w . T h e m e n o f A p r i l 14th f a i l e d to c a r r y o u t
w h a t A p r i l 14th h a d p r o m i s e d , a n d t h a t is w h y t h e forces
o f t h e p a s t a r e a l r e a d y b e g i n n i n g to f a n o u t i n o p p o s i t i o n
to t h e m , i n o p p o s i t i o n to t h e i r w o r k , i n o p p o s i t i o n to t h e
p r o m i s i n g significance o f the date o f their c o m i n g . A n d
t h i s b r i n g s m e , I t h i n k , to a t e r r a i n w h e r e a l l y o u r s i l e n c e
a n d a l l y o u r a t t e n t i o n w i l l be less t h a n sufficient.
T w o kinds offerees are m o b i l i z i n g against the frustrated
r e v o l u t i o n a r y spirit o f A p r i l 14th: the monarchists a n d
the r i g h t - w i n g r e p u b l i c a n s . N o t e t h a t w i t h r e g a r d to t h e
m o n a r c h y , w e m u s t n o t l e t ourselves be s w a y e d f o r a
s e c o n d b y n o s t a l g i a o r b y r a n c o u r . W e h a v e to c o n s i d e r
the p r o b l e m o f the m o n a r c h y w i t h the i m p l a c a b l e r i g o u r
o f those w i t n e s s i n g a c r u c i a l s p e c t a c l e i n t h e succession o f
days w h i c h m a k e u p history. W e s h o u l d o n l y take the
f o l l o w i n g i n t o a c c o u n t : d i d t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y , the
a n c i e n t , the g l o r i o u s m o n a r c h y , s u c c u m b b e c a u s e i t h a d
c o m e to t h e e n d o f its c y c l e , b e c a u s e i t h a d c o m p l e t e d its
m i s s i o n ; o r was t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y o v e r t h r o w n w h e n
i t w a s s t i l l f u l l o f p r o m i s e f o r t h e f u t u r e ? T h a t is w h a t w e
m u s t t h i n k a b o u t , a n d o n l y b y so d o i n g c a n w e u n d e r s t a n d
t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e m o n a r c h y m a y be r e s o l v e d
intelligently.
W e l l t h e n : i t is o u r o p i n i o n y o u h a v e h e a r d m e say
so f r o m t h e first i t is o u r o p i n i o n , w i t h o u t a s h a d o w o f
disrespect, w i t h o u t a s h a d o w o f r a n c o u r , w i t h o u t a

l86

PRIMO DE R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

WRITINGS

s h a d o w o f d i s H k e , i n d e e d , f o r m a n y o f us, w i t h a t h o u s a n d
s e n t i m e n t a l g r o u n d s f o r a f f e c t i o n i t is o u r o p i n i o n t h a t
the S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y h a d fulfilled
w i t h o u t substance,

its c y c l e , w a s

and tumbled hke a dead

left

shell o n

A p r i l 1 4 t h , 1931. W e b e a r w i t n e s s to its f a l l w i t h a l l t h e
e m o t i o n i t m e r i t s ; a n d w e h a v e t h e greatest respect f o r t h e
m o n a r c h i s t p a r t i e s w h i c h , b e l i e v i n g i t s t i l l to h a v e a f u t u r e ,
e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e to a t t e m p t its r e s t o r a t i o n . W e ourselves,
h o w e v e r , t h o u g h w e r e g r e t its p a s s i n g , a n d t h o u g h s o m e
o f us m a y feel a s e n t i m e n t a l r e l u c t a n c e to see i t g o o r a
n o s t a l g i a f o r i t w h i c h is w o r t h y o f respect, w e

ourselves

c a n n o t d e p l o y t h e fresh i m p e t u s o f o u r y o u t h f u l f o l l o w i n g
for t h e r e c o v e r y o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n w e h o l d t o be g l o r i o u s l y
defunct.
T h i s m o n a r c h i s m is o n e o f t h e w i n g s m o v i n g a g a i n s t t h e
w o r k s a n d t h e s p i r i t o f A p r i l 1 4 t h . T h e o t h e r w i n g is t h a t o f
p o p u l i s m . W h a t d o y o u w a n t m e to say a b o u t t h a t ? B e cause o n this p a r t i c u l a r t o p i c w e d o a l l u n d e r s t a n d each
other. I greatly a d m i r e a n d very m u c h like Serior G i l
R o b l e s , a n d I like a n d a d m i r e h i m precisely for the a n t i p o p u l i s t s t r e a k I d e t e c t i n h i m . I foresee t h a t o n e

day

S e n o r G i l R o b l e s w i l l b r e a k w i t h his d o c t r i n e a n d i t seems
to m e t h a t o n t h a t d a y S e n o r G i l R o b l e s w i l l b e r e n d e r i n g
S p a i n g o o d s e r v i c e . B u t o f t h e p o p u l i s t d o c t r i n e itself, w h a t
d o y o u e x p e c t ? T h e p o p u l i s t d o c t r i n e is l i k e o n e o f those
large G e r m a n factories w h i c h p r o d u c e a surrogate

for

a l m o s t e v e r y r e a l t h i n g . T h e w o r l d witnesses t h e rise o f t h e
s o c i a l i s t p h e n o m e n o n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e rise o f t h e s a n g u i n e ,
v i o l e n t , a u t h e n t i c d r i v e o f t h e s o c i a l i s t masses; i m m e d i a t e l y p o p u l i s m , w i t h its w e a l t h o f i n d e x - c a r d s a n d
cautious

young

men

overflowing

with

prudence

of

and

courtesy a n d a p p e a r i n g every i n c h the p r o d u c t o f the m o r e

refined doctrine of freemasonry, comes u p w i t h a surrogate
socialism

and

Christian

democracy:

proceeds

to
it

organize

matches

something

the

casas del

called
pueblo

SPEECH

ON T H E SPANISH R E V O L U T I O N

187

w i t h casus del pueblo*

index-cards w i t h index-cards,
social legislation w i t h social legislation. I t acquires the
skill of writing m e m o r a n d a on profit-sharing, on workers'
pensions, o n a t h o u s a n d other niceties. T h e o n l y result
is t h a t t h e r e a l w o r k e r s d o n o t v e n t u r e i n t o these p r e t t y
cages o f p o p u l i s m , w h i l e t h e p r e t t y cages themselves
n e v e r get h e a t e d . T h e n a l o n g c o m e s t h e rise o f f a s c i s m ,
w i t h its c o n n o t a t i o n s o f s t r u g g l e , o f r e b e l l i o n , o f o p p r e s s e d
p e o p l e s p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t a d v e r s i t y , a n d w i t h its c o r t e g e
o f m a r t y r s a n d w i t h its h o p e s o f g l o r y , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y
t h e P o p u l i s t P a r t y u p s a n d goes let's j u s t s u p p o s e , so
t h a t n o o n e n e e d t a k e offence to t h e E s c o r i a l , w h e r e i t
o r g a n i z e s a p a r a d e o f y o u n g s t e r s w i t h flags, w i t h t h e
j o u r n e y p a i d for, w i t h every k i n d o f t h i n g except the strong
a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y y o u t h f u l v a l o u r o f the Fascist Y o u t h .
A n d d o n ' t y o u w o r r y , i f G o d g i v e s us t i m e w e s h a l l l i v e
to see a C h r i s t i a n d e m o c r a t i c r e p u b l i c i n S p a i n , w i t h its
p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d its press l a w , w h i c h w i l l b e a r
a s t r i k i n g r e s e m b l a n c e to a l l t h e l a i c r e p u b l i c s o f C e n t r a l
Europe.
T h a t , c o m r a d e s , is w h y w e a r e n e i t h e r m o n a r c h i s t
reactionaries n o r populist reactionaries. After the f r a u d o f
A p r i l 1 4 t h , after t h e s w i n d l e o f A p r i l 14th, w e c a n n o t b e
p a r t o f a n y g r o u p t h a t h a r b o u r s a m o r e o r less h i d d e n
r e a c t i o n a r y o r c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y p u r p o s e ; for w h a t
w e h o l d a g a i n s t A p r i l 1 4 t h is n o t t h a t i t w a s v i o l e n t o r
u n p l e a s a n t , b u t t h a t i t was s t e r i l e , t h a t i t o b s t r u c t e d t h e
s t i l l o u t s t a n d i n g S p a n i s h r e v o l u t i o n y e t a g a i n . A n d t h a t is
w h y , regardless o f i n s u l t s a n d d i s t o r t i o n s , w e m u s t g a t h e r
u p , i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e street, a m o n g s t those w h o h a d i t
o n c e a n d lost i t a n d those w h o d o n o t w a n t to p i c k i t u p
themselves, that S p a n i s h r e v o l u t i o n a r y spirit w h i c h w i l l
s o o n e r o r l a t e r , b y f a i r m e a n s o r f o u l , restore t o us t h e
c o m m o n b o n d o f o u r historic destiny a n d the p r o f o u n d
* T h e s e were c l u b houses for the Spanish workers founded b y the Socialist
Party i n most Spanish towns a n d villages.

i88

P R I M O

D E

R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

W^RITINGS

s o c i a l j u s t i c e w e n e e d . T h a t is w h y o u r r e g i m e , w h i c h w i l l
be b o r n , like a l l revolutionary regimes, of discontent, o f
p r o t e s t , o f a b i t t e r l o v e f o r the f a t h e r l a n d , w i l l be a n
a l t o g e t h e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e , free f r o m j i n g o i s m a n d
decadent cajolery, a direct descendant o f that clear-cut,
difficult a n d eternal S p a i n h i d d e n i n the v e i n o f true
S p a n i s h t r a d i t i o n ; i t w i l l be d e e p l y s o c i a l , w i t h o u t a n y
d e m a g o g y , f o r w h i c h t h e r e w i l l be n o n e e d , b u t i m p l a c a b l y
a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t , i m p l a c a b l y a n t i - c o m m u n i s t . Y o u w i l l see
h o w w e shall r e p a i r the d i g n i t y o f m a n , u p o n w h i c h we
s h a l l r e b u i l d the d i g n i t y o f a l l the institutions that,
together, constitute the fatherland.
T h a t is w h a t w e w a n t to a c h i e v e a n d t h a t is t h e task
w h i c h t o d a y w e set ourselves a n e w . T h i s task, c o m r a d e s ,
h a s t h e v i r t u e o f b e i n g d i f f i c u l t ; o u r m i s s i o n is t h e m o s t
d i f f i c u l t ; t h a t is w h y w e h a v e c h o s e n i t a n d t h a t is w h y i t
is f u l l o f p r o m i s e . W e h a v e e v e r y b o d y a g a i n s t u s : t h e
r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s o f A p r i l 1 4 t h , w h o persist i n m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g us a n d w h o w i l l g o o n d o i n g so e v e n after these r a t h e r
c l e a r w o r d s b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w t h a t the c a l l to a c c o u n t ,
w h i c h o u r a p p e a r a n c e before S p a i n represents, is t h e m o s t
serious i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e m s e l v e s ; a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d
t h e c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , b e c a u s e t h e y h o p e d at first
t h a t w e w o u l d be t h e v a n g u a r d o f t h e i r i m p e r i l l e d interests,
f o r t h i s r e a s o n o f f e r i n g to h e l p a n d p r o t e c t us a n d e v e n to
g i v e us a f e w p e n n i e s , w h i l e n o w t h e y g o m a d w i t h d e s p a i r
as t h e y see t h a t w h a t t h e y t h o u g h t w a s t h e v a n g u a r d has
b e c o m e t h e w h o l e a r m y , a n d i n d e p e n d e n t to b o o t .
I n o p p o s i t i o n to t h e f o r m e r a n d t h e l a t t e r , c o n s t a n t l y
a n d v e r i t a b l y t r u e to S p a i n , h a r a s s e d o n a l l flanks, w i t h o u t m o n e y , w i t h o u t n e w s p a p e r s (see w h a t p u b l i c i t y t h e r e
has b e e n f o r this g a t h e r i n g o f t e n t h o u s a n d o f o u r c o m rades), besieged, misrepresented everywhere, we have
a m i s s i o n t h a t is d i f f i c u l t to a m i r a c u l o u s d e g r e e ; b u t t h e n
w e b e l i e v e i n m i r a c l e s ; w e a r e s e e i n g this m i r a c l e h a p p e n i n g i n S p a i n . H o w m a n y were we i n 1933? A h a n d f u l ,

SPEECH

ON T H E SPANISH

R E V O L U T I O N

189

a n d n o w t h e r e a r e c r o w d s o f us e v e r y w h e r e . W e t o o k the
r i s k o f s u m m o n i n g y o u , w i t h o n l y f o u r d a y s ' n o t i c e , t o this
t h e l a r g e s t h a l l i n M a d r i d , a n d y o u h a v e c o m e , o n foot
even, to b e h o l d o u r banners a n d the names o f o u r d e a d .
W e have deliberately chosen the hardest r o a d , a n d b y
t a c k l i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d sacrifices a l o n g this r o a d , w e
have shed l i g h t o n one o f the h e r o i c veins perhaps the
last, w h o knows ? w h i c h still r e m a i n b e n e a t h the soil
o f S p a i n . A f e w w o r d s a n d a f e w e x t e r n a l resources h a v e
sufficed t o m a k e e i g h t e e n y o u n g c o m r a d e s , f o r w h o m life
h a d e v e r y t h i n g i n s t o r e , l a y t h e i r c l a i m t o t h e first p l a c e s
i n t h e r a n k s w h e r e t h e d y i n g is d o n e . W i t h n o r e s o u r c e s ,
w i t h o u r p o v e r t y a n d o u r difficulties, we are harvesting a l l
t h a t is f r u i t f u l a n d s e r v i c e a b l e i n this S p a i n o f o u r s . A n d
w e w a n t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t o be t h e r e t o t h e e n d a n d b e y o n d
t h e e n d ; w e w a n t o u r life t o be d i f f i c u l t before t h e t r i u m p h
a n d after t h e t r i u m p h . S o m e d a y s a g o , b e f o r e a s m a l l
a u d i e n c e , I r e c a l l e d a r o m a n t i c v e r s e : T d o n o t w i s h for
P a r a d i s e , b u t f o r rest,' i t w e n t . T h a t w a s a r o m a n t i c
verse, a r e t u r n t o s e n s u a l i t y ; a b l a s p h e m y i t w a s , b u t a
b l a s p h e m y based o n a correct antithesis. T r u l y , P a r a d i s e
is n o t rest. P a r a d i s e is the o p p o s i t e o f rest. O n e c a n n o t l i e
d o w n i n P a r a d i s e ; o n e stands u p r i g h t , l i k e t h e a n g e l s .
V e r y w e l l t h e n : w e w h o h a v e a l r e a d y c a u s e d t h e best o f
o u r n u m b e r t o l a y d o w n t h e i r lives o n t h e r o a d t o P a r a d i s e ,
w e w a n t a P a r a d i s e u t t e r l y d i f f i c u l t , erect, i m p l a c a b l e ; a
P a r a d i s e w h e r e t h e r e c a n be n o rest a n d w h o s e gates a r e
flanked o n b o t h sides b y angels a r m e d w i t h s w o r d s .

ADDRESSING THE CORTES:

ON SPANISH FOREIGN POLICY
O c t o b e r a n d , 1935

I b e l i e v e t h a t w h a t w e i g h s o n a l l o f us at t h e p r e s e n t t i m e
a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y o n the government's attention, over a n d
a b o v e a l l these m a t t e r s w h i c h w o u l d h a r d l y exist i f t h e y
w e r e n o t b l o w n u p i n t h e H o u s e , is t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
p r o b l e m o f E u r o p e . T h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r has a s k e d us a l l
to be v e r y careful w h e n w e b r o a c h the subject. T h e
P r i m e M i n i s t e r c a n rest a s s u r e d t h a t n o o n e w i l l be m o r e
intent o n t a k i n g the most stringent precautions w h e n
d e a l i n g w i t h the i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o b l e m t h a n the present
s p e a k e r . B u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p r e s e n t s p e a k e r feels
that the Cortes w o u l d give the impression o f b e i n g rather
f r i v o l o u s i f i t d i d n o t c o n c e r n i t s e l f w i t h this m a t t e r . T h a t
is w h y s u c h a h i g h s t a n d a r d w a s m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e d i s cussion o f the subject yesterday a n d w h y the P r i m e
M i n i s t e r expressed h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t w e h a d n o t d i s r e g a r d e d h i s r e q u e s t . S u c h is m y d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o be
u l t r a careful that I w o u l d begin b y saying to the P r i m e
M i n i s t e r : I a m not asking the government for a r e p l y ; n o r
w o u l d I d o so i f I w e r e a u t h o r i z e d b y a m o r e c o n s i d e r a b l e
m a n d a t e t h a n is t h e case. I t is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t u n d e r t h e
p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e g o v e r n m e n t o u g h t n o t to r e p l y
to u s ; b u t I d o b e l i e v e t h a t i t s h o u l d h e e d us, b e c a u s e f r o m
t h e counsels o f a l l , f r o m t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f a l l , m a y
e m e r g e t h e e l e m e n t s o f a c o r r e c t s t a n d for S p a i n to t a k e .
A n d w h a t w o u l d w e o r a n y o n e i n S p a i n a d v i s e these
d a y s t h a t w a s n o t p r o m p t e d b y t h e desire to s a f e g u a r d
S p a n i s h interests? H o w c a n anyone t h i n k that our
a t t i t u d e s m i g h t be i n f l u e n c e d b y a c e r t a i n s y m p a t h y w i t h
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one c o u n t r y o r a n o t h e r ? F o r one t h i n g , because a m o n g

those o f us s i t t i n g h e r e , t h e r e c a n s u r e l y be n o o n e w i t h
a n o p e n m i n d , n o o n e w h o has n o t b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y a
variety of sympathies; we have a l l da b b le d i n E u r o p e a n
c u l t u r e , s o m e o f us m o r e , others less, a n d I c o u n t m y s e l f
a m o n g t h e l a t t e r ; w e h a v e a l l felt t h e i n f l u e n c e o f F r e n c h
literature, English manners, G e r m a n philosophy a n d
I t a l y ' s p o l i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h is e n g a g e d at p r e s e n t
i n o n e o f t h e loftiest e x p e r i m e n t s , a l o f t y e x p e r i m e n t ,
w h i c h n o o n e c a n a f f o r d n o t to s t u d y s e r i o u s l y a n d a b o u t
w h i c h e v e r y o n e p r o b a b l y has s o m e c r i t i c a l o p i n i o n . A t
t h i s p o i n t I t h e r e f o r e w a n t to m a k e i t c l e a r t h a t I a m
expressing a Spanish p o i n t o f view, exclusively i n Spain's
best interests, j u s t as y o u w i l l a l l n o d o u b t be d o i n g .
T h a t b e i n g so, I b e l i e v e t h a t w e m u s t l o o k a t E u r o p e ' s
present p r e d i c a m e n t f r o m the f o l l o w i n g a n g l e : i f m i l i t a r y
s a n c t i o n s are a p p r o v e d , this is b o u n d to set off" a E u r o p e a n
w a r , a n d a E u r o p e a n w a r endangers the v e r y existence o f
E u r o p e . Is t h e r e a n y E u r o p e a n issue i n v o l v e d , a n y issue
o f such v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e for E u r o p e , that it w o u l d justify
E u r o p e ' s r u n n i n g t h e r i s k o f d e s t r o y i n g i t s e l f ? T h a t is w h a t
I b e l i e v e t h e q u e s t i o n t o b e , a n d t h a t is h o w I t h i n k i t
m u s t be p o s e d . W h e r e u p o n I v e n t u r e to say to y o u t h a t i n
t h e p r e s e n t I t a l o - A b y s s i n i a n c o n f l i c t , w h i c h is t h e s u b j e c t
o f E u r o p e ' s d e l i b e r a t i o n s , t h e r e a r e o n l y t w o issues at
s t a k e : a c o l o n i a l issue a n d a B r i t i s h issue. N e i t h e r m o r e
t h a n t h a t n o r less t h a n t h a t .
L e t us c o n s i d e r t h e c o l o n i a l issue. A r e w e g o i n g t o
p r e t e n d t h a t w e a r e s c a n d a l i z e d j u s t b e c a u s e s o m e o n e is
starting out o n another colonial c a m p a i g n ? H a s not every
s i n g l e E u r o p e a n c o u n t r y d o n e as m u c h ? Is c o l o n i z a t i o n
not a mission, a duty rather than a right, of all civilized
p e o p l e s ? C o u l d i t be t h a t a n y o n e a s p i r i n g t o u n i v e r s a l
b r o t h e r h o o d is p r e p a r e d to a c c e p t t h e de facto e x c l u s i o n
f r o m u n i v e r s a l b r o t h e r h o o d w h i c h goes t o g e t h e r w i t h
b a r b a r i s m ? A r e we g o i n g to t h i n k that we are defending

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t h e r i g h t o f b a c k w a r d p e o p l e s to be m e m b e r s o f t h i s
u n i v e r s a l b r o t h e r h o o d b y l e t t i n g t h e m go o n b e i n g
b a c k w a r d ? I t h i n k i t is f a r t o o l a t e f o r us t o be s c a n d a l i z e d
by any country embarking on a colonial campaign.
C o l o n i z i n g w a s S p a i n ' s g l o r y . C o l o n i z i n g was E n g l a n d ' s
g l o r y . E n g l a n d w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n t h e least b i t s h o c k e d
b y a n y o n e ' s a t t e m p t to a c q u i r e a c o l o n y i f t h e o t h e r aspect
o f the I t a l o - A b y s s i n i a n p r o b l e m were not m i x e d u p w i t h
i t , i f the c o l o n i a l q u e s t i o n I h a v e b e e n s p e a k i n g o f w e r e n o t
e n t w i n e d w i t h another question, w h i c h concerns solely a n d
exclusively the E n g l i s h .
I t is t h i s : E n g l a n d has m a n a g e d t o p u t t o g e t h e r o n e o f
t h e m o s t p r o d i g i o u s p o l i t i c a l edifices t h e w o r l d has ever
k n o w n . T h i s p o l i t i c a l e d i f i c e t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e is
s u s t a i n e d , l i k e a l l g r e a t edifices, b y a w o n d r o u s e q u i l i b r i u m . T h e m o m e n t a s i n g l e o n e o f its e l e m e n t s b u d g e s ,
t h e e q u i h b r i u m m a y b e g i n t o c o l l a p s e . A n d since
A b y s s i n i a h a p p e n s to be at t h e crossroads o f t h e E n g l i s h
G o v e r n m e n t ' s m o s t h a z a r d o u s l i f e l i n e s , since i t h a p p e n s
t o be s i t u a t e d at o n e o f t h e m o s t sensitive n e r v e centres o f
E n g l a n d ' s w h o l e i m p e r i a l n e t w o r k , i t is a l t o g e t h e r p r o p e r
a n d understandable that England's patriotic egotism
s h o u l d refuse to c o u n t e n a n c e a n y o n e ' s l a y i n g a h a n d , let
a l o n e a n a r m e d fist, o n this v i t a l p a r t o f h e r e m p i r e .
I f I w e r e a n E n g l i s h m a n , I w o u l d at this m o m e n t be
u n r e s e r v e d l y o n t h e side o f t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t ,
b e c a u s e I w o u l d be a B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l i s t , b e c a u s e i t is m y
belief that a n e m p i r e constitutes the h i s t o r i c a l fulfilment
o f a people, a n d i f I h a d h a d the g o o d fortune o f b e i n g
b o r n o f a p e o p l e at t h e m o m e n t o f its h i s t o r i c a l f u l f i l m e n t ,
I w o u l d feel t h a t a l l m y efforts s h o u l d be g e a r e d to the
p r e s e r v a t i o n o f this state o f f u l f i l m e n t . B u t w e are n o t
E n g l i s h , n e i t h e r does E u r o p e consist e n t i r e l y o f E n g l i s h m e n , n e i t h e r a r e t h e E n g l i s h e v e n a p a r t o f E u r o p e , since
E n g l a n d regardless o f t h e fact t h a t h e r p e o p l e l i v e i n
t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t is, as a n e m p i r e .

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a n e x t r a - E u r o p e a n p o w e r . T h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e is a l i u g e
e x t r a - E u r o p e a n f o r m a t i o n ; t h e l a w s g o v e r n i n g its rise,
its d e c l i n e a n d its v a r y i n g f o r t u n e s r a r e l y c o i n c i d e w i t h
those g o v e r n i n g t h e rise, t h e d e c l i n e a n d t h e v a r y i n g
fortunes o f E u r o p e . M a n y times they are antagonistic, a n d
p e r h a p s m o r e so t h a n e v e r at t h i s p o i n t i n t i m e .
I t m a y be s a i d t h a t at t h e m o m e n t t h e w o r l d is w i t n e s s i n g , i n G e n e v a , a battle between E n g l a n d o n the one h a n d
a n d E u r o p e o n t h e o t h e r . E u r o p e is b o u n d to fight f o r its
s u r v i v a l , regardless o f t h e d a n g e r to t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e ,
a n d t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e is b o u n d to h a v e its o w n s u r v i v a l
at heart, regardless o f the d a n g e r to peace i n E u r o p e .
T h a t is t h e c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r a n d , as y o u c a n see,
p a r t i c u l a r sympathies d o not come into it. L e a v i n g the
c o l o n i a l a s p e c t a s i d e , t h e c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r lies i n a
c o n f l i c t o f interests b e t w e e n t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e a n d
E u r o p e . D o y o u require any more conclusive evidence t h a n
the attitude o f the Soviets? F r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g
E n g l a n d has r e c e i v e d n o m o r e v i g o r o u s s u p p o r t i n G e n e v a
t h a n t h a t o f R u s s i a . A n d a m I g o i n g to p r o v e to y o u t h a t
R u s s i a is n o t a E u r o p e a n p o w e r ? O r t h a t she is a E u r o p e a n
power? Has Lenin's prophecy perchance expired, w h i c h
s o u g h t to c o n s o l i d a t e t h e S o v i e t R e v o l u t i o n p r e c i s e l y
through a European war? F o r Russia, a European conflagration
w o u l d be a g r e a t p l u s . A n t i - E u r o p e a n R u s s i a
v i g o r o u s l y supports the B r i t i s h p o i n t o f v i e w ; b u t are we,
as E u r o p e a n s , g o i n g to be b l i n d l y o n t h e side o f these
B r i t i s h a n d R u s s i a n interests ? I f w e l o o k at i t f r o m t h i s
p o i n t o f v i e w , w h a t s h o u l d be t h e r o l e o f S p a i n ? W h a t
is S p a i n ' s p r o p e r r o l e as a n i n d i v i d u a l e n t i t y a n d as a
E u r o p e a n p o w e r ? O r , i f y o u prefer it the other w a y r o u n d ,
w h a t is h e r r o l e as a E u r o p e a n p o w e r a n d as a n i n d i v i d u a l
e n t i t y ? F i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t , w h a t is S p a i n ' s p r o p e r r o l e i n
Geneva ?
Y o u a l l k n o w that u n t i l the present t i m e a n d w h e n I
s a y t h e p r e s e n t t i m e I a m r e f e r r i n g to this m o r n i n g ' s n e w s ;

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w e k n o w n o t w h a t m a y h a v e h a p p e n e d s i n c e this m o r n i n g
t h e o n l y t h i n g at stake i n G e n e v a ... {A member of the
Cortes: ' War has broken out already.' Senor Barcia:
' Very
serious things have been happening.' Prolonged murmurings.)
W e l l t h e n ; a c c o r d i n g to t h e latest n e w s , t h e p r o c e d u r e i n
G e n e v a has h i t h e r t o b e e n a n d I stress t h i s , n o t b e c a u s e
I w a n t to a v o i d d i s c u s s i n g t h e o t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n , w h i c h
I s h a l l c o m e to p r e s e n t l y ( t h o u g h i t is a m e r e h y p o t h e s i s ) ,
b u t b e c a u s e so f a r i t does n o t s e e m as t h o u g h a r t i c l e i 6
has c o m e u p i n G e n e v a t h a t o f a r t i c l e 15, w h i c h , as
y o u a l l k n o w , culminates i n the d r a f t i n g o f a r e s o l u t i o n ;
the C o u n c i l o f the L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s attempts a c o n c i l i a t i o n , a n d i f t h a t a t t e m p t does n o t p r o s p e r t h e C o u n c i l
drafts a r e s o l u t i o n w h i c h i t s u b m i t s to t h e c o u n t r i e s
d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d ; a n d this r e s o l u t i o n c a n , e x c e p t i o n a l l y ,
b e p a s s e d b y a s t r a i g h t m a j o r i t y o f votes. T h a t is t o say,
i t c o n s t i t u t e s o n e o f t h e e x c e p t i o n s to t h e g e n e r a l r u l e l a i d
d o w n i n a r t i c l e 5 o f the P a c t , w h i c h says t h a t t h e r e m u s t
be u n a n i m i t y before t h e C o u n c i l o f G e n e v a c a n a d o p t
a m o t i o n . W i t h r e g a r d to this r e s o l u t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , S p a i n
c o u l d either vote or abstain, w i t h o u t j e o p a r d i z i n g the
C o u n c i l o f G e n e v a ' s c o n t i n u e d effectiveness i n a n y w a y ;
to g a u g e w h e t h e r o r n o t S p a i n s h o u l d s u b s c r i b e to c e r t a i n
r e s o l u t i o n s is e n t i r e l y a m a t t e r o f d i p l o m a t i c t a c t .
B u t i f a r t i c l e 16 does c o m e t o a p p l y , i f w e a r e f a c e d w i t h
t h e d r a m a o f a g g r e s s i o n , t h e n t h e s i t u a t i o n is c o m p l e t e l y
c h a n g e d ; a n d since it w o u l d a p p e a r that we have r e a c h e d
s u c h straits, this is t h e t i m e f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t to t h i n k
c a r e f u l l y . A r t i c l e 16 o f t h e P a c t o f t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s
c o n t a i n s t w o b a s i c p a r a g r a p h s . T h e first o f these refers to
e c o n o m i c m e a s u r e s , t h e s e c o n d to m i l i t a r y m e a s u r e s . W e l l ,
P r i m e M i n i s t e r : t h i s fact m a y n o t h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t t o
the attention o f the H o u s e .
T h e a p p h c a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c s a n c t i o n s , t h a t is to say,
those r e f e r r e d to i n the first p a r a g r a p h o f a r t i c l e 16, does
n o t r e q u i r e t h e C o u n c i l o f G e n e v a to a d o p t a d e c i s i o n .

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I t says, a n d I q u o t e f r o m m e m o r y , ' A s s o o n as a n y
m e m b e r o f the L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s l a u n c h e s a n a g g r e s s i o n
against another, a l l the m e m b e r s o f the L e a g u e shall,
ipso facto, c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s a t t a c k e d , a n d f r o m t h a t
m o m e n t o n t h e y s h a l l sever a l l e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h
t h e aggressor.' T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n o f g o i n g
b e y o n d p a r a g r a p h ( i ) o f a r t i c l e 16, i f w e a r e m e r e l y f a c e d
w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f e c o n o m i c s a n c t i o n s , t h e r e is n o
reason w h y S p a i n should vote; indeed, S p a i n c a n make
use o f h e r a u t h o r i t y t h e r e i n a f o r c e f u l f a s h i o n t o c o n v i n c e
t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s t h a t t h e r e is n o
r e a s o n w h y t h e m a t t e r s h o u l d be p u t to t h e v o t e , t h a t
j u r i d i c a l l y the mission operates i n fulfilment o f a c e r t a i n
c o n d i t i o n , t h a t f r o m t h e m o m e n t this c o n d i t i o n is f u l f i l l e d ,
a l l a r e u n d e r a n o b l i g a t i o n to s u s p e n d e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s
w i t h t h e c o u n t r y g u i l t y o f a g g r e s s i o n . A n d s i n c e t h e r e is n o
n e e d f o r a n y p r o n o u n c e m e n t to s t a n d b e t w e e n t h e l e t t e r
o f the P a c t a n d the p r a c t i c a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c o n d i t i o n a l
o b l i g a t i o n s m a d e b i n d i n g b y events, i t s h o u l d be left to
e a c h c o u n t r y to a p p l y s u c h s a n c t i o n s i n w h a t e v e r w a y i t
l o y a l l y c o n s i d e r s to be fit a n d a p p r o p r i a t e . T h u s t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f sanctions becomes for each c o u n t r y the
s u b j e c t o f d e c i s i o n s to be m a d e i n t e r n a l l y ; e a c h c o u n t r y
w i l l g a u g e t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h i t s h o u l d i m p l e m e n t t h e
first p a r a g r a p h o f a r t i c l e i 6 .
N e e d l e s s t o say, I b e l i e v e t h i s t o b e a v e r y d e s i r a b l e
s o l u t i o n ; f o r i t does s e e m to m e t h a t S p a i n s h o u l d a v o i d
m a k i n g a n y p r o n o u n c e m e n t o n so t i c k l i s h a m a t t e r as
l o n g as she c a n .
I n d u e c o u r s e w e c o m e to t h e p o i n t w h e r e w e m u s t
e x a m i n e t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h , w h i c h refers to m i l i t a r y
m e a s u r e s , t o t h e m i l i t a r y f a c t o r e a c h m e m b e r state o f t h e
L e a g u e of N a t i o n s ought to contribute to m a k i n g the
n a t i o n g u i l t y o f a n i n f r i n g e m e n t r e t u r n to the o b e d i e n c e
o f t h e P a c t . I n this case i t does b e c o m e necessary to m a k e
a d e c i s i o n , s i n c e t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h o f a r t i c l e i 6 states

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that the C o u n c i l m u s t f o r m u l a t e a resolution. T h i s means

t h a t i t is n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e f o r e a c h o f its m e m b e r s to
p r o c e e d d i r e c t l y to t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e P a c t , b u t
t h a t t h e n e e d arises f o r f o r m u l a t i n g a t e x t , f o r a c t u a l l y
g e t t i n g d o w n to its c o m p o s i t i o n a n d r a t i f i c a t i o n . V e r y w e l l ;
w h e n the t i m e c o m e s to v o t e o n this r e s o l u t i o n , w h i c h
requires u n a n i m i t y i n the C o u n c i l o f G e n e v a , S p a i n
s h o u l d take the f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t o a c c o u n t : not
o n e o f t h e states r e p r e s e n t e d i n G e n e v a is g o i n g t o a c t at
the present t i m e i n accordance w i t h a n y superstitious
a l l e g i a n c e to t h e L e a g u e n o t o n e .
I w o u l d n o t l i k e S p a i n to be t h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n , a n d I
t r u s t t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t w i l l n o t p e r m i t t h i s t o be t h e
case. A l l t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s , e v e r y s i n g l e o n e o f t h e m , a r e
c a r r y i n g o u t a p r e l i m i n a r y s u r v e y to see w h e t h e r o r n o t i t
suits t h e m to v o t e i n f a v o u r o f t h e m i l i t a r y r e s o l u t i o n
s t i p u l a t e d b y t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h o f a r t i c l e 16. A n d t h a t
is h o w i t s h o u l d b e , f o r i f t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h w e r e
i m p l e m e n t e d as a u t o m a t i c a l l y as t h e first, a l l d e l i b e r a t i o n s
w o u l d be s u p e r f l u o u s ; b u t since a p r o n o u n c e m e n t o f t h i s
k i n d is s u p p o s e d to reflect e v e r y o n e ' s o p i n i o n , i t is o n l y
n a t u r a l that i n the course o f w o r k i n g out s u c h a p r o n o u n c e m e n t , i n t h e course o f a d o p t i n g s u c h a n a t t i t u d e ,
e a c h c o u n t r y m u s t w e i g h c a r e f u l l y w h i c h o f its interests
a r e a t stake.
T h u s w e o b s e r v e t h a t the petite entente is g o i n g t o v o t e i n
f a v o u r , b e c a u s e i t is w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n
Italian expansion i n Yugoslavia, while T u r k e y brings u p
t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e S t r a i t s a n d G e n e v a is c o n c e r n e d w i t h
p r e s e r v i n g its n e w a l l i a n c e w i t h E n g l a n d . B u t w h a t a b o u t
us, g e n t l e m e n , a r e w e g o i n g to v o t e o u t o f sheer eagerness
t o p l e a s e ? A r e w e r e a l l y g o i n g to b e h a v e l i k e d a z z l e d
y o k e l s , w e l l p l e a s e d t o be s i t t i n g a m o n g i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e
a n d to b e g i v e n t h e c h a i r m a n s h i p o f those c o m m i s s i o n s
w h i c h are j u s t l i k e those u n s a v o u r y dishes y o u a r e g i v e n
t o eat i n E u r o p e ? {Hear!
Hear!)

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T h e n , i f t h e r e is n o v o t e i n f a v o u r o f a n y m i l i t a r y
s a n c t i o n s , i f t h e r e is n o v o t e i n f a v o u r o f a n y m i U t a r y
m e a s u r e s , i t is m o r e t h a n l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e w i l l be n o
E u r o p e a n w a r . P o s s i b l y t h e w h o l e t h i n g w i l l be r e d u c e d
to a conflict between Italy a n d E n g l a n d . W i t h the
prospect o f such a conflict, I believe that S p a i n cannot
display any activity other t h a n that w h i c h c a n be s u m m a r i z e d i n one w o r d : neutrality, u n c o m p r o m i s i n g
neutrality. Ordinarily, a position of neutrality formulated
i n these t e r m s w o u l d s e e m t h e refuge o f c o w a r d i c e , o r a t
least a d e l i b e r a t e w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e affairs o f E u r o p e .
B u t f o r o n c e n e u t r a l i t y w i l l be d a n g e r o u s ; t h o u g h t h e
d a n g e r s h o u l d n o t m a k e us a b a n d o n o u r d e c i s i o n t o k e e p
i t u p , f o r t w o v e r y g o o d reasons. F i r s t l y , b e c a u s e i t is to be
h o p e d t h a t those w h o h a v e p a i d so m u c h l i p - s e r v i c e to t h e
P a c t o f the L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s w i l l not c o m m i t the most
flagrant
v i o l a t i o n t h e r e o f b y a b u s i n g o u r free r e s o l v e to
k e e p o u t o f t h e w a r . A n d l e t n o o n e say t h a t w e p a y l i p s e r v i c e to t h e P a c t o f t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s w h e n w e feel
l i k e i t , o n l y to flout i t w h e n i t n o l o n g e r suits us. T h a t is b y
n o m e a n s the c a s e : i f w e d o n o t v o t e f o r m i l i t a r y m e a s u r e s ,
w e d o not thereby go against the P a c t ; w e are m e r e l y , i n
t h e c o n t e x t o f a b a l l o t p r o v i d e d f o r i n the P a c t , a c t i n g i n
S p a i n ' s best interests. A n d h o w c o u l d o n e ever c o m p a r e a n
I t a l i a n a t t e m p t to c o l o n i z e a n d a n n e x A b y s s i n i a w i t h a n
i n v a s i o n o f S p a n i s h territory, the territory o f one o f the
senior a n d supposedly most h i g h l y esteemed m e m b e r s o f
the L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s , m e r e l y because S p a i n considered
i n G e n e v a t h a t t h e r e w a s n o r e a s o n to set fire to E u r o p e ?
I t is m y b e l i e f t h a t those f o r w h o m this is p r a c t i c a l l y t h e
first t i m e t h e y h a v e h a d r e c o u r s e to t h e P a c t , a n d w h o
h a v e m a d e i t c l e a r t h a t t h e P a c t is j u s t a b o u t t h e o n l y
b r i d g e l i n k i n g t h e m t o E u r o p e , w i l l r e f r a i n f r o m so
flagrant
a n i n f r i n g e m e n t thereof.
B u t let m e say s o m e t h i n g else a n d t h i s is t h e s e c o n d
r e a s o n w h y n e u t r a l i t y w i l l be d a n g e r o u s ; w h e n i t c o m e s to

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deciding whether or not we should r e m a i n neutral, S p a i n

m u s t o n l y t a k e e x p e r i e n c e a n d d e c o r u m i n t o a c c o u n t ; she
m u s t d e c i d e w h e t h e r S p a n i s h interests a r e i n v o l v e d ;
f o r t h e r e c a n be n o r e a s o n w h y w e s h o u l d d e f e n d t h e
B r i t i s h E m p i r e , t o w h i c h w e o w e n o t h i n g . [Murmurings.)
D o I have to r e m i n d y o u o f G i b r a l t a r ? W e owe the
B r i t i s h E m p i r e n o t h i n g a n d s h o u l d d o n o t h i n g to defend i t ;
a l l w e s h o u l d t h i n k a b o u t is t h i s , a n d this a l o n e w h e r e
d o S p a i n ' s interests l i e ? I t w o u l d be i n d e c o r o u s f o r S p a i n
t o o p t for i n t e r v e n t i o n o r n e u t r a l i t y i n r e s p o n s e t o a n y
t h r e a t o r u n w a r r a n t e d d e m a n d . {Applause.)
{Interruption.) I f t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r w i l l d i s p l a y s u c h
insolence, I s h a l l have to c o m m i t the discourtesy o f
c e a s i n g t o l i s t e n . {Senor Primo de Rivera leaves his seat. Noisy
protest.)
M y a p p r e c i a t i o n o f w h a t t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r has j u s t
said a n d m y a b i d i n g respect for the occupants o f h i g h
office p u t m e u n d e r a d o u b l e o b l i g a t i o n t o t a k e b a c k a n y thing, any words o f mine, w h i c h i n t u r n m a y have offended
t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r . B u t I w o u l d ask h i m t o b e a r i n m i n d
t h a t o n e w h o has s p o k e n as I h a v e , w h o has s t a r t e d b y sayi n g t h a t t h e r e w a s n o n e e d f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t to m a k e a n y
reply, w h o asked neither the g o v e r n m e n t n o r the H o u s e
to m a k e a n y statement, w h o m e r e l y sought to m a k e the
m o d e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f his o w n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
s i t u a t i o n so t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t m i g h t h e a r a n d t a k e
n o t e , i f i t so w i s h e d , o f a n h o n e s t l y f o r m u l a t e d p e r s o n a l
o p i n i o n , does n o t deserve t o be t o l d b y t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r
t h a t h e w a s g o i n g a g a i n s t S p a i n ' s deepest interests. {The
Prime Minister: 'I did not mean to say any such thing.') I a m
d e l i g h t e d to h e a r that that was n o t w h a t the P r i m e
M i n i s t e r m e a n t t o say. {The Prime Minister: 'And I do not
believe that that is what I did say; but supposing I said it, I
certainly take it back.') A l l t h e b e t t e r . A n d i n case I h a v e
n o t m a d e m y s e l f c l e a r at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f m y s p e e c h , I
repeat that I a m asking neither the H o u s e n o r the g o v e r n -

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m e n t t o express t h e sHghtest a p p r o v a l o f w h a t is b u t a
personal suggestion o f m i n e , the honest expression o f a
p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n . N o w t h e g o v e r n m e n t , w h i c h is i n n o
w a y o b h g e d t o a n s w e r m e , o r p r e s u m a b l y a n y o n e else,
n o d o u b t k n o w s w h a t i t is d o i n g i n t h e s e r v i c e o f S p a i n .
T h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s f r i e n d s , a n d those w h o a r e n o t its
f r i e n d s , a l l h o p e t h a t i t w i l l , i n t h e service o f S p a i n , c o m e
to the r i g h t decision.

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F r o m Haz, N o . 9, O c t o b e r 12th, 1935

T h e mass o f a p e o p l e i n n e e d o f a r e v o l u t i o n is i n c a p a b l e
of making a revolution.
I t is n o t so m u c h w h e n a p e o p l e is c o r r u p t t h a t r e v o l u t i o n b e c o m e s a necessity, b u t w h e n its i n s t i t u t i o n s , its
i d e a s , its tastes h a v e b e c o m e sterile o r a r e a b o u t to d o so.
T h a t is t h e m o m e n t o f h i s t o r i c a l d e g e n e r a c y . N o t d e a t h
b y disaster, b u t r a t h e r s t a g n a t i o n i n a graceless a n d
hopeless existence. A l l c o l l e c t i v e a t t i t u d e s a r e feeble f r o m
t h e outset, b r e d o f a l l b u t e x h a u s t e d stock. T h e l i f e o f t h e
c o m m u n i t y becomes b l u n t e d , stultified a n d submerged i n
b a d taste a n d m e d i o c r i t y . T h i s c a n n o t be r e m e d i e d e x c e p t
b y a c l e a n c u t a n d a n e w s t a r t . T h e f u r r o w s c r y o u t for
n e w seed, h i s t o r i c a l seed, b e c a u s e the o l d has c o m e to t h e
e n d o f its f e r t i l i t y .
B u t w h o is to b e t h e h u s b a n d m a n ? W h o is to choose
t h e n e w seed a n d t h e m o m e n t w h e n to s o w i t ? T h a t is t h e
d i f f i c u l t y . A n d h e r e w e c o m e face to face w i t h a l l t h e
d e m a g o g i c p r e d i c t i o n s o f the Left a n d the R i g h t , w i t h a l l
t h e n a u s e o u s a t t i t u d e s s t r u c k b y those w h o f a w n o n t h e
masses i n o r d e r to e l i c i t t h e i r votes o r t h e i r a p p l a u s e . S u c h
m e n t u r n to t h e c r o w d a n d say to i t : ' Y o u , t h e p e o p l e , a r e
m a g n i f i c e n t ; y o u h a r b o u r the highest v i r t u e s ; y o u r
w o m e n a r e t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l a n d chaste i n t h e w o r l d ;
y o u r m e n the most intelligent a n d b r a v e ; y o u r customs
t h e m o s t v e n e r a b l e ; y o u r a r t is i n c o m p a r a b l y r i c h . Y o u
h a v e suffered b u t o n e m i s f o r t u n e : t h a t o f b e i n g b a d l y
g o v e r n e d . C a s t o f f y o u r r u l e r s , free y o u r s e l v e s f r o m t h e i r
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b o n d s a n d y o u s h a l l p r o s p e r . ' W h i c h a m o u n t s m o r e o r less
to t h i s : ' G o o d p e o p l e , m a k e y o u r s e l v e s h a p p y t h r o u g h
rebellion."
T h o s e w h o s p e a k t h u s r e v e a l t h e m s e l v e s e i t h e r as
n a u s e o u s l y i n s i n c e r e , m a k i n g use o f w o r d s as b a i t w i t h
w h i c h t o c a t c h t h e masses f o r t h e i r o w n benefit, o r else
as u t t e r l y s t u p i d , w h i c h m a y be e v e n m o r e h a r m f u l t h a n
d e c e i t . N o o n e w h o g i v e s i t s o m e m i n u t e s ' t h o u g h t c a n be
b l i n d to t h i s t r u t h : t h a t at t h e e n d o f a sterile e r a , w h e n a
p e o p l e t h r o u g h its o w n f a u l t o r t h e f a u l t o f o t h e r s
has a l l o w e d its m a j o r resources t o g o r u s t y , i t c a n n o t
p o s s i b l y t a c k l e t h e e n o r m o u s task o f r e g e n e r a t i o n b y itself.
A r e v o l u t i o n i f i t is t o be f r u i t f u l a n d n o t f r i t t e r e d a w a y
i n e p h e m e r a l upheavals calls for a l u c i d awareness o f a
n e w n o r m c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e r e s o l u t e w i l l to see i t a p p l i e d .
B u t this a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e a n d a p p l y t h e n o r m is n o t h i n g
s h o r t o f p e r f e c t i o n . A p r o s t r a t e p e o p l e is i n c a p a b l e o f
p e r c e i v i n g a n d a p p l y i n g t h e n o r m ; t h a t is p r e c i s e l y its
t r o u b l e . I f i t is w e l l e q u i p p e d w i t h a l l t h a t is r e q u i r e d to
c a r r y o u t a f r u i t f u l r e v o l u t i o n , t h a t is a n u n m i s t a k a b l e
s i g n t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n is u n n e c e s s a r y . I n v e r s e l y , n e e d i n g
a r e v o l u t i o n means b e i n g w i t h o u t the l u c i d i t y a n d the
d r i v e r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r to l o v e a n d r e a l i z e i t . I n s h o r t ,
a p e o p l e c a n n o t a c h i e v e its o w n c o l l e c t i v e s a l v a t i o n ,
since t h e v e r y f a c t o f b e i n g a b l e t o d o so is p r o o f t h a t i t is
safe a n d needs n o t t o be s a v e d . P a s c a l i m a g i n e d C h r i s t
s a y i n g to h i m , ' Y o u w o u l d n o t seek m e h a d y o u n o t
already found me.' T h e tutelary spirit of revolutions might
w e l l say as m u c h to t h e p e o p l e .
A m o n g the r e v o l u t i o n a r y leaders w h o h a v e passed
t h r o u g h w o r l d history, two types h a v e a p p e a r e d f a i r l y
frequently: the ringleader r e c r u i t i n g a c r o w d u p o n whose
s h o u l d e r s to h o i s t h i m s e l f i n s e a r c h o f f a m e , p o w e r o r
w e a l t h ; a n d the m a n w i t h a superstitious faith i n the
people, the believer i n the c o n g e n i t a l timeliness o f the
p e o p l e p e r c e i v e d i n o r g a n i c a l l y as a mass i n t h e sue-

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cessful p u r s u i t o f its o w n c o u r s e . T h e r i n g l e a d e r t e n d s
to be less c o m m e n d a b l e f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f p r i v a t e
m o r a l i t y ; he tends to be a f e l l o w o f f e w s c r u p l e s , w h o robs
a n d oppresses t h e c o m m u n i t y w h i c h e n d u r e s a n d s u p p o r t s
h i m ; b u t h e has t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t h e c a n b e e l i m i n a t e d
b y a s i n g l e b u l l e t ; his d e a t h p u t s a stop t o t h e n u i s a n c e .
T h e o t h e r , h o w e v e r , leaves a m a r k a n d is, f r o m t h e p o i n t
o f v i e w of his historic mission, m o r e o f a t r a i t o r t h a n the
ringleader.
Y e s , he is m o r e o f a t r a i t o r , i f w e use t h e w o r d t r a i t o r
w i t h o u t t h e least m e l o d r a m a t i c c o n n o t a t i o n , b u t s i m p l y
t o d e s c r i b e o n e w h o a b a n d o n s his post at a c r u c i a l m o m e n t .
T h a t is p r e c i s e l y w h a t t h e m a n w i t h s u p e r s t i t i o u s f a i t h i n
t h e p o p u l a c e t e n d s to d o w h e n c h a n c e p l a c e s h i m at t h e
h e l m o f a v i c t o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n . B y his v e r y p r e s e n c e t h e r e ,
b y h a v i n g c l i m b e d deliberately to the top a n d b y h a v i n g
k i n d l e d t h e f a i t h o f those w h o f o l l o w e d h i m , s u c h a m a n
has t a c i t l y t a k e n u p o n h i m s e l f the d u t y to c o m m a n d
t h e m , to g u i d e t h e m , t o s h o w t h e m t h e w a y . U n l e s s h i s
soul was stirred b y s o m e t h i n g a k i n to the c a l l o f a f a r a w a y
outpost, he s h o u l d never have coveted the leadership. T o
b e c o m e a l e a d e r , t o b e v i c t o r i o u s a n d to say t h e f o l l o w i n g
d a y to t h e masses, ' Y o u g i v e t h e o r d e r s , I a m h e r e to o b e y
y o u , ' is to s h i r k t h e g l o r i o u s b u r d e n o f c o m m a n d i n a m o s t
a b j e c t f a s h i o n . I t is n o t f o r t h e l e a d e r t o o b e y t h e p e o p l e :
h e m u s t serve t h e p e o p l e , w h i c h is s o m e t h i n g q u i t e
different. S u c h service means exercising p o w e r for the g o o d
o f t h e p e o p l e , h a v i n g t h e g o o d o f t h e p e o p l e u n d e r one's
r u l e at h e a r t , e v e n t h o u g h t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s m a y n o t
k n o w w h a t is best f o r t h e m ; t h a t is to say, he m u s t feel at
o n e w i t h t h e p e o p l e ' s h i s t o r i c d e s t i n y , e v e n t h o u g h he m a y
d i s a g r e e w i t h w h a t t h e masses t h i n k t h e y w a n t .
A l l t h e m o r e so w h e n t h e r e is a r e v o l u t i o n , s i n c e , as w e
h a v e s a i d , a p e o p l e needs r e v o l u t i o n p r e c i s e l y w h e n i t has
lost t h e a p t i t u d e f o r w a n t i n g w h a t is g o o d ; w h e n its
a p p e t i t e h a s , o n e m i g h t say, b e e n v i t i a t e d , w h i c h is

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p r e c i s e l y the i l l w h i c h m u s t be c u r e d . T h a t is t h e s p l e n d i d
p a r t . A n d t h e d i f f i c u l t p a r t . T h a t is w h y l i g h t - w e i g h t
l e a d e r s eschew t h e task at h a n d , p r e f e r r i n g , i n a n effort
t o c o v e r u p t h e i r o w n w e a k n e s s , to r e p l a c e p u b l i c s e r v i c e
a n d t h e quest f o r a p r o b l e m a t i c a l h a r m o n y b e t w e e n t h e
p e o p l e ' s r e a l i t y a n d its t r u e d e s t i n y , w i t h o b e d i e n c e t o t h e
p e o p l e , w h i c h is b u t o n e k i n d o f f a w n i n g l i k e a n y o t h e r ;
t h a t is to say, o n e k i n d o f c o r r u p t i o n .
S p a i n has
1931. R a r e l y
meek. T h e y
sidered their

seen s o m e t h i n g o f t h i s q u i t e r e c e n t l y : i n
h a v e t h e masses b e e n so m a n a g e a b l e a n d
c h e e r f u l l y e l e v a t e d those w h o m t h e y c o n betters a n d p r e p a r e d to f o l l o w t h e m .

I n t h i s w a y , those w h o h a d f o r m a n y years d i s p e n s e d t h e
m e d i c i n a l d r a u g h t o f c r i t i c i s m f o u n d themselves w i t h o u t
a n y effort o n t h e i r p a r t i n p o s i t i o n s o f p o w e r . O b v i o u s l y I
a m n o t r e f e r r i n g to t h e d e m a g o g u e s , b u t t o t h a t s m a l l ,
select g r o u p o f m e n w h o , after a r i g o r o u s i n t e r n a l process
r a n g i n g f r o m desperate r e v u l s i o n to fervent a n t i c i p a t i o n ,
were g i v i n g expression to a y e a r n i n g for a S p a i n that was
brighter, cleaner, m o r e agile, freed f r o m m u c h timeh o n o u r e d r u b b i s h a n d m u c h d r e a r y m e d i o c r i t y . I t was
t h e d u t y o f those i n t h a t g r o u p t o start u s i n g t h e n e w
h i s t o r i c a l levers, t o p l a n t n e w v i n e s i n p l a c e o f t h e o l d ,
e x h a u s t e d ones. W h a t is m o r e , t h e y w e r e c a l l e d u p o n t o
d o so r e g a r d l e s s o f a l l r e c a l c i t r a n c e , b e i t o n t h e p a r t o f
t h e i r e r s t w h i l e f e l l o w r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s o r o n t h e p a r t o f the
masses t h e m s e l v e s . T h e h e l m s m e n o f a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
m o v e m e n t must even p u t u p w i t h being called traitors.
T h e masses a l w a y s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r e b e i n g b e t r a y e d .
N o t h i n g c o u l d be m o r e f u t i l e t h a n t r y i n g t o flatter the
masses i n t h e h o p e o f b e i n g s p a r e d t h e c h a r g e o f t r e a s o n .
M a y b e the m e n t o r s o f 1931 d i d n o t s t o o p to f l a t t e r y , b u t
t h e y c e r t a i n l y c o u l d n o t b r i n g themselves to resist a n d
d i s c i p l i n e t h e masses. W i t h h a u g h t y d i s d a i n t h e y r e t r e a t e d
o n c e m o r e i n t o t h e i r shells, l e a v i n g t h e r o a d c l e a r f o r t h e
nastiness o f the d e m a g o g u e s a n d t h e a u d a c i t y o f t h e r i n g -

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l e a d e r s . T h a t is h o w S p a i n ' s o p p o r t u n i t y w e n t to w a s t e , as
so m a n y t i m e s b e f o r e .
T h e n e x t o p p o r t u n i t y w i l l n o t be w a s t e d . W e h a v e
l e a r n e d t h a t t h e masses c a n n o t save t h e m s e l v e s . A n d t h a t
t h e r e c a n be n o excuse f o r t h e l e a d e r s w h o q u i t . R e v o l u t i o n is a task f o r a d e t e r m i n e d m i n o r i t y i m m u n e to d i s c o u r a g e m e n t . I t is t h e task o f a m i n o r i t y w h o s e first steps
w i l l n o t be u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e masses, s i n c e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
is t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e t h i n g t h e masses lose as t h e v i c t i m s
of a n era of decadence. B u t r e v o l u t i o n w i l l eventually
r e p l a c e t h e b a r r e n c o n f u s i o n o f o u r c o l l e c t i v e life w i t h t h e
j o y a n d radiance of a new order.

EXTRACT FROM THE CLOSING

S P E E C H OF T H E S E C O N D
N A T I O N A L A S S E M B L Y OF T H E
FALANGE
M a d e at the M a d r i d C i n e m a , M a d r i d , N o v e m b e r 17th,

1935

A t t h i s s o l e m n m o m e n t I v e n t u r e to f o r m u l a t e a p r o p h e c y :
the f o r t h c o m i n g struggle, w h i c h m a y not take the f o r m
o f a n election, w h i c h m a y be m o r e d r a m a t i c t h a n a n y
e l e c t o r a l s t r u g g l e , w i l l n o t be a c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f s u c h
o u t d a t e d v a l u e s as t h e ones w e c a l l t h e R i g h t a n d t h e
L e f t ; i t w i l l be a c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e g r i m a n d
m e n a c i n g A s i a t i c f r o n t o f t h e R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n i n its
S p a n i s h i n c a r n a t i o n a n d the n a t i o n a l front o f o u r o w n
g e n e r a t i o n l i n e d u p for battle.
N o w , t h e r e w i l l be n o r o o m b e n e a t h t h e b a n n e r o f t h e
n a t i o n a l f r o n t f o r a n y s m u g g l e d g o o d s . T h e w o r d is t o o
l o f t y f o r a n y o n e to use i t as a p s e u d o n y m . T h e r e w i l l be
s e n t i n e l s at t h e e n t r a n c e , s e a r c h i n g those w h o w i s h t o j o i n
to see t h a t t h e y h a v e r e a l l y left a l l t h e v e s t e d interests o f
t h e i r g r o u p a n d t h e i r class b e h i n d t h e m i n t h e e n c a m p m e n t ; t o see t h a t t h e i r souls a r e r e a l l y a f l a m e w i t h selfless
d e v o t i o n t o this t o t a l u n d e r t a k i n g s u s p e n d e d h i g h a b o v e
o u r h e a d s ; t o see t h a t t h e y e n v i s a g e S p a i n as a t o t a l
v a l u e t r a n s c e n d i n g the f r a m e w o r k o f p a r t i a l values w i t h i n
w h i c h p o l i t i c s h a v e e v o l v e d h i t h e r t o . T o be p r a c t i c a l ,
those sentinels m u s t be b r i e f e d o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e
n a t i o n a l f r o n t , o f w h i c h t h e first is a h i s t o r i c a l b o u n d a r y .
A l l r e a c t i o n a r y designs, a l l s u r r e p t i t i o u s feelings
of
n o s t a l g i a f o r o b s o l e t e p r a c t i c e s o r a r e t u r n to s o c i a l a n d
e c o n o m i c systems t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d w a n t i n g , w i l l be
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i n a d m i s s i b l e . I t is n o t e n o u g h to t u r n u p s i n g i n g a n t h e m s ;
those w h o w a n t t h e sentinels to let t h e m pass m u s t h a v e
left s u c h n o s t a l g i a s i n c e r e l y b e h i n d at t h e e n t r a n c e .
T h e n t h e r e is a m o r a l b o u n d a r y . W e c a n n o t feel a n y s o l i d a r i t y w i t h s u c h p e o p l e as h a v e a c c u s t o m e d t h e i r l u n g s
a n d their hearts to l i v i n g i n the k i n d o f m o r a l c l i m a t e
where corruption can
flourish.
T h o s e are the insurm o u n t a b l e b a r r i e r s i n t h e n e g a t i v e sense; t h a t is w h a t
m u s t be e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e n a t i o n a l f r o n t . . .
B u t e x c l u s i o n is n o t e n o u g h . I t is essential to h o l d u p a
p o s i t i v e c h a l l e n g e : t h e task o f g i v i n g to S p a i n those t w o
t h i n g s she has lost, firstly, t h e m a t e r i a l l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s
w h i c h w i l l raise t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e t o t h e l e v e l o f h u m a n
beings, a n d secondly, faith i n a collective n a t i o n a l destiny
a n d t h e w i l l to b r i n g a b o u t a g e n u i n e r e v i v a l . T h e s e m u s t
b e t h e t w o e l e m e n t s o f t h e task w h i c h t h e g r o u p , t h e
f r o n t l i n e o f o u r g e n e r a t i o n , m u s t set itself. A n d so t h a t n o
o n e c a n c l a i m to h a v e b e e n m i s l e d , w e m u s t e x p l a i n t h e
m e a n i n g o f these t w o d e c i s i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s .
T h e e c o n o m i c r e v i v a l o f S p a i n . I w a s s a y i n g to y o u t h a t
the death-pangs o f c a p i t a l i s m are a w o r l d - w i d e p h e n o m e n o n . N o w t h e n : the o n l y ways out o f the a g o n y o f c a p i t a l i s m a r e e i t h e r a n i n v a s i o n b y t h e b a r b a r i a n s o r else a
speedy dismantlement of c a p i t a l i s m itself W h a t c a n we
p o s s i b l y c h o o s e b u t t h e l a t t e r s o l u t i o n ? I t consists o f t h r e e
sections w h i c h d e m a n d t h r e e d i s m a n t l i n g p r o c e d u r e s , t h e
sections b e i n g r u r a l c a p i t a l i s m , financial c a p i t a l i s m a n d
i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m . T h e three are v e r y u n e q u a l l y o p e n
to d i s m a n t l e m e n t . R u r a l c a p i t a l i s m is easy e n o u g h to
d i s m a n t l e . N o t i c e that I a m referring exclusively to the
p r a c t i c e o f u s i n g the l a n d to extract u n e a r n e d i n c o m e , or
surplus value, i n the words o f some economists. F o r the
time being I a m not p u t t i n g the practice o f p r o v i d i n g
farmers w i t h credits u n d e r the h e a d i n g o f r u r a l c a p i t a l i s m
b e c a u s e t h a t c o m e s i n t o financial c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h I w i l l
discuss i n a m o m e n t , n e i t h e r a m I i n c l u d i n g l a r g e - s c a l e

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i n d u s t r i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the l a n d . B y r u r a l c a p i t a l i s m 1
m e a n the system u n d e r w h i c h c e r t a i n people, w h o m a y
n o t e v e n k n o w t h e e x a c t l o c a t i o n o f t h e i r estates a n d w h o
k n o w n o t h i n g o f a g r i c u l t u r e , h a v e t h e r i g h t t h a n k s to
c e r t a i n titles l i s t e d i n t h e L a n d R e g i s t e r to d e r i v e a
c e r t a i n i n c o m e f r o m those w h o a c t u a l l y l i v e o n t h e l a n d
a n d t i l l i t . T h i s is v e r y easy t o d i s m a n t l e , t h o u g h I w a n t to
m a k e it clear that i f I describe the p r o c e d u r e , I a m not
thereby f o r m u l a t i n g a p a r a g r a p h o f the Falange's p a r t y
p r o g r a m m e . T h e w a y to d i s m a n t l e r u r a l c a p i t a l i s m is
q u i t e s i m p l y this: the c a n c e l l a t i o n o f the o b l i g a t i o n to p a y
r e n t . T h a t w o u l d be e x t r e m e l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y , b u t i t
w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t o c c a s i o n t h e slightest e c o n o m i c
c o n v u l s i o n ; the farmers w o u l d go o n t i l l i n g their l a n d , the
p r o d u c e w o u l d go o n b e i n g harvested a n d e v e r y t h i n g
w o u l d f u n c t i o n as before.
M u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d is t h e d i s m a n t l e m e n t o f
financial
c a p i t a l i s m . T h a t is a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r a l t o g e t h e r .
W i t h a c o m p l e x e c o n o m i c m e c h a n i s m established the w a y
i t is, w e m u s t needs h a v e c r e d i t ; firstly, s o m e o n e m u s t
p u r v e y t h e t o k e n s o f c r e d i t a c c e p t e d i n business t r a n s actions, a n d secondly, the intervals between the b e g i n n i n g
o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n process a n d t h e m o m e n t o f its c o m p l e t i o n m u s t be c o v e r e d . B u t i t is p o s s i b l e to t r a n s f o r m a l l this
i n such a w a y that dealings i n m o n e t a r y credit w i l l no
l o n g e r be t h e p r i v a t e business o f a f e w p r i v i l e g e d m e n , b u t
r a t h e r t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the e c o n o m i c c o m m u n i t y as a
w h o l e , t r a n s a c t e d b y its a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t , n a m e l y
t h e state. S o t h a t financial c a p i t a l i s m c a n be d i s m a n t l e d
b y c a u s i n g i t to be r e p l a c e d , b y n a t i o n a l i z i n g a l l c r e d i t
facilities.
F i n a l l y , w h a t r e m a i n s is i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m . A t
p r e s e n t this is the m o s t d i f f i c u l t k i n d to d i s m a n t l e , for
n o t o n l y does i n d u s t r y dispose o f c a p i t a l for c r e d i t p u r poses, b u t t h e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m has i n f i l t r a t e d t h e v e r y
s t r u c t u r e o f i n d u s t r y . B e c a u s e o f its i m m e n s e c o m p l e x i t y ,

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because o f the fact that i t requires a great q u a n t i t y o f

i n s t r u m e n t s , i n d u s t r y is d e p e n d e n t , f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g , o n
the existence o f several different forms o f o w n e r s h i p :
t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f l a r g e u n i t s a n d e c o n o m i c resources
o n t h e l e g a l basis o f t h e l i m i t e d c o m p a n y . T h e l i m i t e d
c o m p a n y is t h e r e f o r e t h e a n o n y m o u s o w n e r o f t h e
business, i n p l a c e o f t h e h u m a n o w n e r s o f o l d e r f i r m s .
I f industrial capitalism were suddenly dismantled i n one
f e l l s w o o p , i t w o u l d f o r t h e m o m e n t be i m p o s s i b l e to find
a n effective e x p e d i e n t f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f i n d u s t r y ,
a n d this w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y l e a d t o a serious c o l l a p s e .
W h e n i t c o m e s t o d i s m e m b e r i n g c a p i t a l i s m , i t is t h e r e fore easiest to d i s m a n t l e r u r a l c a p i t a l i s m ; i t is f a i r l y easy
t o d i s m a n t l e o r to r e p l a c e financial c a p i t a l i s m ; i t is f a r
m o r e d i f f i c u l t to d i s m a n t l e i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m . B u t since
G o d is o n o u r side, i t so h a p p e n s t h a t h a r d l y a n y i n d u s t r i a l
c a p i t a l i s m has to be d i s m a n t l e d i n S p a i n , b e c a u s e w e h a v e
v e r y l i t t l e o f i t h e r e . A n d w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f w h a t
l i t t l e t h e r e is, i f w e w e r e t o r e d u c e t h e b u r d e n s o n t h e
n a t i o n i m p l i c i t i n the existence o f e x t r a v a g a n t boards o f
d i r e c t o r s , i n t h e needless m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t firms
p r o v i d i n g s i m i l a r services a n d i n t h e u n j u s t i f i a b l e c o n cession o f free shares, o u r u n a s s u m i n g i n d u s t r y w o u l d
r e c o v e r a l l its a g i l i t y a n d c o u l d c o p e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l w i t h
a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n . T h e m e a s u r e s to be p u t i n t o effect
i m m e d i a t e l y w o u l d be the n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f credit a n d
t h e l a n d r e f o r m . A n d this is w h y S p a i n , a c o u n t r y a l m o s t
e n t i r e l y a g r a r i a n a n d r u r a l , finds herself, i n this e r a o f t h e
l i q u i d a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m , i n t h e best p o s s i b l e p o s i t i o n t o
decapitalize herself w i t h o u t catastrophic consequences.
T h i s is w h y I w a s n o t m a k i n g a m e a n i n g l e s s s t a t e m e n t
w h e n I s a i d , t a k i n g a l l these factors i n t o a c c o u n t , t h a t t h e
mission o f b r i d g i n g the i n v a s i o n o f the b a r b a r i a n s a n d o f
e s t a b l i s h i n g a n e w o r d e r was a m i s s i o n i n c u m b e n t o n
Spain.
T h o s e w h o c o m e as v o l u n t e e r s to the e n c a m p m e n t s

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o u r g e n e r a t i o n w i l l therefore h a v e to s u b s c r i b e to t w o
positive objectives: firstly, the g r a d u a l b u t active p u r s u i t
o f a n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f b a n k i n g ; s e c o n d l y , the d e t e r m i n e d
r e s o l v e to see t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a r e a l a n d t h o r o u g h l y
implemented law of l a n d reform.
W e d o n o t see a g r a r i a n r e f o r m as m e r e l y a t e c h n i c a l
a n d e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m to be s t u d i e d c o o l l y i n s c h o o l s ;
a g r a r i a n r e f o r m means the t o t a l r e f o r m o f S p a n i s h life.
S p a i n is a l m o s t e n t i r e l y r u r a l . T h e o p e n c o u n t r y is
s y n o n y m o u s w i t h S p a i n ; i f i n the S p a n i s h countryside the
l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s i m p o s e d o n the S p a n i s h s e c t o r o f
a g r a r i a n h u m a n i t y a r e i n t o l e r a b l e , this is n o t m e r e l y a n
e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m . I t is a t o t a l p r o b l e m , r e l i g i o u s a n d
m o r a l . T h a t is w h y i t is m o n s t r o u s t o a p p r o a c h t h e
subject o f l a n d r e f o r m exclusively f r o m the e c o n o m i c
a n g l e ; t h a t is w h y i t is m o n s t r o u s t o set m a t e r i a l interests
a g a i n s t m a t e r i a l interests, as t h o u g h t h a t w e r e a l l t h a t
m a t t e r e d ; t h a t is w h y i t is m o n s t r o u s f o r those t r y i n g to
f e n d o f f a g r a r i a n r e f o r m to i n v o k e t h e i r r i g h t s o f i n h e r i t a n c e , j u s t as i t w o u l d be m o n s t r o u s f o r those o n t h e o t h e r
side, w h o s e d e m a n d s are c o n d i t i o n e d b y c e n t u r i e s o f
h u n g e r , to a s p i r e m e r e l y t o t h e possession o f p r o p e r t y ,
r a t h e r t h a n to t h e a l l - e m b r a c i n g p o s s i b i l i t y o f l i v i n g l i k e
r e l i g i o u s a n d h u m a n beings.
T h i s l a n d r e f o r m w i l l also h a v e t w o c h a p t e r s : first t h e r e
w i l l be e c o n o m i c r e f o r m ; t h e n t h e r e w i l l be s o c i a l r e f o r m .
A l a r g e p a r t o f S p a i n is u n i n h a b i t a b l e a n d b a r r e n .
K e e p i n g t h e p e o p l e i n s u c h areas w h o l i v e t h e r e n o w ,
c l i n g i n g to t h a t e a r t h , w o u l d be to c o n d e m n t h e m to
e v e r l a s t i n g m i s e r y . T h e r e is m u c h u n t i l l e d l a n d t h a t n e v e r
s h o u l d h a v e b e e n left u n t i l l e d ; t h e r e a r e m a n y s t o n y fields
w h i c h s h o u l d n e v e r h a v e b e e n p l o u g h e d u p . T h u s t h e first
t h i n g a n i n t e l l i g e n t l a n d r e f o r m m u s t d o is to d e m a r c a t e
t h e a r a b l e l a n d o f S p a i n , to d e m a r c a t e t h e areas w h i c h a r e
a r a b l e at p r e s e n t a n d those w h i c h c a n be m a d e a r a b l e b y
m e a n s o f i r r i g a t i o n schemes w h i c h m u s t be i n t e n s i f i e d
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forthwith.
A n d after t h a t w e m u s t h a v e the c o u r a g e to l e t
t h e l a n d w h i c h is u n s u i t a b l e for f a r m i n g r e v e r t to w o o d l a n d , to t h e l o n g - l o s t w o o d s o f o u r b a r e c o u n t r y s i d e , o r
w e m u s t t u r n i t i n t o p a s t u r e so t h a t w e m a y r e g a i n o u r
w e a l t h o f l i v e s t o c k , w h i c h u s e d t o m a k e us s t r o n g a n d
h e a l t h y ; w e m u s t a b a n d o n a l l t h a t l a n d to p u r s u i t s o t h e r
t h a n agriculture; we must never again lower a p l o u g h s h a r e i n t o its p o v e r t y . O n c e t h e a r a b l e l a n d o f S p a i n has
been e a r m a r k e d , w e m u s t still w i t h i n the same economic
operation reconstruct
viable
holdings.
Our
N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l has d o n e some v e r y v a l u a b l e w o r k i n
this c o n n e c t i o n . I n g e n e r a l t e r m s , t h e r e a r e t h r e e d i s t i n c t
types o f a g r i c u l t u r e , s i n c e i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e a g r i c u l t u r e
o f t h e N o r t h a n d o f t h e L e v a n t c a n be c o n s i d e r e d c o m p a r a b l e ; we h a v e three k i n d s o f a g r i c u l t u r e , therefore.
T h e large farms of unirrigated l a n d , w h i c h require
i n d u s t r i a l m e t h o d s a n d t h e use o f a l l the m a c h i n e r y t h e y
n e e d i n o r d e r to p r o d u c e p r o f i t a b l y , a n d w h i c h m u s t b e
u n d e r u n i o n m a n a g e m e n t . T h e n there are the s m a l l
f a r m s , u s u a l l y e n d o w e d w i t h i r r i g a t i o n o r s i t u a t e d i n areas
o f sufficient r a i n f a l l ; these m u s t b e s p l i t u p i n t o f a m i l y
h o l d i n g s ; b u t s i n c e i n m a n y s u c h areas t h e s u b d i v i s i o n
o f l a n d has b e e n c a r r i e d t o o f a r , so t h a t h o l d i n g s a r e t o o
s m a l l to be e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e , t h e process o f d i v i s i o n
w i l l i n s o m e cases be o n e o f a m a l g a m a t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n
f a m i l y h o l d i n g s that are either the d o m a i n o f a single
f a m i l y o r u n d e r corporative f a m i l y m a n a g e m e n t for the
s u p p l y o f e q u i p m e n t a n d for the m a r k e t i n g o f their
p r o d u c e . F i n a l l y , t h e r e are s t i l l o t h e r l a r g e areas w h i c h
a r e o f e x c e p t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e f o r S p a i n , as f o r e x a m p l e
the o l i v e - g r o w i n g regions, where the p a r t i c u l a r type o f
a g r i c u l t u r e c o n d e m n s t h e m e n to t o t a l u n e m p l o y m e n t f o r
p e r i o d s o f m a n y m o n t h s . L a n d s o f this t y p e r e q u i r e
c o m p l e m e n t a r y activities, either i n the f o r m o f s m a l l
i r r i g a t e d a l l o t m e n t s to w h i c h t h e w o r k e r s c a n t u r n i n t i m e s
o f s e a s o n a l u n e m p l o y m e n t , o r else i n t h e f o r m o f s m a l l

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industries established i n addition to agriculture, w h i c h

w i l l enable the farmhands to earn a living d u r i n g such
lengthy periods.
O n c e the lands have been classified i n this way and once
these viable agricultural units have been established, we
reach the point where the social reform of agriculture can
begin, a n d I ask you to consider this: what exactly is a
reform o f agriculture, from the social point of v i e w ? I
shall tell you what it is: we must take the Spanish people,
who have gone hungry for centuries, a n d rescue them
from the sterile lands that perpetuate their poverty; we
must transfer them to new lands that are arable; we must
instal them as soon as possible on the good lands, without
centuries of procrastination as the law o f agrarian
counter-reform w o u l d wish. Y o u w i l l ask, but w i l l the
owners be p a i d compensation or not ? A n d I reply to y o u ,
we do not know about that; that w i l l depend on the
financial situation at any given moment. But what I a m
saying to y o u is this: while we find out whether or not we
are i n a financial position to pay for the l a n d , we cannot
expect those who have gone hungry for centuries to suffer
any uncertainty as to whether or not there w i l l be a l a n d
reform; those who have gone hungry for centuries must
be installed as a first measure; then we shall see whether
the l a n d can be p a i d for. But it is fairer and more humane,
a salvation for m a n y more h u m a n beings, to carry out the
l a n d reform at the expense of the capitalists rather than at
the expense of the peasants.
N o w , a l l of this is only one aspect of our undertaking,
that o f rebuilding the existence of our people on humane
material foundations; but it must also be unified from
above; it must be given a collective faith, the supremacy
of the spiritual element must be restored. A s y o u have
heard me say here already, for us the fatherland is an
entity o f destiny; the fatherland is not the physical
support of our cradle; the mere fact that it bore our

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cradle does not make the fatherland worthy of our praises,

for i n spite of all our variety we must admit that there have
been fatherlands that have seen better cradles than yours
or mine. It isn't that. T h e fatherland is not our spiritual
centre because it is ours, because it is physically ours, but
because we have had the incomparable good fortune of
being born i n a fatherland actually called Spain, because
we want to partake of Spain's destiny. A n d this does not
mean that we are nationalists, for to be a nationalist is pure
folly; it signifies grafting the most profound spiritual
potential on to a physical factor, a mere physical c i r c u m stance. W e are not nationalists, because nationalism is the
individualism of every people. A s I said to y o u on another
occasion i n Salamanca, we are Spaniards, a n d this is one
of the few worthwhile things to be i n this w o r l d .
W e have i n the course of time been implacably stripped
of this feeling of Spanishness, by corrosive irony on the
one hand a n d by crude falsification on the other. I n a
quest for elegance, some have turned their backs on the
things that are our o w n ; others have lapsed into the stupid
nonsense of converting the delicate and precise substance
of S p a i n into a blatantly jingoistic caricature. A n d so it
came about that the two currents of irony a n d vulgarity
between them brought us to a situation where almost a l l
those wishing to be free of vulgarity a n d of irony moved
away from Spanishness and cast out from their very souls,
as though it were a weakness, their attachment to Spain.
Everything that conferred on life the dignity of collective
service was thereby erased from these souls. W e Spaniards
were treated to the spectacle of priests a n d soldiers so
thoroughly intimidated by irony that they seriously
believed the C h u r c h a n d the army to be doomed, as
remnants of a barbaric past, and strove to be tolerant,
liberal and pacifist, as though begging forgiveness for the
fact that they wore the cassock a n d the uniform. T h e
cassock and the u n i f o r m ! Religious and m i l i t a r y senti-

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ments! W h e n religious a n d military insights happen to be

the only integral and sober means o f a r r i v i n g at an
understanding of life!
T h a t is why we want a l l Spanish existence, the whole
existence of our Falange, to be i m b u e d w i t h a spirit of
service a n d sacrifice. T h a t is why we are j o i n e d and
looked upon w i t h ever greater comprehension, by those
of the w i n d - b l o w n generation who have left the opaque
shelter o f the Left a n d the R i g h t because they k n o w that
these cannot offer them a completely justified opportunity
for service and sacrifice. These people come to us, partake
of our spirit and line up at least i n spirit beneath
our banners. A n d no one can mistake us: our faces are
shining a n d our eyes are bright. A l l those who come to us
w a n t i n g to use the shade of our banners to cover up their
recollections o f the past, their curdled nostalgia for things
w o r n out and w e l l a n d truly cast off, withdraw again from
our ranks before long, a n d then they slander or misrepresent us. T h e good ones, though, the ones of real value,
be they inside our ranks or outside our ranks, come to
appreciate the truth we h o l d . A n d to those who stand
outside our ranks w h o m we have no wish to absorb into
our ranks, because we don't m i n d being the ones to start
the harvest, to them we say: the Spanish Falange of the
J . O . N . S . is right here, i n its front-line encampment; it is
here a n d available, w i t h i n the boundaries of the exclusiveness a n d the requirements I have mentioned, i f y o u want
us to embark a l l together on the undertaking that is the
defence of Spain against the i m p e n d i n g onslaught of
barbarism. T h a t is the way we are. W e ask only one thing.
W e do not ask you to transfer your allegiance to us, we do
not ask y o u to merge w i t h us, we do not ask you to assign
to us the most eye-catching positions. W e ask only one
thing, because it is our due: we ask to march out i n front,
because there is no one to beat the generosity w i t h w h i c h
we have given the blood of our best men. H a v i n g refused

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to accept positions i n the vanguard of the m u d d l e d armies

that have attempted to buy us w i t h their monies or to
dazzle us w i t h false slogans, we now c l a i m the front-line
position; we c l a i m our right to be first i n line for service
and sacrifice. H e r e we stand, at this appointed meetingplace, waiting for a l l and sundry: i f y o u do not wish to
come, i f you turn a deaf ear to our summons, that w i l l be
our misfortune; but it w i l l also be your misfortune and
Spain's misfortune. T h e Falange w i l l remain to the end i n
its lofty exposed position a n d we shall stand guard yet
again remember, comrades of the early hours we
shall stand guard once again beneath the stars.

POLITICS AND T H E
INTELLECTUAL
From Haz, No. i 2 , December 5th, 1935
WORDS OF H O M A G E AND R E P R O A C H
ADDRESSED TO D O NJOSE ORTEGA Y GASSET
A r e politics the proper sphere o f intellectuals ? T o this
question, asked i n public, two groups of people w o u l d
readily reply.
T h e first group consists of those who feel they have been
mentioned by n a m e ; that is to say, those who call themselves intellectuals. O f m a n y of these we know that they
speak on any subject under the sun with strangled voices,
puckered eyebrows a n d the irresistible habit of forcing
every conversation into a corset of complicated technical
terms, whether or not these are appropriate to the matter
being discussed. O f others i n the first group, whose status
is inferior, we k n o w that they are ever so exquisite: so
very, very exquisite that they cannot go out into the street
for fear that a whiff of air might k i l l them. These gather i n
semi-mysterious huddles, extracting with delicate fingertips some drops of beauty from calembours incomprehensible to anyone but the initiated. Should anyone ask
what contribution these people make those o f the
strangled voice a n d the others, the extra-exquisite to
the process of h u m a n thought, he w o u l d find w i t h amazement that the very most that members of both categories
have generally come up w i t h is a solitary l i n e ; several of
them have produced a hundred p a l h d , hybrid pages, and
one fails to see how they have managed to base o n these
pages the comfortable feeling of their superiority over the
rest of mortal m e n ; a few have indeed written several
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unintelligible volumes, w i t h w h i c h they are, for the time

being, upsetting a reading p u b l i c meekly convinced that
their o w n ineptitude prevents them from entering into
the marvellous secret o f the sphinx displayed before their
eyes u n t i l some person endowed w i t h n o r m a l good
health and disinclined to venerate things h u m a n , reveals
to the reading p u b l i c how this pathetic counterfeit sphinx
holds no secret whatsoever.
T h e second group consists of the aristophobes (where
better to use this w o r d than i n a few lines addressed to
D o n Jose?), those who are 'fed up to the teeth' w i t h the
people who insist on looking for complicated explanations
of things. ' D o n ' t bother me w i t h intellectuals; the
intellectuals always miss the m a r k ; what we need are
people w i t h integrity and c o m m o n sense. I f only we h a d
a dozen honest politicians, Spain w o u l d be straightened
out i n a couple o f years
I n this way, it only takes
people like that a minute to diagnose and prescribe treatment for Spain's ills.
Since we are prone to extreme dialectical positions
(though clearly i n the dialectical sphere only, since
otherwise, socially, we always manage to understand each
other and have a few drinks together), those who are not
committed to the first of these groups we have conjured
up commit themselves zestfully to the other. O n the one
hand, the self-styled intellectuals, on the other, people
who 'know exactly' what intellectuals are a n d what
they are good for.
Needless to say, neither of these groups are of the
slightest use to anyone w a n t i n g to spend a few minutes
considering the question of whether or not politics are the
proper sphere of intellectuals.
Strictly speaking, politics are not the intellectual's
business. But certainly this has nothing to do w i t h the
reasons put forward by the aristophobes. A n y political
argument w h i c h is not stated i n demanding, that is to say,

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217

intellectually rigorous, terms, is likely to be little more

than a clumsy flutter s k i m m i n g the surface of mediocrity.
There must be some deeper explanation for the regular
failure o f intellectuals i n politics. Perhaps the following
w i l l do.
T h e values w h i c h the intellectuals do their best to find
are timeless: truth a n d beauty i n no way depend on
circumstances. T h e discovery o f a truth is always timely;
the search for truth cannot be speeded up by any outside
considerations. O n e o f the fairest traits o f a scientific
vocation is precisely the self-denial w i t h w h i c h some
craftsmen of the intellect do sometimes pursue a trail
whose end they cannot hope to reach i n their o w n lifetime.
Scores of obscure scholars wander through deserts
towards a promised l a n d their eyes w i l l never see. Politics,
on the other h a n d , are essentially temporal. Politics are a
chess game w i t h time, wherein no move may be delayed.
I n politics one has got to arrive a n d to arrive at the right
time. Newton's b i n o m i a l theorem w o u l d have been just
as important to mathematics i f it had been formulated ten
centuries earlier or a century later; while the waters of the
R u b i c o n h a d to moisten the hooves of Caesai-'s horse at a
particular moment of history.
A m a n trained i n the search for timeless values that
is to say, an intellectual m a y at any time feel the call
of politics. Sometimes it is not even m o r a l to resist this call.
There are moments of t u r m o i l i n the w o r l d a n d i n the
fatherland when it w o u l d be monstrous to stay by the
l a m p of one's o w n cell. But i f one heeds the call of politics,
one cannot go halfway. Just as one must not flirt w i t h
science as D o n Jos^ has said one must not flirt
w i t h politics. A n d it is not enough to decide to go beyond
a mere flirtation; one has to realize that the passage from
science to politics involves a tragedy, that is to say, the
deliberate start of a new life a n d a complete break w i t h the
old one. As he takes on a political mission, the intellectual

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surrenders his dearest freedom: that of revising his o w n

conclusions constantly; that of taking his conclusions to be
provisional. A l l philosophic method springs from doubt;
while operating i n the sphere of speculation one has not
only the right but indeed the duty to have doubts and to
teach others to doubt methodically. But i n politics this is
not so; a l l great politics depend on the revelation of a
great faith. W i t h regard to the outside w o r l d the
people, history the politician's function is religious and
poetic. T h e lines of communication between the leader
and his people are not exclusively rational, but poetic a n d
religious too. I n order not to dissolve into amorphousness
i n order not to become spineless the people must
follow its leaders as it w o u l d follow prophets. This intimacy
of the people w i t h its leaders is the result of a process akin
to that of love.
Hence the imposing gravity of the moment when one
accepts a mission o f leadership. T h e mere fact of acceptance signifies an enormous a n d inescapable commitment
to reveal its true destiny to a people incapable of discerning
this destiny collectively by itself. H e who hits on the first
note o f the mysterious theme of an era can no longer get
out of finishing the tune. A l r e a d y he has the hopes of a
people i n his pocket and the tremendous reckoning has
begun of how he w i l l spend them. H o w grave w o u l d be his
responsibility if, as i n the poem by B r o w n i n g , he seduced a
crowd of children w i t h his pipe only to bury them beneath
a mountain from w h i c h there is no escape.
D o n Jos^ Ortega y Gasset who has just about reached
his twenty-fifth year as a teacher heard the call of
politics.* N o w that the time has come for an assessment,
who w o u l d i n fairness question his critical far-sightedness
and the m o r a l rectitude of his attitudes ? There was no
* O r t e g a y Gasset entered politics actively i n the late 1920s, d u r i n g the
dictatorship of G e n e r a l P r i m o de R i v e r a .

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need for h i m to shout about Spain's sufferings T

very rarely shout,' he said but we, who were born
after 1898, understand very well the intimate grief hidden
beneath the Castilian sobriety of his manner; perhaps
because we have learnt to distinguish it i n his books.
H o w we are nauseated by this S p a i n without a c o m m o n
soul w h i c h , when it shed the i m p e r i a l cothurnus, could
find no other way of w a l k i n g except i n slippers! N o ;
D o n Jos^ h a d no wish to flirt w i t h politics; instead, he
gave u p . W h e n he found that ' a l l that' was not what he
had hoped, he turned his back on it, utterly disenchanted.
B u t the leaders of men are not entitled to disenchantment.
T h e y cannot capitulate a n d surrender the battered
hopes of a l l those who followed them. D o n Jose was h a r d
on himself a n d sentenced himself to a l o n g term of silence;
but the generation he left out i n the cold d i d not need his
silence but his voice. H i s prophetic a n d c o m m a n d i n g voice.
A different m a n might h o l d these years of venturing into
politics to be n u l l a n d v o i d . H e might return to his former
pursuits w i t h a shrug of the shoulders, as though nothing
had happened. D o n Jos^ knows full well, though, that
nothing that has really happened can ever be n u l l a n d
v o i d . N o act w i t h overtones of tragedy like that of
plunging into politics can ever be undone: either it
is transitory, or else it persists i n the daily, wonderfully
cleansing tragedy of witnessing the frustration of what was
once the most fervent hope o f one's life.
But nothing that is genuine is ever pointless. W h e n
someone truly high-minded gives himself up unreservedly,
to the point of being exhausted by the frustration of his
generous impulse, the sacrifice is never wasted. Those who
come after even have the advantage of an apprenticeship
of error. T h e criticisms of forerunners have cleared a great
deal of ground. O t h e r arms w i l l continue the task w i t h
simpler and stronger blows. I n the end perhaps an

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end unforeseen at the time when the forerunners formulated their criticisms those who reach the goal w i l l
gratefully remember those who, though they d i d not see
the whole t r u t h or have the strength to enthrone it, at
least cut d o w n m a n y a scarecrow armed w i t h lies.
A generation w h i c h has almost managed to arouse
Spanish concern, w i t h Ortega y Gasset as its beacon, has
imposed on itself, w i t h the selfsame consciousness o f
tragedy, the mission of m a k i n g S p a i n vertebrate once
more. M a n y of those who j o i n e d up w o u l d have preferred
to go on w i t h a n unrushed a n d untroubled intellectual
life ... But the times we live i n are relentless. O u r fate
is one of war, w h i c h may cost us life a n d l i m b a n d i n w h i c h
there can be no haggling. T r u e to our fate, we go from
place to place, putting u p w i t h the embarrassment of
p u b l i c appearances, having to shout about what we do
silently a n d austerely, suffering the distortions of those
who fail to understand us a n d those who do not wish to
understand us, c r i p p l i n g ourselves i n that accepted
practice and absurd sham of courting 'public o p i n i o n ' , as
though the people, so capable of love and of anger, could
possibly have a collective opinion ... A l l this is bitter a n d
arduous, but it is not useless. A n d on this twenty-fifth
anniversary of D o n Josd Ortega y Gasset's, we can give
h i m a present i n the form of a prediction: before he comes
to the end of his life, w h i c h we a l l hope w i l l be l o n g a n d
w h i c h , being his and long, is bound to be fruitful, the
day w i l l come when the t r i u m p h a n t m a r c h past o f this
generation, whose distant mentor he has been, w i l l make
h i m exclaim, well pleased: 'Yes, this is really i t . '

EXTRACT F R O M AN ADDRESS TO
THE CORTES: ON THE

NOMBELA

AFFAIR*
December 7th, 1935
W e have now come to this evening's most solemn moment.
A n y second now the motion argued so magnificently by
Senor Toledo w i l l be put to the vote. T h e very honour of
this House hangs on the Tors' and the 'againsts' c o m i n g
from our lips, the white or the black balls y o u put into the
ballot-boxes. As y o u may imagine, the honour o f the
Cortes as such matters less to me personally than to others.
I do not believe that the Cortes is the best possible instrument to govern the lives of nations. B u t at the moment this
is of secondary i m p o r t a n c e ; what does matter to me is
the fact that here, w i t h i n the confines of the Cortes, we
probably have most of the h u m a n resources at Spain's
disposal for the conduct of her political affairs, a n d the
fact that the Cortes's disgrace w o u l d involve a slur on
almost a l l of us. W h i l e from a partisan point of view this
might actually benefit me, I say to you that it is a pathetic
sight, w h i c h I find distasteful as a S p a n i a r d a n d as a m a n .
A t this moment I w o u l d like to see as m u c h as possible
being salvaged, for assuredly the spectacle of disaster can
be agreeable only to sickly minds.
Just remember this: the substantial difference between
Senor Toledo's personal statement a n d the Commission's
judgment is that Seiior T o l e d o holds Seiior Alejandro
L e r r o u x politically responsible, while the Commission
* T h e N o m b e l a affair concerned compensation for a rescinded contract in
Spanish G u i n e a . It led to a commission of i n q u i r y a n d the implication of
an under-secretary.

221

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clears Senor Alejandro L e r r o u x of a l l political responsibility and places the selfsame political responsibility
squarely on the Under-Secretary. N o w , under-secretaries
cannot be held politically responsible, as a l l of you know
and as has already been pointed out i n more learned ways
today. W h a t y o u w o u l d be attempting, i f y o u concurred
w i t h this judgment, w o u l d be to scatter the dark cloud of
what is as yet but a political indictment hanging over
D o n Alejandro L e r r o u x . A n d let me say only this: i f that
is the way y o u decide to act, your votes may manage to
save D o n Alejandro L e r r o u x tonight, but a l l those who
vote w i l l earn the resounding disapproval o f a l l p u b l i c
opinion. P u b l i c opinion knows very w e l l what is going on.
(Protests.) T h e whole o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n has already passed
judgment on this case. [More protests.) P u b l i c o p i n i o n is
crying out for the p o l i t i c a l style w h i c h D o n Alejandro
L e r r o u x has imposed on Spanish ways to be utterly
rejected this evening. T h a t is the truth o f the matter, and
all o f y o u are well aware o f it. But are we really going to
say, even now, that D o n Alejandro L e r r o u x is not guilty
of any transgression ? A t the time of the straperlo scandal his
adoptive son was i n trouble, so was the m i x e d b u n c h of
civilian and m i l i t a r y figures w h i c h makes u p his entourage,
so were the Under-Secretary o f the Interior and the
Minister of the Interior; only he himself was untouched by
it a l l . * A l o n g comes this new affair, and there we have
the Under-Secretary of the Presidency, maybe Seiior
N o m b e l a , maybe the examining magistrate; once again
he himself is untouched. G e n t l e m e n ! It is high time for us
to put a stop to this j u g g l i n g w i t h characters out of a
time-worn I t a l i a n farce. Seiior L e r r o u x himself is never
guilty of any transgression; but i n his immediate entourage
* T l i e straperlo

(or esiraperlo)

affair

related to bribes taken by

Radical

ministers from a D u t c h adventurer w h o wished, against the law, to set up

g a m b l i n g clubs i n several Spanish cities. T h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r L e r r o u x must
have k n o w n about it.

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A F F A I R

223

there always turns out to be someone who docs transgress,

some adopted son, some civilian or military figure to come
i n on any game that is going, some handy under-secretary
or some simple-minded minister; i n v a r i a b l y there are
some such people by the side of Sefior L e r r o u x to bear the
brunt of censure when the time comes.
It is no use; the whole of S p a i n has already passed this
j u d g m e n t ; moreover, i n this afternoon's and this evening's
wearisome debate, things have been made sufficiently
clear. Say what y o u w i l l , put the blame for the details on
Seiior M o r e n o C a l v o , one thing is obvious: y o u a l l agree,
and the Commission itself has declared formally, that
though there never was any Cabinet agreement to that
effect, D o n Alejandro L e r r o u x d i d sign a certain piece of
paper giving instructions for a payment to be made, w i t h
the words ' I n accordance w i t h the agreed decision o f the
Cabinet'. I n terms o f c r i m i n a l law, this is a falsehood;
i n political terms, it is grounds for disqualification.
[Senor Guerra del Rio : 'And what about the other ministers who
believed that there had been such an agreement?') I leave it to
y o u to slate them.
I n a few minutes' time we are going to vote, a n d we are
about to vote on something on w h i c h the outside w o r l d
has passed judgment already.
I f the newspapers were to say tomorrow that the Cortes,
i n the way almost a l l its members or most of its members
have voted, has firmly rejected, has firmly closed the door
on, this despicable period, the Cortes w i l l recover m u c h
of its prestige i n the eyes of the people, a n d your supporters
[turning to the C.E.D.A.
M.P.s),
though y o u want to
interrupt me, I say your supporters and a l l those outside
this House who are longing for justice w i l l be delighted
and pay y o u the tribute of their applause, a n d tomorrow
the people w i l l be i n a holiday m o o d , a n d it w i l l be as
though an oppressive flagstone h a d been lifted from S p a i n ,
and you yourselves w i l l feel relieved once you have seen to

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it tiiat justice is done, like people who step out into the
open air after having spent a l o n g time i n a noisome a n d
stuffy hole. D o as y o u l i k e ; this may have more or less
serious political consequences; never m i n d . Just take the
plunge, dare to stake everything on honour a n d you w i l l
see that i f y o u do that tonight, i f y o u dare to vote i n
accord w i t h your conscience, w h i c h i n this matter is at
one w i t h the conscience of the people, y o u w i l l after
tonight enjoy i n your very souls a n d i n your parties a day
of happiness. T h a t is a l l . [Hear! Hear! Applause.)

CIRCULAR TO A L L

TERRITORIAL

AND PROVINCIAL LEADERS

OF

THE SPANISH FALANGE OF THE

J.O.N.S.

M a d r i d , January 6th, 1936

T h i s N a t i o n a l Executive has addressed a communication,
dated December 24th and couched i n the following terms,
to the Political J u n t a :
T h e Pohtical J u n t a shall draft a written statement
giving its o p i n i o n regarding the attitude w h i c h the
Falange should adopt d u r i n g the forthcoming elections.
I n particular, I w o u l d draw the Junta's attention to the
following questions.
1. Should the Falange opt for complete abstention i n
the elections, or for the adoption o f an attitude o f total
independence, w h i c h w o u l d necessarily lead to our not
being represented at a l l i n the Cortes ? W o u l d not the fact
of being without a single seat i n the House signify a
dangerous eclipse of the Falange, given the widespread
habit of gauging a party's importance by its quantitative
or qualitative representation i n the Cortes ?
2. W o u l d our most fervent active members view our
involvement i n some electoral alliance as a denial of the
Falange's estabhshed doctrine? W o u l d it be possible to
prevent such an effect on the rank and file by taking the
greatest possible care to make sure that the ideological
content and the independence of the Falange are preserved intact, supposing we entered into some such
alliance ?
IS

225

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3. W h a t should be the exact conditions, w i t h regard to

doctrinal integrity and tactical independence, under w h i c h
the Falange might be prepared to enter into tactical
co-operation w i t h other parties ?
4. W o u l d a victory of the M a r x i s t parties i n alliance
w i t h the bourgeois Left be, at a time of particularly
arduous struggle, a serious setback for the Falange w h i c h
might even threaten it w i t h extinction or at least postpone
by many years its chances of victory? Should this be taken
into account a n d induce the Falange temporarily to
relegate its aversion to any k i n d of electoral pact?
5. H o w does the Political J u n t a evaluate the example
given by other parties similar to our o w n , w h i c h i n various
European countries have accepted the need to enter
momentarily into alliances against the threat, implicit
i n M a r x i s m , to nationahstic principles and parties ?
6. Does the Political J u n t a feel that the transient
presence of the Falange w i t h i n a national anti-Marxist
front, w i t h a l l due guarantees a n d reservations, w o u l d
deal it a lasting blow i n the esteem of the p u b l i c ? W h a t
w o u l d , i n its o p i n i o n , be more serious, a circumstantial
blow of this k i n d or the risk of slipping i n the public's
estimation as a result of not being represented at a l l i n the
Cortes ?
It is the intention of this Executive to circulate the
Political Junta's findings to a l l the territorial and prov i n c i a l headquarters of the Falange a n d the J . O . N . S . ,
requesting them to express their o p i n i o n w i t h regard to its
contents. O n c e a l l opinions have been heard, this Executive w i l l decide what w i l l be the definitive attitude of the
Falange.
T h e Political J u n t a , i n accordance w i t h instructions
received, has d r a w n up the following statement:
T h e Political J u n t a , carrying out the N a t i o n a l Executive's

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order to make a written statement regarding the attitude

w h i c h it w o u l d advise the Falange to adopt i n the forthcoming elections, paying particular attention to those
questions w h i c h it was specifically asked to consider,
make the requested statement i n terms w h i c h attempt to
combine conciseness w i t h clarity, and seek to give a
categorical reply to each, i n turn, of the points submitted
i n the questionnaire.
T h e findings of the Political J u n t a are as follows:
I . I n view of the political situation a n d the fact that the
elections w i l l evolve around the two polarized blocs of
the R i g h t a n d the Left excepting some p o l i t i c a l forces
of secondary and by no means decisive importance the
first question cannot be adequately answered without a
prior analysis, w h i c h w i l l have a direct bearing on the
reply, of the composition of each of these two blocs:
(a) The Bloc of the Right. T h e J u n t a considers that it w i l l
not prove possible to form an organic front such as that
formed by the Left, and that there w i l l instead be tactical
alliances, w i t h the C . E . D . A . as the axis, depending on
what the possibilities are i n each province, w h i c h w i l l
accommodate traditionalists at one end of the spectrum
and radicals on the other.
(b) The Bloc of the Left. T h i s w i l l include a l l those
ranging from the bourgeois Left to the communists. T h a t is
to say, a l l the forces w h i c h were directly or indirectly
implicated i n the revolution of October 1934.
O n the basis of this analysis, the J u n t a concludes that
an attitude of abstention or of complete independence,
w h i c h is bound to result i n the total absence of our
representatives from the Cortes, w o u l d not only be b a d
for the Falange, w h i c h w o u l d certainly suffer a dangerous
eclipse from p u b l i c life i f it has no representation whatsoever i n the Cortes; it w o u l d also be pointless i n view of the
fact that the left-wing front w i l l be made u p of heterogeneous forces, some of w h i c h have been abstentionists

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W^RITINGS

hitherto, a l l a i m i n g to b r i n g about a M a r x i s t a n d antinational revolution. This i n itself justifies the Falange's

j o i n i n g i n the opposite front.
2. T h e J u n t a feels that the Falange's involvement i n
a n electoral alliance, particularly w i t h the parties o f the
R i g h t , is b o u n d to be interpreted by the most fervent
members as a denial of an established doctrine; however,
it considers that, apart from the fact that the effect can
be mitigated i f not entirely prevented by preserving
the independence and the ideological content of the
Falange i n the event of a pact, it w o u l d be compensated
for more than adequately by the obtention of sufficient
seats i n the Cortes for the Falange to figure as a minority.
3. Consequently, the Political J u n t a considers that the
Falange should state its conditions, w i t h regard to doctrinal integrity a n d tactical independence i n the event of
an electoral alliance w i t h other parties, to be the following:
(a) A n t i - M a r x i s m and anti-separatism w o u l d be the
only points of contact.
(b) A l l propaganda matters w o u l d be handled by the
Falange quite independently and separately from the
other organizations w i t h i n the front unless this should
prove an insuperable obstacle, something w h i c h the
leadership is free to assess.
(c) T h e Falange w o u l d only j o i n i n the anti-revolutionary front i f twenty-five to thirty places on the list of
candidates are filled w i t h its members.
B u t since the J u n t a is convinced that the R i g h t w i l l
never be prepared to give up so many places to the
Falange, it considers that there is only one way of bringing
pressure to bear i n order to obtain the desired result, a n d
that is for the Falange to put up its o w n closed list of
candidates i n the form of a national revolutionary front.
I f this achieves our a i m , it w o u l d be a splendid way of
m a k i n g our entry into the anti-revolutionary front. I f not,
the list of candidates could be withdrawn and we would

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then concentrate our efforts on the two or three provinces

where the outlook seemed most promising and where
precise tactical agreements could be reached w h i c h w o u l d
ensure the election, on a minority basis, of the movement's
most outstanding personalities.
4. I n the Junta's opinion a victory o f the M a r x i s t parties
i n alliance w i t h the bourgeois Left w o u l d entail such
damaging consequences for the Falange that its struggle
w o u l d be rendered exceedingly difficult, while its chances
of ultimate victory w o u l d , at best, become remote. A n d
since the J u n t a feels that such a victory is possible and even
probable, it considers that the Falange must take this into
account, relegate for the time being its aversion to any
k i n d of electoral pact and refrain from adopting any
attitude w h i c h might foster the said aversion.
5. I n reaching its conclusions, the J u n t a has taken into
account not only the Spanish situation and the probable
circumstances of the forthcoming elections, but also the
available examples of steps taken i n analogous situations
by parties similar to our o w n i n other countries of Europe.
T h e J u n t a considers that these examples provide arguments i n favour of the solutions a n d attitudes it advocates.
6. Finally, the P o l i t i c a l J u n t a feels that the presence of
the Falange w i t h i n a national a n t i - M a r x i s t front is not
likely to lower its prestige among the general p u b l i c ,
although the aforementioned effect on certain active
members of the party w o u l d be damaging. M u c h more
serious, i n its opinion, w o u l d be the h a r m done by a
complete lack o f parliamentary representation or by a
decision to abstain from any participation i n the elections,
w h i c h might be interpreted as a way of aiding a n d abetting
a possible M a r x i s t victory.
After prior consultation w i t h the leaders of the J . O . N . S .
a n d w i t h active members k n o w n for their talents and
services rendered, a l l the territorial and p r o v i n c i a l leaders

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w i l l make their opinion regarding the Political Junta's

findings known to the N a t i o n a l Executive by the i 8 t h of
this month.
The National Leader
A R R I B A

E S P A N A !

ON T H E E V E OF T H E E L E C T I O N S
Speech m a d e at the F r o n t o n C i n e m a , Z a r a g o z a ,
J a n u a r y 26th, 1936
F r o m Arriba, N o . 30, J a n u a r y 30th, 1936

' C o m r a d e s (he b e g a n ) , I o w e y o u a b a l a n c e d a c c o u n t o f
a n i n t e r n a l process w h i c h b r i n g s us face t o face w i t h a
serious m a t t e r o f c o n s c i e n c e : t h e f o r t h c o m i n g e l e c t o r a l
contest. W e c a n n o t s i m p l y i g n o r e t h a t contest, b e c a u s e
the F a l a n g e , like a n y other m o v e m e n t aspiring to victory,
c a n n o t fight shy o f i n v o l v e m e n t i n a n y struggle whatsoever; it must capture a l l positions one by o n e ; it must
u n d e r t a k e to c o v e r t h e s i n u o u s r o a d , t o scale t h e h e i g h t s
a n d , w h e n i t c o m e s to t h e e n d o f t h e r o a d , to t a k e t h e
shortest r o u t e t o w a r d s t h e i d e a l . '
H e p o i n t e d o u t h o w t h e e l e c t o r a l contest, l i k e t h e w h o l e
o f S p a i n ' s p o l i t i c a l l i f e , is s p l i t i n t o t w o f a c t i o n s : t o o n e
s i d e , t h e L e f t ; to t h e o t h e r , t h e R i g h t . H e s h o w e d h o w i n
t h e recesses o f o u r souls w e feel s o m e s y m p a t h y f o r m a n y
p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f the L e f t , ' w h o h a v e a r r i v e d a t h a t r e d (he
s a i d ) b y t h e s a m e r o a d w h i c h has b r o u g h t us to l o v e ,
t h r o u g h c r i t i c i s m o f a S p a i n t h a t is m e d i o c r e a n d cheerless,
miserable a n d m e l a n c h o l i c . B u t the left-wing electoral
a l l i a n c e is m a d e u p o f M a r x i s t s , o r r a t h e r o f those w h o
s p r e a d a b r o a d M a r x i s t t h i n k i n g i n its A s i a t i c , a n t i Spanish, anti-humanist acceptation; whose p u b l i s h e d
manifesto contains, i n the wake o f a string o f vague
statements m a s q u e r a d i n g as s o l u t i o n s , s o m e v e r y d i f f e r e n t
adjectives, w h i c h , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h s o m e m o r e o r less
u n a m b i g u o u s declarations, presage yet a n o t h e r p e r i o d o f
c i v i l w a r . T h a t is to say, t h e y w a n t t o b r i n g b a c k to S p a i n
t h e m e n w h o w i l l p u t a n e n d to S p a i n ' s prospects o f
231

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WRITINGS

s a l v a t i o n ; t h e y w a n t t o b r i n g a n e w r e v o l u t i o n to S p a i n ,
w h i c h w i l l m a k e the previous one seem q u i t e insignificant
b y c o m p a r i s o n , t h u s c a u s i n g S p a n i s h h o m e s to f a l l p r e y
t o h a v o c y e t a g a i n . T h a t is w h a t t h e l e f t - w i n g f r o n t stands
for, a n d i n v i e w o f such intentions w e w o u l d r a t h e r j o i n
u p i n t h e N a t i o n a l F r o n t to fight a g a i n s t t h e t h r e a t o f a n
A s i a t i c m e n a c e , a g a i n s t t h e t h r e a t o f c i v i l strife.
' W h e n w e a p p r o a c h e d the so-called N a t i o n a l F r o n t , w e
first o f a l l f o u n d i t to be c o m p l e t e l y l a c k i n g i n n a t i o n a l
c h a r a c t e r ; i n t h e s o - c a l l e d N a t i o n a l F r o n t t h e r e is n o t h i n g
m o r e t h a n d r e a d f u l fear its m e m b e r s fear f o r t h e i r
m a t e r i a l privileges; a n d , moreover, it includes the radicals.
' D u r i n g t h e final session o f t h e C o r t e s , w h i c h w a s d i s s o l v e d o n l y a t t h e c r a c k o f d a w n , w h e n w e w e r e n e a r to
exhaustion, I stood u p a n d s a i d :
' " I h a v e s t u d i e d t h e N o m b e l a dossier a n d f o u n d t h a t
t h e S p a n i s h state is b e i n g c h e a t e d o f o v e r t w o m i l l i o n
p e s e t a s . " I s p e c i f i e d t h e e x a c t a m o u n t d o w n to t h e last
penny, without anyone contradicting me. A t that early
h o u r o f the m o r n i n g I t o l d t h e m w h a t I thought o f D o n
A l e j a n d r o L e r r o u x , so j u s t l y c o n d e m n e d b y p u b l i c o p i n i o n
a n d b y m o r a l i t y , a d d i n g t h a t n o w w e w o u l d see w h e t h e r
the Cortes considered itself c o m p a t i b l e w i t h Seiior
L e r r o u x . W h i t e b a l l s a n d b l a c k b a l l s w e r e cast i n t o t h e
ballot-boxes i n j u d g m e n t of D o n A l e j a n d r o Lerroux's
recent past. B u t i n depositing t h e m , the Cortes p r o n o u n c e d
its o w n d e a t h w a r r a n t . D o n A l e j a n d r o L e r r o u x w a s t h e
i n c a r n a t i o n o f just that w o r n - o u t senectitude w h i c h the
r i g h t - w i n g d o m i n a t e d C o r t e s was a t t e m p t i n g t o save.
' T h e F a l a n g e , a l l s e l f - d e n i a l a n d s a c r i f i c e , exists to save
S p a i n , n o t to p r o t e c t m a t e r i a l interests o r t o c o v e r u p
improper conduct.
' T h e e l e c t i o n posters a r e c l a m o u r i n g a g a i n s t o n e t h i n g
a n d a n o t h e r : d o w n w i t h t h i s , d o w n w i t h t h a t . T h a t is n o t
o u r k i n d o f l a n g u a g e . N o t so m u c h a g a i n s t , o r d o w n w i t h
everything; we want something more positive. L o n g live

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the f a t h e r l a n d ; we w a n t the fatherland's b r e a d a n d

j u s t i c e . W h e n w e speak o f the f a t h e r l a n d w e d o n o t b e a r
j u s t a n o t h e r c o u n t e r f e i t flag o n o u r l i p s ; y o u k n o w v e r y
w e l l i n h o w m a n y w a y s t h e f a t h e r l a n d ' s n a m e is m i s used.
' Y o u l i v e i n a l a n d b o r d e r i n g o n another where the
weeds o f separatism flourish, the beautiful l a n d o f
C a t a l o n i a , w h i c h w e l o n g to r e i n t e g r a t e i n t o t h e S p a n i s h
n a t i o n a l d e s t i n y . I n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s p i r i t u a l process
w h i c h i n C a t a l o n i a has c a u s e d m a n y to m o v e a w a y f r o m
p a t r i o t i s m a l o n g the t o r m e n t e d p a t h o f h a t r e d , the
F a l a n g e gives n o t i c e t h a t i t h a s f a i t h , n o t i n t e r r i t o r i a l o r
e t h n i c u n i t y , b u t i n a g r e a t , u n i t e d d e s t i n y ; i t is t h e F a l a n g e ' s task to forge t o g e t h e r a l l t h e destinies o f S p a i n . B u t
S p a i n must be v i e w e d w i t h sobriety a n d p r e c i s i o n ; beware
o f t a k i n g S p a i n ' s n a m e i n v a i n i n defence o f s o m e s u c h
business as t h e b a n k - r a t e o r c o m p a n y d i v i d e n d s .
" W e are s e e k i n g a f a t h e r l a n d f o r S p a i n , a n d w h e n w e
h a v e f o u n d i t S p a i n w i l l get b a c k h e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y ;
S p a i n w i l l h a v e a p o l i c y t h a t counsels p e a c e i n c e r t a i n
cases, u n f o r t u n a t e l y p e r h a p s w a r i n o t h e r s , a n d i n s o m e
cases n e u t r a h t y ; b u t n e v e r w i l l s u c h a d e c i s i o n be i m p o s e d
b y a n y foreign p o w e r , o n l y b y the w i l l o f S p a i n .
" W e w a n t b r e a d for the S p a n i s h people. F e a r not that
o u r v o i c e w i l l m i n g l e w i t h t h e v o i c e s o f those w h o i n t h i s
election c a m p a i g n are protesting noisily that they care
e v e r so m u c h a b o u t t h e w o r k e r s , a n d w h o e v e n h a n d o u t
a few k n i t t e d jackets for c h i l d r e n a n d a few tea-time
sandwiches. N o , we don't have any children's cardigans
to o f f e r ; w e h a v e b l u e shirts t o offer, t h e shirts w h i c h t h e
workers can wear without renouncing their revolutionary
v e r v e . W e w a n t to see a n o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e o f S p a n i s h
l a b o u r , a n d w c say so o p e n l y ; b u t m e a n w h i l e , w e feel t h a t
the workers are quite r i g h t to go o n b e i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y .
T w o years a g o , w h e n I s t o o d as a c a n d i d a t e i n C a d i z ,
I f o u n d i t i n t o l e r a b l e to h e a r a f e w w e l l - t r a i n e d w o r k e r s

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S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

c l a i m to b e t h e r e a l S p a n i s h w o r k e r s . W e d o n ' t w a n t
blacklegs: we want revolutionary workers.'
H e w e n t o n to e x p l a i n the role o f workers i n the future
e c o n o m i c system w h i c h the F a l a n g e w i l l enforce.
H e d e c l a r e d that w e shall i m p l e m e n t the l a n d r e f o r m
w i t h a l l necessary r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r v o u r a n d i r r i g a t e v a s t
areas to m a k e t h e m f e r t i l e . ' T h e l a n d s o f S p a i n (he said)
c a n n o t p r o v i d e a d e c e n t l i v i n g ; t h e r e are l a n d s i n S p a i n
w h e r e e v e r y seed p r o d u c e s b u t t h r e e o r f o u r , a n d o f these
o n e has t o b e g i v e n to t h e u s u r e r , w h i l e t h e f a r m e r
s u r v i v e s o n t h e o t h e r t w o i n a state o f w a n t p a s s e d d o w n
f r o m father to son.
' I t is i m p o s s i b l e to l i v e t h e w a y p e o p l e l i v e i n m a n y
S p a n i s h v i l l a g e s , w h e r e t h e s o i l is b a r r e n , w h e r e p e o p l e
h a v e to seek refuge i n s i d e t h e e a r t h . W e s h a l l b u i l d r o a d s ,
c a n a l s a n d r e s e r v o i r s , so t h a t those S p a n i a r d s c a n e m e r g e
f r o m t h e i r m i s e r y a n d w i l l n o l o n g e r h a v e to d i g t h e m s e l v e s
i n t o the g r o u n d like v e r m i n . '
W e w a n t j u s t i c e , h e s a i d , a n d a d d e d t h a t t h e state
c a n n o t be e i t h e r s t r o n g o r s u r e o f t h e m o r a l fibre o f its
d e s t i n y unless i t is j u s t .
' A s w e a p p r o a c h the S p a n i s h n a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n , w e
s h a l l n o t be h a l t e d b y a n y p r i v i l e g e d r i n g l e a d e r . W e d o
not advocate c r u e l t y ; we w o u l d not have shot Sergeant
V a z q u e z or that poor nineteen-year-old boy, but rather
that m a n Perez F a r r a s a n d some others w h o are w a l k i n g
about freely.*
' I t is b e c a u s e w e w a n t to b u i l d a s i n g l e S p a i n t h a t is
g r e a t a n d free, a S p a i n w h i c h w i l l g i v e us a f a t h e r l a n d ,
b r e a d a n d justice, that we have c o m e here once again,
people o f A r a g o n , a n d because we must tell y o u that the
d a n g e r has g r o w n g r e a t e r , t h a t S p a i n is g o i n g u n d e r , t h a t
C h r i s t i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n is s l i p p i n g t h r o u g h o u r fingers. A n d
* Sergeant V a z q u e z

was a regular a r m y sergeant who sided w i t h

the

A s t u r i a n rebels a n d was shot. M a j o r P6rez Farras was an officer who also

sided with the revolution in 1934, i n C a t a l o n i a , but was merely imprisoned.

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w e are n o t s a y i n g this m e r e l y to d o as those h a v e d o n e w h o

s a i d the s a m e t h i n g s as far b a c k as 1933 a n d w h o m a d e
the n u n s l e a v e t h e i r c o n v e n t s to v o t e , a n d w h o n o w a r e
c l a m o u r i n g f o r o u r votes i n the selfsame w a y . I f S p a i n
w e r e a c o m p o u n d o f t h i n g s cheerless, w i t h o u t a n y j u s t i c e
o r h i s t o r i c i n s p i r a t i o n , I w o u l d ask t o be g r a n t e d A b y s s i n i a n
n a t i o n a l i t y ; I w o u l d h a v e n o t h i n g to d o w i t h s u c h a
Spain.'
F r o m the p o s i t i o n o f g r e a t e s t h u m i l i t y , n a m e l y the
p o s i t i o n o f the l e a d e r , he p r o m i s e d f o r the n u p t i a l d a w n
o f N a t i o n a l S y n d i c a l i s m a S p a i n w h i c h w o u l d be u n i q u e ,
g r e a t a n d free.
Arriba

Espana!

CIRCULAR TO A L L
TERRITORIAL AND PROVINCIAL
H E A D Q U A R T E R S AND TO THOSE OF
THE J.O.N.S.
M a d r i d , M a y 13th,

1936

C o m r a d e s : I n spite o f the p e r s e c u t i o n s a n d t h e s i l e n c e
i m p o s e d o n us b y t h e state o f e m e r g e n c y , o u r m o v e m e n t
is g r o w i n g o n a l l sides w i t h u n r e s t r a i n a b l e e n t h u s i a s m .
A l r e a d y , this E x e c u t i v e has t a k e n a p p r o p r i a t e steps t o
ensure that, little b y little, a n d t a k i n g advantage o f every
sliver o f o p p o r t u n i t y , the c h a i n o f c o m m a n d , w h i c h was
b r o k e n i n some places by the i m p r i s o n m e n t o f thousands
o f o u r a c t i v e m e m b e r s , is e v e r y w h e r e r e p a i r e d . Besides,
w e a r e g a i n i n g g r o u n d i n those l a y e r s o f S p a n i s h s o c i e t y
w h e r e the i m p a c t o f o u r p r o p a g a n d a has u n t i l r e c e n t l y
b e e n i n s u i B c i e n t . T h e effects o f this w o r k o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
w i l l s o o n m a k e t h e m s e l v e s felt e v e r y w h e r e , a n d as s o o n as
w e e m e r g e f r o m these d a y s o f p o i n t l e s s o u t r a g e o n w h i c h
a c l u m s y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n spends itself, o u r m o v e m e n t w i l l
be r e b o r n w i t h t w i c e its f o r m e r v i g o u r , t o t h e f u r y a n d
consternation of o u r persecutors.
T h e i m m e d i a t e w a t c h w o r d , apart f r o m a n y orders a n d
i n s t r u c t i o n s y o u m a y r e c e i v e , is to stay undismayed where you
are and to re-establish contact with your immediate superiors as
soon as you can. A n d n o w , a special warning:
T h e r e are people t r a v e l l i n g a r o u n d S p a i n w h o take
a d v a n t a g e o f t h e f a c t t h a t i t is a t p r e s e n t d i f f i c u l t f o r us
to c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r , to assure o u r m e m b e r s
that certain mergers a n d alliances w i t h other parties have
t a k e n p l a c e . Take absolutely no notice. W e h a v e n o t f o r m e d
236

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237

any alliance whatsoever w i t h anyone. Those w h o c l a i m

t h a t w e h a v e a r e m e r e l y h o p i n g to use o u r e x p a n s i o n f o r
the benefit o f some other d e c l i n i n g groups. I f o u r m o v e m e n t were one d a y to a l l y itself w i t h anyone, the news
w o u l d r e a c h y o u d i r e c t l y , t h r o u g h i n t e r n a l c h a n n e l s . Do
not pay the slightest heed to any rumour which does not come to
you through the organic channels emanating from
Headquarters.
The National
A R R I B A

E S P A N A !

Leader

L E T T E R TO T H E SOLDIERS OF
SPAIN
Clandestine sheet w r i t t e n b y Jose A n t o n i o i n the M o d e l o
P r i s o n , M a d r i d , M a y 14th, 1936

I.

O N

T H E I M M I N E N C E

O F A

B A R B A R I A N

I N V A S I O N

C a n t h e r e s t i l l be a m o n g y o u s o l d i e r s , S p a n i s h officers
o f l a n d , sea a n d a i r s o m e w h o say t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y a r e
indifferent to p o l i t i c s ? T h a t c o u l d a n d s h o u l d have been
t h e case w h i l e p o l i t i c s w e r e t h e s t a m p i n g - g r o u n d o f p o l i t i c a l parties. I t was n o t u p to the soldier's s w o r d to influence
the o u t c o m e o f t h e i r fights, w h i c h h a p p e n e d m o r e o v e r to
be f a i r l y m e a n i n g l e s s . B u t these d a y s w e are n o t f a c e d w i t h
s o m e i n t e r n a l s q u a b b l e . T h e v e r y existence o f S p a i n as a n
e n t i t y a n d a u n i f i e d w h o l e is a t stake. T h e p r e s e n t d a n g e r
is e x a c t l y c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f a f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n . A n d
t h i s is b y n o m e a n s a f i g u r e o f s p e e c h : t h e foreignness o f
t h e m o v e m e n t w h i c h is b e s i e g i n g S p a i n s t a n d s r e v e a l e d b y
its w a t c h w o r d s , its s l o g a n s , its i n t e n t i o n s , its s i g n i f i c a n c e .
T h e watchwords c o m e f r o m a b r o a d , f r o m M o s c o w . See
h o w t h e s a m e ones k e e p c r o p p i n g u p i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .
See h o w o n S o v i e t o r d e r s a p o p u l a r f r o n t h a s e m e r g e d i n
F r a n c e w h i c h is j u s t l i k e t h e o n e i n S p a i n . See h o w w e
h a v e h e r e h a d a t r u c e j u s t as those w h o k n o w a l l
a b o u t these t r i c k s h a d f o r e t o l d r i g h t u p t o t h e v e r y d a y
w h e n the F r e n c h elections were over, a n d h o w the b u r n i n g s a n d t h e k i l h n g s b e g a n a g a i n as s o o n as d i s t u r b a n c e s
i n S p a i n c o u l d n o longer influence the w a y i n w h i c h the
F r e n c h w o u l d vote.
A s for t h e slogans, y o u h a v e h e a r d t h e m i n t h e streets:
n o t o n l y those o f ' L o n g L i v e R u s s i a ! ' a n d ' R u s s i a , y e s ;
238

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239

S p a i n , n o ! ' b u t e v e n t h e shameless a n d m o n s t r o u s
c r y o f ' D e a t h to S p a i n ! ' . ( N o o n e has y e t b e e n p u n i s h e d
for s h o u t i n g ' D e a t h to S p a i n ! ' , w h i l e h u n d r e d s are i n
p r i s o n for h a v i n g c r i e d ' V i v a E s p a n a ' or ' A r r i b a E s p a n a ! ' . )
I f this h a r r o w i n g t r u t h were not c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e ,
o n e w o u l d n o t d a r e to w r i t e i t d o w n , for fear o f a p p e a r i n g
a liar.
T h e r e v o l u t i o n ' s intentions a r e c r y s t a l c l e a r . I n its o f f i c i a l
p r o g r a m m e , the socialist m o v e m e n t o f M a d r i d d e m a n d s
t h a t t h e r e g i o n s a n d c o l o n i e s be g i v e n u n l i m i t e d r i g h t s o f
s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , w h i c h m i g h t e v e n t a k e t h e m so f a r as
to o p t f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e .
T h e significance o f t h e a d v a n c i n g m o v e m e n t is r a d i c a l l y
a n t i - S p a n i s h . I t is o p e n l y h o s t i l e to t h e f a t h e r l a n d
{Claridad, the s o c i a l i s t p u b l i c a t i o n , has m o c k e d I n d a l e c i o
Prieto because he m a d e a ' p a t r i o t i c ' speech); it disdains
decency b y e n c o u r a g i n g the collective p r o s t i t u t i o n o f
y o u n g w o r k i n g w o m e n at those r u r a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t s w h i c h
foster e v e r y k i n d o f shamelessness; i t u n d e r m i n e s the
f a m i l y , w h i c h i n R u s s i a has b e e n r e p l a c e d b y free l o v e ,
b y c o l l e c t i v e c a n t e e n s , b y easy d i v o r c e a n d a b o r t i o n
( h a v e y o u n o t h e a r d S p a n i s h g i r l s these d a y s s h o u t i n g
' C h i l d r e n , y e s ; h u s b a n d s , n o ! ' ? ) . A n d i t rejects h o n o u r ,
w h i c h has ever g o v e r n e d the a c t i o n s o f S p a n i a r d s e v e n i n
t h e m o s t m o d e s t s p h e r e s ; these d a y s S p a i n is d o m i n a t e d
b y a l l kinds o f v i l l a i n y ; people are c r a v e n l y m u r d e r e d , the
assassins o u t n u m b e r i n g the v i c t i m b y a h u n d r e d to o n e ;
t r u t h is p e r v e r t e d b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ; p e o p l e are h o r r i b l y
s l a n d e r e d a n d those w h o are i n s u l t e d are g a g g e d so t h a t
they cannot defend themselves; treachery
and
the
outpourings o f informers are r e w a r d e d ...
C a n t h a t be S p a i n ? C a n t h a t be t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e ? I t
is as t h o u g h w e w e r e l i v i n g t h r o u g h a n i g h t m a r e , o r as
t h o u g h the S p a n i s h p e o p l e o f f o r m e r t i m e s ( w h o w e r e
l e v e l - h e a d e d , b r a v e a n d generous) h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d b y
a frenetic, degenerate m o b , d o p e d w i t h p a m p h l e t s o f

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D E

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W R I T I N G S

c o m m u n i s t l i t e r a t u r e . O n l y i n tire w o r s t m o m e n t s o f t h e
nineteenth century d i d our people experience a n y t h i n g
l i k e t h i s , t h o u g h to a lesser d e g r e e . T h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
t h e p r e s e n t w a v e o f c h u r c h b u r n i n g s seek to j u s t i f y t h e i r
actions b y c l a i m i n g that the nuns h a d been h a n d i n g out
p o i s o n e d sweets t o w o r k i n g - c l a s s c h i l d r e n . T o w h a t p a g e s
o f a r r a n t nonsense, to w h a t p i c t u r e o f S p a i n s m u d g e d w i t h
b l o o d a n d soot, m u s t w e g o b a c k before w e find a n o t h e r
m o b p r e p a r e d to l e n d c r e d e n c e to s u c h f a b r i c a t i o n s o f t h e
gutter.

II.

T H E A R M Y

AS

T H E G U A R D I A N

OF

P E R M A N E N C E

Y e s , i n d e e d , i f the o n l y t h i n g i n dispute were the pred o m i n a n c e o f o n e o r a n o t h e r p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , i t w o u l d be

t h e army's d u t y to k e e p t o its b a r r a c k s . B u t w e n o w find
ourselves o n t h e eve o f t h e d a t e j u s t t h i n k , S p a n i s h
s o l d i e r s ! w h e n S p a i n m a y cease t o exist. T o p u t i t
s i m p l y : i f b y h o l d i n g fast to t h e l e t t e r o f y o u r d u t y y o u
r e m a i n n e u t r a l at t h i s t i m e o f c o n f l i c t , y o u m a y find t h a t
t h e essence, t h e p e r m a n e n c e o f t h e c o u n t r y y o u serve has
been swept a w a y overnight. T h a t m a r k s the l i m i t o f y o u r
n e u t r a l i t y : t h e s u r v i v a l o f w h a t is p e r m a n e n t , o f w h a t is
essential, o f w h a t s h o u l d o u t l i v e t h e c h a n g i n g f o r t u n e s o f
p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s . W h e n p e r m a n e n c e i t s e l f is i n d a n g e r y o u
n o l o n g e r h a v e t h e r i g h t to be n e u t r a l . T h e n t h e m o m e n t
has c o m e w h e n y o u r a r m s m u s t i n t e r v e n e to s a l v a g e t h e
b a s i c v a l u e s w i t h o u t w h i c h d i s c i p l i n e is b u t a v a i n c h a r a d e .
I t h a s a l w a y s b e e n l i k e t h i s : t h e u l t i m a t e c o n f r o n t a t i o n is
a l w a y s a n a r m e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n . A s S p e n g l e r has s a i d , i n
t h e last r e s o r t c i v i h z a t i o n has a l w a y s b e e n s a v e d b y a
p l a t o o n of soldiers.
T h e saddest p a g e i n t h e r e c e n t h i s t o r y o f the R u s s i a n
A r m y w a s w r i t t e n t h e d a y its officers, e a c h w e a r i n g a H t t l e
r e d r i b b o n , w e n t to m e e t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a u t h o r i t i e s .
B e f o r e l o n g e v e r y officer w a s d o w n g r a d e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e

L E T T E R

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S P A I N

24I

o f a c o m m u n i s t ' p o l i t i c a l d e l e g a t e ' at t h e h e a d o f his

troops, a n d m a n y o f t h e m were executed a little later.
A n d because the M o s c o w m i l i t a r y gave i n like that,
R u s s i a has ceased to b e a p a r t o f E u r o p e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n .
D o y o u w a n t to see t h e s a m e t h i n g h a p p e n to S p a i n ?

III.

G R E A T

T A S K

O F

N A T I O N A L D I M E N S I O N S

Y o u w o u l d be j u s t i f i e d i n t u r n i n g a d e a f e a r i f y o u w e r e
b e i n g c a l l e d u p o n to h e l p p r o t e c t y e t a n o t h e r f o r m o f
r e a c t i o n a r y p o l i t i c s . I t is to b e h o p e d t h a t t h e r e a r e n o n e
left w h o a r e f o o l i s h e n o u g h to a i m e v e n n o w at w a s t i n g
a n e w (the last) h i s t o r i c o p p o r t u n i t y i n o r d e r to f u r t h e r
p e t t y v e s t e d interests. A n d i f t h e r e a r e a n y s u c h p e o p l e
still, they w i l l soon come u p against the rigours o f y o u r a n d
o u r i n f l e x i b i l i t y . T h e r e c a n be n o e x c u s e f o r a p p e a l i n g t o
t h e a r m y ' s s u p r e m e sense o f h o n o u r , f o r s o u n d i n g t h e
a l a r m to a n n o u n c e t h a t t h e t r a g i c a n d s o l e m n t i m e has
c o m e w h e n i t is m e e t to b r e a k w i t h t h e l e t t e r o f the r u l e b o o k , i f i t is a l l to e n d i n a m e r e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f a n
e c o n o m i c s y s t e m a n d m a n y o f its facets. T h e b a n n e r o f
n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t m u s t n o t be h o i s t e d as a c o v e r - u p f o r
t r a d i n g o n hunger. M i l l i o n s o f Spaniards go h u n g r y a n d
t o p p r i o r i t y m u s t be g i v e n to c h a n g i n g t h a t . T h e r e f o r e
t h e g r e a t task o f n a t i o n a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n m u s t g o a h e a d at
f u l l s p e e d . A l l m u s t be g i v e n a c h a n c e to p a r t a k e , i n a n
organic a n d orderly fashion, of a l l that S p a i n produces
a n d c a n produce. Because o f Spain's meagre l i v e l i h o o d ,
t h i s w i l l m e a n sacrifices. B u t y o u , t e m p e r e d as y o u a r e
b y the r e l i g i o n o f service a n d sacrifice, a n d we, w h o have
v o l u n t a r i l y a d o p t e d a n ascetic a n d m i l i t a r y life-style, w i l l
t o g e t h e r t e a c h a l l to p u t u p w i t h sacrifices c h e e r f u l l y . W i t h
t h e g o o d c h e e r o f those w h o k n o w t h a t b y d e n y i n g t h e m selves c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l t h i n g s t h e y a r e s a v i n g t h e e t e r n a l
treasure of principles w h i c h S p a i n , i n pursuit o f her u n i v e r s a l m i s s i o n , s p r e a d a b r o a d across h a l f t h e w o r l d .
16

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PRIMO

D E

IV.

R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

T H E H O U R

H A S

W R I T I N G S

S T R U C K

M a y these w o r d s g i v e f u l l e x p r e s s i o n to t h e c r u c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this m o m e n t i n t i m e . I t m a y w e l l b e t h a t n o o t h e r
p e o p l e , o u t s i d e R u s s i a , has i n m o d e r n t i m e s l i v e d t h r o u g h
a n y t h i n g m o r e serious. I n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h e state has
n e v e r yet b e e n i n t h e h a n d s o f t r a i t o r s ; i n S p a i n i t is. T h e
p r e s e n t trustees o f t h e Popular Front, i n o b e d i e n c e to a p l a n
w o r k e d out a b r o a d , are systematically c o r r o d i n g everyt h i n g w h i c h i n S p a n i s h life m i g h t p u t u p resistance a g a i n s t
the b a r b a r i a n i n v a s i o n . Y o u k n o w o n l y t o o w e l l t h a t this
is so, S p a n i s h s o l d i e r s o f t h e a r m y , the n a v y , t h e a i r force,
t h e c i v i l g u a r d , t h e assault g u a r d a n d s e c u r i t y forces, w h o
have been s t r i p p e d o f y o u r previous a u t h o r i t y because it
w a s s u s p e c t e d t h a t y o u w o u l d n o t l e n d y o u r s e l v e s to t h e
ultimate treachery. A n d we k n o w it, too, i m p r i s o n e d
w i t h o u t t r i a l as w e a r e b y t h e t h o u s a n d s a n d h a r a s s e d i n
o u r h o m e s b y t h e a b u s e o f excessive p o w e r s g i v e n to t h e
police, w h o dig through our papers, w o r i y our families
a n d upset o u r life as free c i t i z e n s , w h o h a v e c l o s e d d o w n
o u r centres w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f i n d i n g s o f a c o u r t
o f l a w , n o w struck out b y the government's i n i q u i t o u s
censorship, were established w i t h i n the l a w . I f we are
b e i n g p e r s e c u t e d , i t is n o t o n a c c o u n t o f o u r i n v o l v e m e n t
i n m o r e o r less h a r s h episodes o f t h e d a i l y s t r u g g l e i n w h i c h
w e a r e a l l i m m e r s e d : w e a r e p e r s e c u t e d - as y o u a r e
persecuted because everyone knows that we are fully
p r e p a r e d to s t a n d i n t h e w a y o f the r e d h o r d e w h o s e a i m
is t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f S p a i n . W h i l e t h e p e r v e r s e l i t t l e g e n t l e m e n o f t h e s o c i a l i s t m i h t i a i n t h e i r r e d shirts stage p a r o d i e s
o f m i l i t a r y p a r a d e s , o u r b o y s i n t h e i r b l u e shirts e m b r o i d e r e d w i t h the arrows a n d the yoke o f glorious days gone
b y , a r e k i d n a p p e d b y t h e h i r e d ruffians o f C a s a r e s * a n d
o f his h e n c h m e n , the P r o v i n c i a l G o v e r n o r s . W e are b e i n g
* Casares Q u i r o g a , a G a l i c i a n , was a follower of A z a n a a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r
of S p a i n just before the civil war.

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T O

T H E S O L D I E R S

OF

S P A I N

243

persecuted because like yourselves we are the spoilsports w h o p u t a d a m p e r o n t h e cheerfulness w i t h w h i c h ,

o n M o s c o w ' s o r d e r s , S p a i n is s u p p o s e d to be c a r v e d u p i n t o
i n d e p e n d e n t soviet r e p u b l i c s . B u t t h e v e r y fate w e s h a r e
i n a d v e r s i t y m u s t h o l d us t o g e t h e r w h e n t h e t i m e c o m e s
for a c t i o n . W i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f y o u s o l d i e r s i t w i l l b e
t i t a n i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t f o r us to e m e r g e v i c t o r i o u s f r o m t h e
s t r u g g l e . U n l e s s y o u d e c i d e to use y o u r s t r e n g t h t h e e n e m y
w i l l surely t r i u m p h . M e a s u r e y o u r dire responsibility.
S p a i n ' s s u r v i v a l d e p e n d s o n y o u . C o n s i d e r w h e t h e r this
does n o t o b l i g e y o u to b y p a s s those o f y o u r s u p e r i o r s w h o
a r e k n a v e s o r c o w a r d s , to o v e r c o m e a l l h a z a r d s a n d
h e s i t a t i o n s . T h e e n e m y , ever c a u t i o u s , is c o u n t i n g o n y o u r
i n d e c i s i o n . E v e r y d a y h e risks a f e w steps f o r w a r d . T a k e
c a r e t h a t w h e n t h e p o i n t o f n o r e t u r n is r e a c h e d y o u a r e
n o t c o m p l e t e l y p a r a l y s e d b y t h e i n s i d i o u s n e t w h i c h is
b e i n g w o v e n a r o u n d y o u . S h a k e o f f y o u r b o n d s right now.
D o n o t w a i t f o r those w h o a r e h e s i t a n t to m a k e u p t h e i r
m i n d s , b u t k n i t a h a r d a n d fast u n i o n right now. S w e a r b y
y o u r h o n o u r t h a t y o u w i l l n o t f a i l to r e s p o n d to t h e
a p p r o a c h i n g c a l l to a r m s .
W h e n y o u r sons i n h e r i t t h e u n i f o r m s y o u w e a r , t o g e t h e r
w i t h them they w i l l i n h e r i t :
E i t h e r t h e s h a m e o f h a v i n g to s a y : ' W h e n m y f a t h e r
w o r e this u n i f o r m , t h e S p a i n he k n e w ceased to exist.'
O r else t h e r i g h t to r e m e m b e r p r o u d l y : ' S p a i n d i d n o t
p e r i s h , b e c a u s e m y f a t h e r a n d his c o m r a d e s - i n - a r m s s a v e d
h e r i n h e r m o m e n t o f c r i s i s . ' I f y o u act t h u s , m a y G o d
r e w a r d y o u , as i t is s a i d i n t h e a n c i e n t f o r m u l a o f t h e o a t h ,
a n d i f y o u d o n o t , m a y G o d h o l d y o u to b l a m e .
A R R I B A

E S P A N A !

L E T T E R TO A SPANISH SOLDIER
E a r l y 1936

Y o u c a n n o t , even i f y o u w a n t e d to, f o l l o w the advice o f one

o f o u r c o u n t r y ' s m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g m e n y o u c a n n o t be
d e a f a n d b l i n d to S p a i n ' s o v e r p o w e r i n g a g o n y . * I n a f e w
weeks' time y o u m a y once a g a i n have to c a l l u p o n y o u r
c o m p a n y to t a k e u p a r m s i n c i v i l strife. A n d h o w e v e r h a r d
y o u t r y to s i l e n c e t h e s t i r r i n g o f y o u r o w n s p i r i t , y o u w i l l
n o t be a b l e to i g n o r e , i n t h e l o n g h o u r s o f v i g i l o n d u t y ,
these u r g e n t q u e s t i o n s : W h a t is r e a l l y g o i n g o n ? T h i s
state, w h i c h I a m r i s k i n g m y life to d e f e n d , is i t r e a l l y t h e
s e r v a n t o f m y c o u n t r y ' s t r u e d e s t i n y ? O r c o u l d m y efforts
be h e l p i n g t o p e r p e t u a t e a p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m t h a t is d e a d ,
soulless a n d s t e r i l e - m a k i n g ?
O n e w h o n e v e r s p e n d s a n i g h t free f r o m these s a m e
uncertainties w o u l d like y o u to a c c o m p a n y h i m , t h r o u g h
this letter, i n a m o m e n t o f silent m e d i t a t i o n .

I.

T H E B R E A K D O W N

O F

C O N S T I T U T I O N A L

O R D E R

T h e o u t c o m e o f t h e r e c e n t crisis h a s c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e
p r e v a i l i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r c a n n o l o n g e r s u s t a i n itself.
I n o r d e r to s u r v i v e , t h e state has t o resort t o s t r a t a g e m s
w h i c h are i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e n o r m a l w a y s o f i n s t i t u t i o n s . N o t o n l y has m a r t i a l l a w b e c o m e e n d e m i c , w i t h its
t r a i n o f closures, press c e n s o r s h i p , p r e v e n t i v e d e t e n t i o n
a n d t h e r e s t ; w e h a v e also seen a g o v e r n m e n t f o r m e d ,
b o r n o f the p a r l i a m e n t a r y system, w h i c h c o u l d not survive
h a l f a n h o u r i n the Cortes a g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h c a n
* T h i s phrase

refers to a pastoral letter of 1931

by Cardinal

Segura

adjuring Spaniards not to be b l i n d a n d idle before the challenge o f atheism.

244

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245

o n l y enjoy a n e p h e m e r a l s e m b l a n c e o f life w h i l e i t keeps

the C o r t e s c l o s e d d o w n f o r as l o n g as t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n
a l l o w s . T h u s w e s h a l l be l i v i n g f o r a m o n t h u n d e r t h e
d i c t a t o r s h i p o f the R a d i c a l P a r t y a n d w e k n o w h o w
f a i r a n d austere t h a t w i l l be w i t h o u t b e i n g d e p r i v e d o f
t h e d a i l y t h r i l l o f m u r d e r , r o b b e r y a n d t h e t h r e a t s o f those
w h o seemed defeated i n O c t o b e r but w h o are already
b o a s t i n g a b o u t h o w t h e y a r e g o i n g t o get t h e i r o w n b a c k .
A n d w h a t a w a i t s us at t h e e n d o f this o n e m o n t h ? C o e x i s t e n c e w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e , a n d so t h e C o r t e s w i l l h a v e to
be d i s s o l v e d . N e w e l e c t i o n s w i l l p l u n g e t h e c o u n t r y i n t o
a struggle b e t w e e n t w o furious h a l v e s : the R i g h t a n d the
Left. W h i c h side w i l l emerge victorious f r o m the struggle ?
I n o r d e r to k n o w t h a t , o n e m u s t e x a m i n e w h a t t h e L e f t
a n d the R i g h t stand for i n S p a i n .

II.

T H E

L E F T

T h e L e f t is m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n t h e R i g h t (one m u s t n o t
f o r g e t t h a t a l m o s t t h e e n t i r e v a s t mass o f t h e S p a n i s h
w o r k i n g class is i n c l u d e d i n t h e L e f t ) ; i t is m o r e i m p e t u ous, m o r e s k i l l e d i n p o l i t i c s ... b u t i t is u n p a t r i o t i c .
D i s r e g a r d i n g a l l a r t i f i c i a l p a r t y l a b e l s , t h e L e f t consists
of two major groups:
(a) A p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t e l l e c t u a l m i d d l e - c l a s s e l e m e n t .
P r o d u c t s o f a f o r e i g n e d u c a t i o n , l a r g e l y s u s c e p t i b l e to the
i n f l u e n c e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , these l e f t - w i n g e r s
are i n c a p a b l e o f a n y i n t i m a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h S p a i n .
T h i s is w h y a l l t h e t r e n d s t e n d i n g t o d i s r u p t t h e u n i t y o f
our country have been accepted without repugnance i n
left-wing circles.
(b) A b r o a d w o r k i n g class u t t e r l y c o n v e r t e d to M a r x i s m .
W i t h e x t r e m e persistence a n d astuteness, s o c i a l i s t p o l i t i c s
h a v e v i r t u a l l y m a n a g e d to erase f r o m these masses a l l
S p a n i s h s e n t i m e n t . T h e M a r x i s t t h r o n g s t h i n k o f life
e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h e g r i m t e r m s o f the class s t r u g g l e . T h e y d o

246

P R I M O

D E

R I V E R A :

S E L E C T E D

V/RITINGS

n o t c a r e a b o u t a n y t h i n g t h a t is n o t p r o l e t a r i a n ; t h e y a r e
therefore i n c a p a b l e o f f e e l i n g t h e slightest c o n c e r n a b o u t
a n y t h i n g o f n a t i o n a l v a l u e b e y o n d w h a t d i r e c t l y affects
t h e w o r k i n g class. I f M a r x i s m w i n s , i t w i l l e v e n l i q u i d a t e
t h e l e f t - w i n g b o u r g e o i s i e , w h i c h is n o w s u c h a u s e f u l a l l y .
T h e R u s s i a n e x p e r i e n c e has m a d e this e l o q u e n t l y o b v i o u s .

III.

T H E

R I G H T

A n d w h a t a b o u t t h e R i g h t ? T h e r i g h t - w i n g e r s profess
a l l e g i a n c e to w h a t is g r e a t a n d n o b l e : t h e f a t h e r l a n d ,
t r a d i t i o n , a u t h o r i t y ... but they are no m o r e g e n u i n e l y
n a t i o n a l t h a n t h e Leftists. I f t h e y t r u l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e
n a t i o n , i f t h e i r g r e a t w o r d s d i d n o t c o n c e a l a class i n t e r e s t ,
t h e y w o u l d n o t r a l l y to t h e defence o f u n j u s t e c o n o m i c
p o s i t i o n s . F o r t h e t i m e b e i n g , S p a i n is a r a t h e r p o o r
c o u n t r y . I f t h e l i f e o f the a v e r a g e S p a n i a r d is to r e a c h a
l e v e l o f h u m a n d e c o r u m , those f a v o u r e d b y f o r t u n e w i l l
h a v e to m a k e sacrifices. I f t h e R i g h t ( w h i c h has t h e
s u p p o r t o f a l l those p r i v i l e g e d i n this w a y ) w e r e r e a l l y
i m b u e d w i t h a sense o f n a t i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y , t h e r i g h t w i n g e r s w o u l d b y n o w be s h a r i n g t h e h a r d l o t o f a l l t h e
people, h a v i n g sacrificed their o w n m a t e r i a l advantage.
T h a t w o u l d i n d e e d g i v e t h e m t h e m o r a l a u t h o r i t y to set
t h e m s e l v e s u p as d e f e n d e r s o f l o f t y s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s . B u t
w h i l e they continue fighting tooth a n d c l a w i n defence
o f t h e i r class interests, t h e i r p a t r i o t i s m w i l l s o u n d h o l l o w ;
t h e y w i l l b e j u s t as m a t e r i a l i s t i c as a n y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
Marxism.
M o r e o v e r , h o w e v e r h a r d t h e y t r y to g i v e t h e i r t i m e w o r n themes a m o d e r n look ( ' A strong slate', ' C o r p o r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' , etc.), t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t m o s t o f t h e
Rightists are still d r a g g i n g a l o n g a l o a d o f d e a d - w o o d ,
w h i c h lessens t h e i r i m p a c t a n d p o p u l a r a p p e a l .

L E T T E R

IV.

T O

W H A T

SPANISH

R E A L L Y

S O L D I E R

247

M A T T E R S

N e i t h e r t h e R i g h t n o r t h e L e f t offers a s o l u t i o n . T h e
v i c t o r y o f e i t h e r w o u l d i n v o l v e t h e defeat a n d h u m i l i a t i o n
o f t h e o t h e r . T h e r e c a n n o t be a n y n a t i o n a l l i f e i n a c o u n t r y
split i n t o t w o i r r e c o n c i l a b l e halves: that o f the defeated,
bitterly resenting their d o w n f a l l , a n d that o f the victors,
i n t o x i c a t e d b y t h e i r t r i u m p h . F r u i t f u l c o e x i s t e n c e is o n l y
p o s s i b l e i n t h e s h e l t e r o f p o l i t i c s w h i c h o w e n o t h i n g to a n y
p a r t y o r a n y c l a s s ; w h i c h e x c l u s i v e l y serve t h e s u p r e m e
a n d integrating destiny of S p a i n ; w h i c h , w i t h no other
a i m t h a n j u s t i c e a n d t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t , sort o u t t h e
problems between Spaniards.
N o w i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t a n y s u c h n a t i o n a l m o v e ment, p u r g e d o f greed a n d a m b i t i o n , c a n possibly come to
p o w e r as q u i c k l y as t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t r e q u i r e s i t , e i t h e r
b y legal or i l l e g a l means. It cannot take p o w e r legally,
b e c a u s e e l e c t i o n s p i t interests a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r , r a t h e r
t h a n i d e a s ; e v e r y o n e votes f o r t h e c a n d i d a t e t h a t suits h i m
best. A n d i t c a n n o t t a k e p o w e r i l l e g a l l y , b e c a u s e m o d e r n
states, w i t h t h e i r f o r m i d a b l e a r r a y o f a r m e d forces, a r e
a l m o s t u n a s s a i l a b l e . O n l y i f t h e a r m e d forces t a k e its
side, o r at least r e f r a i n f r o m s t a n d i n g i n its w a y , c a n
the n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t succeed i n t a k i n g p o w e r b y
assault.
I n t h e e v e n t , this w o u l d p l a c e y o u , as S p a n i s h s o l d i e r s ,
i n a serious q u a n d a r y . S u p p o s i n g t h a t o n e d a y , w h e n w e
are a l l tired o f the R i g h t a n d the Left, o f a garrulous
C o r t e s a n d o f a m i s e r a b l e life o f b a c k w a r d n e s s , d i s couragement a n d injustice, a n energetic y o u n g generation
d e c i d e s to a t t e m p t a t a k e o v e r o f p o w e r w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n
o f c u t t i n g across p a r t i e s a n d classes f o r t h e sake o f a n
integrating, national new beginning i n politics, h o w w i l l
y o u officers r e a c t ? W o u l d y o u p r o c e e d b l i n d l y to d o y o u r
f o r m a l d u t y , t h o u g h it m a y m e a n the r u i n o f o u r o n l y
f r u i t f u l h o p e ? O r w o u l d y o u o p t for d o i n g y o u r o t h e r , f a r

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S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

more gloriously responsible, duty, that of presenting arms

as f r i e n d s before t h e b a n n e r s o f a better S p a i n ?

v.

S C R U P L E S

I c a n guess at the s c r u p l e s w h i c h w i l l t r o u b l e m a n y
soldiers: we must not h o l d any political opinions, they w i l l
say. I n d o i n g o u r d u t y , w e are n o t e n t i t l e d to j u d g e
w h e t h e r t h e state is i n t h e r i g h t o r r a t h e r those w h o
a t t a c k t h e s t a t e ; w e m u s t s i m p l y d e f e n d t h e state i n s i l e n c e .
B e w a r e ! N o r m a l l y , s o l d i e r s m u s t n o t express
any
p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n s , b u t this a p p l i e s w h e n p o l i t i c a l d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r e less t h a n b a s i c ; w h e n t h e life o f t h e n a t i o n
evolves a l o n g a c o u r s e d e t e r m i n e d b y a set o f c o m m o n
convictions w h i c h constitute a guarantee o f permanence.
T h e a r m y m u s t a b o v e a l l be t h e g u a r d i a n o f p e r m a n e n c e ;
t h a t is w h y i t s h o u l d n o t get i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t a l
c o n f l i c t . B u t w h e n p e r m a n e n c e i t s e l f is i n d a n g e r , w h e n
t h e v e r y p e r m a n e n c e o f t h e f a t h e r l a n d is at r i s k ( w h e n i t
c o u l d , f o r e x a m p l e , lose its u n i t y i f t h i n g s g o a c e r t a i n w a y ) ,
t h e n t h e a r m y m u s t w e i g h u p t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d m a k e its
c h o i c e . I f t h e a r m y fails to d o so, b e c a u s e o f a p u r e l y
f o r m a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w h e r e its d u t y l i e s , i t m a y
find i t s e l f o v e r n i g h t with nothing to serve. F a c e d w i t h a t o t a l
c o l l a p s e , t h e a r m y c a n o n l y serve p e r m a n e n c e i n o n e w a y :
b y u s i n g its o w n a r m s to restore i t . A n d t h i s has b e e n so
since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t i m e : as S p e n g l e r says, i n t h e last
resort c i v i l i z a t i o n has always been saved b y a p l a t o o n o f
soldiers.
W h e t h e r y o u l i k e i t o r n o t , s o l d i e r s o f S p a i n , at a t i m e
w h e n t h e a r m y a l o n e keeps f a i t h w i t h t h e o n l y essentials
a n d t h e o n l y c u s t o m s w h i c h a r e t r u l y expressive o f h i s t o r i c
p e r m a n e n c e , i t w i l l be u p to t h e a r m y o n c e a g a i n to act
in place of the non-existent state.

L E T T E R

VI.

T H E H A Z A R D S

T O

O F

S P A N I S H

S O L D I E R

M I L I T A R Y

I N T E R V E N T I O N

I f the d e s t i n y o f S p a i n is to be i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e a r m y ,
one must l o o k out for t w o contrasting pitfalls w h i c h m i g h t
s p o i l e v e r y t h i n g . T h e s e t w o p i t f a l l s a r e excessive h u m i l i t y
a n d excessive a m b i t i o n .
I . Excessive humility. I t is t o be f e a r e d t h a t t h e a r m y
w o u l d a t t r i b u t e to i t s e l f t h e a l l t o o m o d e s t r o l e o f m e r e l y
stamping out subversion, while hastily h a n d i n g back
a c t u a l p o w e r to others. T h i s w o u l d p r o b a b l y r e s u l t i n
either o f two equally mistaken solutions:
(a) A g o v e r n m e n t o f n o t a b l e s , o r g a t h e r i n g o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d p e r s o n a l i t i e s , r e c r u i t e d o n t h e basis o f t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e r e p u t a t i o n s w i t h o u t r e g a r d to t h e p o l i t i c a l
p r i n c i p l e s t h e y profess. T h i s w o u l d b l i g h t t h e m o m e n t o f
s p l e n d i d n a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y . A state is m o r e t h a n t h e
s u m o f a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f t e c h n i q u e s ; i t is m o r e t h a n a
g o o d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; i t is t h e h i s t o r i c a l t o o l w i t h w h i c h
a n a t i o n ' s d e s t i n y is w r o u g h t . O n e c a n n o t l e a d a p e o p l e
w i t h o u t b e i n g c l e a r l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h i s d e s t i n y . A n d i t is
precisely the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f this destiny a n d o f the
r o a d s l e a d i n g to its f u l f i l m e n t w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s a p o l i t i c a l
position. S u c h a team of distinguished m e n who do not
share a p a r t i c u l a r p o l i t i c a l f a i t h c o u l d d o n o m o r e t h a n
p r o v i d e a m o r e o r less efficient a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , d e s t i n e d
to linger o n w i t h o u t generating a n y p o p u l a r w a r m t h
around it.
(b) A g o v e r n m e n t o f c o a l i t i o n , o r g a t h e r i n g o f r e p r e sentatives o f w h a t e v e r p a r t i e s a g r e e t o h e l p f o r m a
G o v e r n m e n t . T h i s s o l u t i o n w o u l d a d d to the basic i n t e r n a l
sterility o f the previous s o l u t i o n b y b e i n g i n practice no
m o r e t h a n a relapse i n t o p a r t y p o l i t i c s ; m o r e precisely,
i n t o r i g h t - w i n g p a r t y p o l i t i c s , since i t is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e
L e f t w o u l d n o t w i s h t o t a k e p a r t . T h a t is to say, w h a t
m i g h t have been the b e g i n n i n g o f a p r o m i s i n g n a t i o n a l
e r a w o u l d o n c e a g a i n a m o u n t to n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e

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S E L E C T E D

W R I T I N G S

v i c t o r y o f o n e class, o f o n e g r o u p , oijust one sector's interests.

T h e s e w o u l d be the h a z a r d s r e s u l t i n g f r o m excessive
h u m i l i t y ; b u t the opposite w o u l d be e q u a l l y a p p a l l i n g .
2 . Excessive ambition. L e t m e m a k e i t q u i t e c l e a r , I a m
n o t r e f e r r i n g to a n y s o l d i e r ' s p e r s o n a l a m b i t i o n , b u t to
h i s t o r i c a l a m b i t i o n . T h i s w o u l d m a k e i t s e l f felt i f t h e
m i l i t a r y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e fact t h a t a g o o d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
is n o t e n o u g h a n d t h a t i t is essential to arouse t h e e m o t i o n
o f c o l l e c t i v e effort, o f a n a t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a m o m e n t
i n h i s t o r y - w o u l d t h e m s e l v e s w a n t to be t h e ones to
a r o u s e i t . T h a t is to say, i f t h e m i l i t a r y , h a v i n g s t a g e d a
c o u p d ' e t a t o r h e l p e d o n e to s u c c e e d , n o w a s p i r e d to
d i s c o v e r i n g b y themselves t h e d o c t r i n e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a
n e w state a n d t h e course i t m u s t t a k e . F o r s u c h a n a t t e m p t
t h e m i l i t a r y l a c k t h e necessary p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . I f
l i k e so m a n y others I w a n t e d t o flatter t h e a r m y , I
w o u l d say w i t h o u t f u r t h e r a d o t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g i t
c a n n o t d o . B u t p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e I k n o w w h a t t h e a r m y is
w o r t h , w h a t v a s t reserves o f s i l e n t , h e r o i c a n d p u r e v i r t u e s
are treasured w i t h i n it, I w o u l d t h i n k it i m p r o p e r to
flatter t h e a r m y . R a t h e r , i t seems to m e a n a c t o f l o y a l t y
t o t r y a n d b e l u c i d o n its b e h a l f . T h a t is w h y I say these
t h i n g s as I see t h e m : t h e a r m y , a c c u s t o m e d to t h i n k i n g
t h a t p o l i t i c s a r e n o t its business, has i n p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s
a l i m i t e d outlook. W h e n a d v a n c i n g p o l i t i c a l solutions, it
t e n d s to be g u i l t y o f h o n o u r a b l e n a i v e t y . A n d t h u s ,
t h r o u g h a l a c k o f d o c t r i n a l effectiveness a n d d i a l e c t i c flair,
i t fails t o a t t r a c t consistent p o p u l a r a n d y o u t h f u l s u p p o r t .
L e t us n o t forget t h e case o f G e n e r a l P r i m o d e R i v e r a :
t h o u g h endowed w i t h patriotism, courage a n d n a t u r a l
i n t e l l i g e n c e , h e n e v e r m a n a g e d to a r o u s e l a s t i n g e n t h u siasm because he l a c k e d a n evocative vision of history.
L a m e n t a b l y short o f d o c t r i n a l substance, the P a t r i o t i c
U n i o n never m o v e d b e y o n d a c a n d i d a n d well-intentioned
vagueness.
I f P r o v i d e n c e s h o u l d once a g a i n entrust the fatherland's

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25I

d e s t i n y to y o u r h a n d s , I w o u l d ask y o u officers to b e a r i n
m i n d t h a t i t w o u l d be u n f o r g i v a b l e to set o u t o n t h e s a m e
r o a d w i t h o u t a g o a l . D o n o t forget t h a t those w h o d i v e r t
t h e state f r o m its n o r m a l c o u r s e a r e u n d e r a n o b l i g a t i o n
t o b u i l d a n e w state, n o t m e r e l y to restore a s e m b l a n c e o f
o r d e r . A n d t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g o f a n e w state r e q u i r e s a
resolute a n d m a t u r e v i e w o f history a n d politics, not just
reckless c o n f i d e n c e i n o n e ' s o w n a b i l i t y to i m p r o v i s e .

VII.

T H E GLORY

OF A MILITARY

INTERVENTION

I f the a r m y adds exactly the r i g h t a m o u n t o f l e a v e n i n the

p e r i o d w h i c h n o w b e g i n s , i t w i l l n o t o n l y e x p i a t e its s i n o f
f o r m a l i n d i s c i p l i n e b u t a t t a i n g r e a t g l o r y . E u r o p e offers
us s o m e v a l u a b l e e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h m a y h e l p to m a k e
the right d e c i s i o n : the people w h o have f o u n d the r o a d
t o s a l v a t i o n h a v e n o t e n t r u s t e d t h e m s e l v e s to a n y t h i n g so
i m p r e c i s e as a ' c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f f o r c e s ' ; t h e y h a v e resol u t e l y f o l l o w e d a f e r v e n t l y n a t i o n a l i s t , tense a n d v i s i o n a r y
m i n o r i t y . A n entire people c a n be p o l a r i z e d a r o u n d
a minority, while an amorphous collection of dissimilar
i n d i v i d u a l s c a n n o t p o l a r i z e a n y t h i n g at a l l . T h e a r m y
s h o u l d p i n its h o p e s o n those i n w h o m i t f i n d s t h e greatest
s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h t h e a r m y i t s e l f ; t h a t is to say, o n those
i n w h o m it perceives, together w i t h a m i l i t a r y c o n c e p t i o n o f l i f e , u t t e r d e v o t i o n to t w o e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s : t h e f a t h e r l a n d as s o m e t h i n g a m b i t i o u s a n d
m a g n i f i c e n t ; a n d f u l l s o c i a l j u s t i c e as t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e
basis f o r t h e c o r d i a l c o e x i s t e n c e o f a l l S p a n i a r d s . J u s t as
t h e a r m y is a n i n t e g r a t i n g , n a t i o n a l l y - m i n d e d force a b o v e
a l l class differences (since m e n f r o m a l l s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d s
live together o r g a n i c a l l y w i t h i n it, a l l w a r m e d b y the
selfsame r e l i g i o n o f service to t h e f a t h e r l a n d ) , t h e S p a i n
t h e a r m y w i l l d e l i v e r m u s t , f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , set
out i n search of a n integrating, totalitarian a n d n a t i o n a l
d e s t i n y . T h i s is n o t a m a t t e r o f recipes ( n o w a d a y s a l l t h e

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PRIMO

DE RIVERA:

SELECTED

WRITINGS

parties, even the blandest, i n c l u d e some fashionable

c o r p o r a t i v e p r i n c i p l e i n t h e i r p r o g r a m m e s ) ; i t is a m a t t e r
o f temperature; r e c i p e s w i t h o u t f a i t h a r e w o r t h l e s s , j u s t as
i n t h e a r m y a l l tactics a n d i n t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n s a r e useless
unless t h e r e exists a r e f i n e d s p i r i t o f s e r v i c e a n d h o n o u r .
I t w o u l d n o t m a t t e r m u c h i f those h o l d i n g p o w e r w e r e
f e w a n d n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s k i l l e d i n t h e arts o f a d m i n i s t r a tion. A d m i n i s t r a t i v e techniques are the d o m a i n of
i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r t s , w h o a r e easy t o r e c r u i t . W h a t m a t t e r s
is t h e h i s t o r i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t
a n d the a p p r e c i a t i o n o f its i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e f u t u r e . T h a t
i n d e e d m u s t b e c l e a r i n t h e m i n d s a n d t h e souls o f those
in command.

VIII.

NOTICE

H o w e v e r m u c h the supreme h o r r o r o f m a k i n g a mistake

m a y r e s t r a i n us f r o m t a k i n g t h e u l t i m a t e d e c i s i o n , w e
s h a l l v e r y s o o n h a v e to m o v e i n o n S p a i n . T h e r o a d s w h i c h
have been o p e n e d u p for other countries that arc overpopulated, over-industrialized a n d recovering f r o m a great
w a r w i l l p r o v e m u c h smoother for o u r vast a n d semip o p u l a t e d S p a i n , w h e r e t h e r e is so m u c h to be d o n e . A l l
t h a t is n e e d e d is t h e m a g i c t o u c h t h e i m p e t u s a n d f a i t h
w h i c h w i l l release h e r f r o m t h e s p e l l she is u n d e r . J u s t
as i f i n a f a i r y - t a l e , S p a i n is t h e c a p t i v e o f t h e c l u m s i e s t a n d
ugliest hocus-pocus; confused, m e d i o c r e , c o w a r d l y a n d
sterile p o l i t i c s h o l d h e r p a r a l y s e d . A l r e a d y t h e r e a r e
c h a m p i o n s l i n e d u p f o r h e r rescue, a n d o n e fine m o r n i n g
y o u w i l l see h e r officers, S p a n i s h s o l d i e r s y o u w i l l
see h e r arise b e f o r e y o u r r a n k s . T h a t w i l l be t h e m o m e n t
o f t r u t h ; the s o u n d o r the silence o f y o u r m a c h i n e - g u n s
w i l l d e c i d e w h e t h e r S p a i n is to g o o n l a n g u i s h i n g o r
w h e t h e r she c a n t h r o w o p e n h e r s o u l to t h e h o p e t h a t she
m a y r e i g n . T h i n k o f these t h i n g s before u t t e r i n g t h e f a t a l
c o m m a n d ' F i r e ! ' . R e m e m b e r t h a t o n c e e v e r y so m a n y

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y e a r s t h e r e m a y be o c c a s i o n s , d e c i s i v e i n t h e Hfe o f a
people, w h i c h soar above the p a r a g r a p h s o f the rule-book.
M a y G o d inspire y o u a l l when that happens. A r r i b a
Espana!
JOSE

ANTONIO PRIMO DE RIVERA

Leader of the Spanish Falange of the

J.O.N.S.

TO A L L TERRITORIAL AND
PROVINCIAL HEADQUARTERS
M a d r i d , J u n e 2 4 t h , 1936
URGENT

AND VERY

IMPORTANT

I t has c o m e to t h e n o t i c e o f t h e N a t i o n a l L e a d e r t h a t t h e r e
a r e a g r e a t m a n y schemes a f o o t i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f S p a i n
a i m e d at p r o m o t i n g m o r e o r less i n c o h e r e n t s u b v e r s i v e
movements.
F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , as o n e w o u l d e x p e c t , t h e l e a d e r s o f
o u r various organizations have i n f o r m e d the E x e c u t i v e of
whatever proposals they were approached w i t h , l i m i t i n g
their political activities to the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the
instructions they received f r o m the E x e c u t i v e . B u t some
o t h e r s , c a r r i e d a w a y b y excessive z e a l o r d a n g e r o u s
n a i v e t y , h a v e p l u n g e d h e a d l o n g i n t o the d r a w i n g u p o f
blue-prints for l o c a l a c t i o n a n d have c o m m i t t e d their c o m r a d e s to a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l projects.
I n m o s t cases, s u c h a c t i o n s o n the p a r t o f o u r c o m r a d e s
w e r e p r o m p t e d b y t h e fact t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y status o f those
w h o i n v i t e d t h e m to j o i n i n t o c o n s p i r a c i e s w a r r a n t e d t h e i r
c o m p l e t e c o n f i d e n c e . T h i s m a k e s i t necessary to set a f e w
things straight.
S o often has t h e F a l a n g e l e n t e x p r e s s i o n t o its r e s p e c t f u l
a d m i r a t i o n o f t h e a r m y , t h a t t h e r e is n o n e e d to g o i n t o
t h a t n o w . I t is l a i d d o w n e v e n i n t h e 27 p o i n t s o f o u r d o c t r i n e [i.e., t h e 26 p o i n t s ] t h a t i t is o u r a i m to infuse a
m i l i t a r y c o n c e p t i o n o f life, p a t t e r n e d o n t h a t o f t h e a r m y ,
i n t o e v e r y aspect o f S p a n i s h e x i s t e n c e . Besides, o n s o m e
r e c e n t a n d m e m o r a b l e o c c a s i o n s , t h e a r m y has seen
comrades o f ours sharing their dangers.
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B u t o u r a d m i r a t i o n a n d t h e p r o f o u n d esteem i n w h i c h
w e h o l d t h e a r m y as a n essential o r g a n o f t h e f a t h e r l a n d
does n o t i m p l y t h a t w e t o t a l l y a g r e e w i t h a n y a n d e v e r y
t h o u g h t , w o r d a n d s c h e m e ever professed, p r e f e r r e d o r
cherished b y every soldier or g r o u p o f soldiers. I n politics
e s p e c i a l l y , t h e F a l a n g e w h i c h detests flattery as b e i n g
t h e u l t i m a t e f o r m o f c o n t e m p t does n o t c o n s i d e r i t s e l f
a n y less q u a l i f i e d t h a n the a v e r a g e s o l d i e r . T h e p o l i t i c a l
t r a i n i n g o f t h e m i l i t a r y tends to be f u l l o f t h e m o s t n o b l e
n a i v e t y . T h e d i s t a n c e w h i c h the a r m y has d e l i b e r a t e l y p u t
b e t w e e n i t s e l f a n d p o l i t i c s h a s b r o u g h t m o s t s o l d i e r s to
a pass w h e r e t h e y a r e q u i t e u n a b l e to d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s
d i a l e c t i c a l l y a g a i n s t p a r t y c h a r l a t a n s a n d c l i m b e r s . I t is
n o t u n u s u a l f o r a m e d i o c r e p o l i t i c i a n to a c q u i r e a c o n siderable r e p u t a t i o n a m o n g the m i l i t a r y m e r e l y b y m a k i n g
shameless use o f s o m e o f the c o n c e p t s m o s t d e e p l y r o o t e d
i n the m i l i t a r y soul.
T h a t is w h y t h e p o l i t i c a l schemes o f soldiers ( w i t h t h e
e x c e p t i o n , needless to say, o f p l a n s w o r k e d o u t b y a n
e x t r e m e l y c a p a b l e m i n o r i t y t h a t does exist w i t h i n the
a r m y ) are not u s u a l l y very r e w a r d i n g . T h e y almost
i n v a r i a b l y start out f r o m the i n i t i a l mistake o f b e l i e v i n g
t h a t S p a i n ' s i l l s w i l l r e s p o n d to s o m e s i m p l e c h a n g e s i n t h e
i n t e r n a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s , o n l y to c u l m i n a t e i n a s u r r e n d e r
o f p o w e r to t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c h a r l a t a n s , w h o a r e d e v o i d
o f the h i s t o r i c a l awareness, the genuine t r a i n i n g a n d the
m e t t l e n e e d e d to l a u n c h t h e f a t h e r l a n d o n t h e g r e a t o p e n
r o a d o f its d e s t i n y .
T h e F a l a n g e ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n o n e o f those p r e m a t u r e
a n d c a n d i d schemes w o u l d be a m o s t serious r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
a n d w o u l d b r i n g a b o u t its total disappearance, even in the case
of victory. F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n : b e c a u s e a l m o s t a l l
those c o u n t i n g o n t h e F a l a n g e for a n u n d e r t a k i n g o f t h a t
k i n d t h i n k o f i t n o t as a n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g d o c t r i n e , o r as
a force w h i c h w i l l one d a y take complete c o n t r o l o f the
state, b u t as a m e r e a u x i h a r y e l e m e n t to b e a r t h e b r u n t o f

256

PRIMO

DE RIVERA:

SELECTED

WRITINGS

c o n f r o n t a t i o n , a k i n d o f assault force, a k i n d o f y o u t h f u l
m i l i t i a u l t i m a t e l y d e s t i n e d to p a r a d i n g before
those
gloatingly installed o n the pinnacles o f power.
M a y a l l c o m r a d e s p o n d e r t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h the
s u g g e s t i o n is i n s u l t i n g , t h a t t h e F a l a n g e m i g h t t a k e p a r t
as a k i n d o f stooge i n a m o v e m e n t w h i c h is n o t g o i n g
t o l e a d to t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l S y n d i c a l i s t
state, at t h e d a w n o f a n e r a o f g r e a t w o r k s o f n a t i o n a l
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n as o u t l i n e d i n o u r 27 p o i n t s , b u t r a t h e r to
the reinstatement o f conservative bourgeois m e d i o c r i t y
( o f w h i c h S p a i n has h a d s u c h l e n g t h y e x a m p l e s ) . A n d
w h a t m o c k e r y t h a t t h i s s h o u l d be g a r n i s h e d to b o o t w i t h
the c h o r e o g r a p h i c a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f o u r blue shirts.
S i n c e s u c h p r o s p e c t s w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t a p p e a l to a n y
s i n c e r e m i l i t a n t , a l l a r e b y m e a n s o f this c i r c u l a r w a r n e d
p e r e m p t o r i l y a n d o n p a i n o f s a n c t i o n s to c o m p l y w i t h t h e
following:
1. A l l l e a d e r s o f w h a t e v e r r a n k w h o a r e i n v i t e d b y a n y
s o l d i e r o r c i v i l i a n w h a t e v e r to t a k e p a r t i n a n y c o n s p i r a c y ,
u p r i s i n g o r t h e l i k e , a r e e a c h m e r e l y to r e p l y , ' t h a t h e
c a n n o t t a k e p a r t i n a n y t h i n g , n o r p e r m i t his c o m r a d e s
to d o so, w i t h o u t specific i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m t h e c e n t r a l
c o m m a n d . ' If, t h e r e f o r e , t h e top e c h e l o n s o f the m o v e m e n t
h e is i n v i t e d t o j o i n a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g t h e s u p p o r t
o f the F a l a n g e , t h e y m u s t suggest i t directly to t h e N a t i o n a l
L e a d e r h i m s e l f a n d c o m e to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h h i m
i n p e r s o n o r w i t h s o m e o n e he expressly a p p o i n t s .
2. A n y l e a d e r o f w h a t e v e r r a n k w h o enters i n t o l o c a l
pacts w i t h m i l i t a r y o r c i v i l i a n elements w i t h o u t h a v i n g
r e c e i v e d specific i n s t r u c t i o n s to d o so f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l
L e a d e r w i l l be e x p e l l e d f o r t h w i t h f r o m t h e F a l a n g e , a n d
his e x p u l s i o n w i l l be p u b l i c i z e d b y a l l a v a i l a b l e m e a n s .
3. S i n c e t h e N a t i o n a l L e a d e r wishes to be s u r e t h a t t h e
p r e s e n t o r d e r is d u l y c a r r i e d o u t , h e i n s t r u c t s a l l t e r r i t o r i a l
a n d p r o v i n c i a l l e a d e r s to w r i t e to h i m , w i t h t h e greatest
p o s s i b l e u r g e n c y , to t h e p r o v i n c i a l p r i s o n i n A l i c a n t e ,

TO

A L L

HEADQUARTERS

w h i c h is w h e r e he is, i n f o r m i n g h i m o f t h e i r s t r i c t c o m p l i a n c e w i t h e v e r y t h i n g set o u t i n t h i s c i r c u l a r , a n d g i v i n g
h i m a f u l l list o f a l l t h e t o w n s a n d v i l l a g e s t o w h o s e
J . O . N . S . its c o n t e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d . W h e n
a d d r e s s i n g s u c h letters to t h e N a t i o n a l L e a d e r , t h e
t e r r i t o r i a l a n d p r o v i n c i a l leaders w i l l not sign their
p r o p e r n a m e s , b u t w i l l g i v e o n l y those o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
province or provinces.
4. I f these i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e n o t o b e y e d w i t h i n five d a y s
o f t h e i r b e i n g r e c e i v e d b y e a c h c o n c e r n e d , t h a t w i l l be
c o n s i d e r e d a serious t r a n s g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t t h e d u t y o f
c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n the m o v e m e n t .
ARRIBA

ESPANA !

TO A L L T E R R I T O R I A L AND
PROVINCIAL HEADQUARTERS
J u n e 2 9 t h , 1936
CAUTION

F u r t h e r to t h e c i r c u l a r o f t h e 2 4 t h i n s t a n t , a l l t e r r i t o r i a l
a n d p r o v i n c i a l leaders are h e r e b y advised o f the c i r c u m stances u n d e r w h i c h t h e y m a y c o n t r a c t a l l i a n c e s i n t h e
e v e n t o f a n i m m i n e n t u p r i s i n g a g a i n s t the p r e s e n t g o v e r n ment.
1. E v e r y t e r r i t o r i a l o r p r o v i n c i a l l e a d e r m u s t d e a l
exclusively w i t h t h e m a n a c t u a l l y i n c h a r g e o f t h e m i h t a r y
m o v e m e n t i n that territory or province, a n d w i t h no one
else. T h i s p e r s o n w i l l m a k e h i m s e l f k n o w n to t h e t e r r i t o r i a l
or p r o v i n c i a l leader b y means o f the code w o r d ' C o v a d o n g a ' , w h i c h h e m u s t say at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i r
first m e e t i n g .
2. T h e F a l a n g e w i l l p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e m o v e m e n t b y
c o n t r i b u t i n g its o w n u n i t s w i t h t h e i r o w n c o m m a n d e r s
a n d t h e i r o w n d i s t i n c t i v e i n s i g n i a (shirts, e m b l e m s a n d
banners).
3. S h o u l d t h e t e r r i t o r i a l o r p r o v i n c i a l l e a d e r a n d the
c o m m a n d e r o f t h e m i l i t a r y m o v e m e n t a g r e e t h a t i t is
indispensable, a p a r t o f the F a l a n g i s t force, w h i c h m a y
u n d e r no circumstances exceed one-third o f the total
n u m b e r o f f r o n t - l i n e m i l i t a n t s , m a y be m a d e a v a i l a b l e
t o t h e m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s to s t r e n g t h e n t h e u n i t s u n d e r t h e i r
c o m m a n d . T h e o t h e r t w o - t h i r d s w i l l a d h e r e s t r i c t l y to t h e
instructions c o n t a i n e d i n the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h .
4 . T h e t e r r i t o r i a l o r p r o v i n c i a l l e a d e r w i l l i n e a c h case
m a k e arrangements w i t h the m i l i t a r y leader c o n c e r n e d
258

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HEADQUARTERS

r e g a r d i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f rifles a n d m a c h i n e - g u n s to t h e
forces o f t h e F a l a n g e . T h e y w i l l be g i v e n p r e c i s e i n d i c a t i o n s as to w h e r e e a c h c e n t u r i a , f a l a n g e a n d s q u a d r o n
m u s t g o at a g i v e n t i m e to r e c e i v e t h e a r m s .
5. T h e m i l i t a r y leader m u s t p r o m i s e the leader o f the
F a l a n g e i n the territory or p r o v i n c e that civil a u t h o r i t y i n
t h a t t e r r i t o r y o r p r o v i n c e w i l l n o t be t r a n s f e r r e d to a n y o n e
f o r at least t h r e e d a y s after t h e successful c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e
movement, a n d that d u r i n g that time civil authority w i l l
r e m a i n i n the hands o f the m i l i t a r y .
6. I m m e d i a t e l y u p o n r e c e i p t o f these i n s t r u c t i o n s , e a c h
t e r r i t o r i a l o r p r o v i n c i a l l e a d e r w i l l g i v e e x a c t o r d e r s to
a l l l o c a l h e a d q u a r t e r s to r e m a i n c o n s t a n t l y i n t o u c h , so
t h a t i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e f o r a l l f r o n t - l i n e forces t o be m a d e
a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n f o u r h o u r s . T h e y w i l l also g i v e o r d e r s to
t h e effect t h a t t h e v a r i o u s l o c a l g r o u p s g a t h e r i m m e d i a t e l y
at s p e c i f i c p o i n t s , to be m e r g e d i n t o a t least o n e f a l a n g e
(of three squadrons).
7. U n l e s s t h e y are e x p l i c i t l y r e n e w e d , these i n s t r u c t i o n s
w i l l b e t o t a l l y i n v a l i d as f r o m t h e f o r t h c o m i n g J u l y l o t h ,
at n o o n .

TO T H E FRONT LINE IN
MADRID
R e p r o d u c e d for the first t i m e i n Norma y Estilo, N o . 2, J u n e
30th, 1938 ( N a t i o n a l S y n d i c a l i s t fortnightly news-sheet,
p u b l i s h e d b y the p r o p a g a n d a section of the P r o v i n c i a l
H e a d q u a r t e r s i n Seville).
P r o v i n c i a l P r i s o n o f A l i c a n t e , J u n e 2 9 t h , 1936

C o m r a d e s at the front l i n e i n M a d r i d : F r o m this n e w

p r i s o n , w h e r e t h e s p i r i t o f t h e F a l a n g e is s u p p o s e d to be
confined just because I a m confined here, I send y o u , w i t h
m y thoughts centred on S p a i n a n d m y a r m raised h i g h ,
m y most heartfelt N a t i o n a l S y n d i c a l i s t greetings.
I f t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g o p p r e s s i v e a b o u t p r i s o n , t h o u g h i t
is a s m a l l s a c r i f i c e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e sufferings o f so
m a n y c o m r a d e s , i t is t h e f a c t o f b e i n g p h y s i c a l l y r e m o v e d
f r o m the dangers a n d toils y o u u n d e r g o . B u t t h o u g h I a m
f a r a w a y i n t e r m s o f m a t e r i a l d i s t a n c e , I a m c l o s e r to y o u
t h a n e v e r , n o t o n l y i n t h e a r d o u r o f t h e s p i r i t , b u t also i n
s i l e n t , tireless a c t i v i t y .
F r o m this p r i s o n c e l l I a m ceaselessly s p i n n i n g t h e
t h r e a d s w h i c h r e a c h o u t to o u r m o s t d i s t a n t c o m r a d e s .
Y o u m a y rest a s s u r e d t h a t n o t a d a y , n o t a m i n u t e , is
wasted a l o n g the r o a d of o u r duty. E v e n i n the hours o f
a p p a r e n t c a l m I a m constantly p l a n n i n g the shape o f o u r
next v i c t o r y . R e m e m b e r that, c o m r a d e s o f M a d r i d , i n the
h o u r s o f e n f o r c e d idleness w h i c h s o m e d a y s m a y b r i n g ,
a n d do not be tempted i n t o a n y activities other t h a n y o u r
t r a i n i n g for a not too distant a n d decisive mission. I n
y o u r e n t h u s i a s m y o u p r e f e r a c t u a l c o m b a t to t h e p r e p a r a t i o n t h e r e o f ; b u t w h a t lies a h e a d is t o o g r e a t to be t a c k l e d
260

TO

T H E FRONT

LINE

IN

261

MADRID

without due preparation. I m p r o v e our methods, promote

y o u r s t r u g g l e b y a t t e n t i o n to the d e t a i l s o f t h a t s t r u g g l e
a n d t r u s t ever m o r e f i r m l y i n y o u r l e a d e r . Y o u k n o w t h a t
he w h o w e a r s t h e t h r e e s i l v e r stars o f t h e m i l i t i a m o r e
p r o u d l y t h a n a n y i n s i g n i a , w h o w i t h t h e m p i n n e d to his
chest has l e d y o u t h r o u g h three y e a r s o f s t r u g g l e to t h e
p r e s e n t t i m e o f g r o w t h , w i l l be l e a d i n g y o u , h a p p e n w h a t
m a y , a t t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t , a n d t h a t w i t h G o d ' s h e l p he
w i l l t a k e y o u i n t o the p r o m i s e d l a n d o f O u r S p a i n , w h i c h
is O N E , G R E A T A N D F R E E .
ARRIBA

ESPANA!

JOSE

ANTONIO PRIMO

The National

DE

RIVERA

Leader, Chief of the Front

Line

JOSE ANTONIO'S LAST

MANIFESTO
A l i c a n t e , J u l y 17th,

1936

A g r o u p o f S p a n i a r d s , some o f t h e m soldiers a n d others

c i v i l i a n s , is u n w i l l i n g to s t a n d b y a n d w a t c h t h e t o t a l
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e f a t h e r l a n d . T h e s e m e n rise u p t o d a y
a g a i n s t a g o v e r n m e n t t h a t is t r e a c h e r o u s , i n c o m p e t e n t ,
c r u e l a n d u n j u s t , a n d w h i c h is a b o u t to l e a d o u r c o u n t r y
t o its r u i n .
W e h a v e b e e n s u f f e r i n g five m o n t h s o f i n f a m y . S o m e t h i n g a k i n to a g a n g o f outlaws has seized p o w e r . Since
t h e n , there has not been a m o m e n t ' s peace, n o h o m e has
b e e n r e s p e c t e d , n o j o b s e c u r e , n o life p r o t e c t e d . W h i l e
a b u n c h o f f a n a t i c s i n c a p a b l e o f a n y u s e f u l w o r k keeps
r a n t i n g o n i n t h e C o r t e s , p r i v a t e houses a r e p r o f a n e d b y
t h e p o l i c e ( w h e n t h e y a r e n o t set o n fire b y t h e m o b ) ,
c h u r c h e s are s a c k e d , d e c e n t p e o p l e a r e a r b i t r a r i l y i m p r i s o n e d f o r a n i n d e f i n i t e t i m e ; t h e scales o f t h e l a w a r e
u n e v e n l y w e i g h t e d o n e s t a n d a r d f o r those o f t h e
P o p u l a r F r o n t , a n o t h e r f o r those w h o a r e n o t i n v o l v e d
t h e r e i n ; t h e a r m y , t h e fleet, t h e p o l i c e are u n d e r m i n e d b y
agents o f M o s c o w , s w o r n e n e m i e s o f S p a n i s h c i v i l i z a t i o n ;
a n i n f a m o u s press p o i s o n s t h e p e o p l e ' s consciousness a n d
f o m e n t s a l l t h e l o w e s t passions, f r o m h a t r e d to i n d e c e n c y ;
t h e r e is n o t a v i l l a g e left o r a h o m e w h i c h has n o t b e e n
transformed i n t o a n inferno o f resentments; separatist
m o v e m e n t s a r e e n c o u r a g e d ; h u n g e r is o n t h e i n c r e a s e ;
a n d as t h o u g h s o m e t h i n g w a s s t i l l n e e d e d t o m a k e t h e
s p e c t a c l e r e a c h its m o s t sinister p i t c h , s o m e g o v e r n m e n t
agents h a v e i n M a d r i d m u r d e r e d a d i s t i n g u i s h e d S p a n i a r d *
* T h i s refers to Jos6 C a l v o S o l d o , a Spanish monarchist politician of
considerable gifts who was m u r d e r e d o n J u l y 13th, 1936, by uniformed police.

262

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w h o h a d t r u s t e d i n t h e p r o b i t y a n d t h e o f f i c i a l status o f
those w h o a c c o m p a n i e d h i m . T h e a b j e c t f e r o c i t y o f this
latest d e e d has n o p a r a l l e l i n m o d e r n E u r o p e a n d m a y
be e q u a t e d w i t h t h e m o s t s o m b r e p a g e s o f t h e R u s s i a n
Teheka.
T h a t is w h a t o u r f a t h e r l a n d l o o k s l i k e at this m o m e n t i n
t i m e , just w h e n the w o r l d s i t u a t i o n d e m a n d s that it shall
o n c e a g a i n a c c o m p l i s h its d e s t i n y o f greatness. A f t e r
h a v i n g been eclipsed for centuries, the basic values o f
S p a n i s h c i v i l i z a t i o n are regaining their former authority,
w h i l e other nations, w h i c h h a d p i n n e d their hopes o n a
fiction o f m a t e r i a l progress, see t h e s t e a d y d e c h n e o f t h e i r
star. P a t h s o f g r e a t s p l e n d o u r are o p e n i n g u p before S p a i n ,
t h i s a n c i e n t l a n d o f o u r s w i t h its m i s s i o n a r y a n d m i l i t a r y
z e a l , its r u s t i c a n d s e a f a r i n g v i r t u e s . W h e t h e r w e s h a l l
ever r o a m these p a t h s d e p e n d s o n us S p a n i a r d s a l o n e ,
o n w h e t h e r o r n o t w e l i v e u n i t e d a n d at p e a c e , w i t h o u r
b o d i e s a n d souls s t r a i n e d i n t h e c o m m o n effort o f m a k i n g
our f a t h e r l a n d great, o f b u i l d i n g a great f a t h e r l a n d for a l l ,
n o t j u s t f o r a p r i v i l e g e d f e w , a f a t h e r l a n d t h a t is g r e a t ,
u n i t e d , free, r e s p e c t e d a n d p r o s p e r o u s . S t r u g g l i n g f o r t h e
sake o f o u r f a t h e r l a n d , w e o p e n l y c h a l l e n g e t h i s d a y t h e
h o s t i l e forces w h i c h h o l d i t c a p t i v e . O u r r e b e l l i o n is a n
a c t o f s e r v i c e r e n d e r e d to t h e S p a n i s h cause.
I f i t w e r e o u r i n t e n t i o n to r e p l a c e o n e p a r t y w i t h
another, one t y r a n n y w i t h another, we w o u l d not have
t h e c o u r a g e w h i c h is t h e a t t r i b u t e o f a c l e a r c o n s c i e n c e
to r u n the risk o f this supreme decision. N e i t h e r w o u l d
t h e r e be a m o n g us m e n w e a r i n g t h e g l o r i o u s u n i f o r m s o f
the a r m y , n a v y , the a i r force, the c i v i l g u a r d . T h e y k n o w
v e r y w e l l t h a t t h e i r a r m s m a y n o t be u s e d o n b e h a l f o f a n y
one side, b u t o n l y to safeguard the p e r m a n e n c e o f S p a i n ,
w h i c h is p r e c i s e l y w h a t is a t stake. O u r v i c t o r y w i l l n o t
be t h a t o f a r e a c t i o n a r y c l i q u e , a n d t h e p e o p l e w i l l n o t
lose a n y a d v a n t a g e t h e r e b y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y : o u r s w i l l
be a n a t i o n a l effort w h i c h w i l l s u c c e e d i n r a i s i n g t h e

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p e o p l e ' s s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g t r u l y h o r r i f i c at p r e s e n t i n
some parts o f the c o u n t r y a n d w h i c h w i l l enable t h e m
a l l to share i n the p r i d e o f a great destiny r e g a i n e d .
Workers,
farmers,
intellectuals,
soldiers,
sailors,
g u a r d i a n s o f o u r f a t h e r l a n d : s h a k e oflF y o u r d e s p a i r at t h e
s i g h t o f its c o l l a p s e a n d j o i n us o n t h e r o u t e t o w a r d s a
S p a i n t h a t is o n e , g r e a t a n d free! M a y G o d b e w i t h u s !
Arriba Espana!
JOSE

ANTONIO PRIMO

DE

RIVERA

JOSE ANTONIO'S LAST WILL

AND TESTAMENT
T h e testament o f Jos^ A n t o n i o P r i m o de R i v e r a y Saenz de
H e r e d i a , aged thirty-three, single, l a w y e r b y profession,
b o r n a n d resident i n M a d r i d , son o f M i g u e l a n d C a s i l d a
( m a y t h e y rest i n p e a c e ) , as w r i t t e n a n d e n d o r s e d b y
h i m s e l f i n the P r o v i n c i a l P r i s o n o f A l i c a n t e , this eighteenth
day of November, nineteen h u n d r e d a n d thirty-six.
H a v i n g b e e n c o n d e m n e d to d e a t h y e s t e r d a y , I p r a y t h a t i f
i t pleases G o d n o t t o s p a r e m e . H e m a y m a i n t a i n m e to t h e
e n d i n the decorous c o n f o r m i t y w i t h w h i c h I n o w a w a i t it,
a n d that H e m a y judge m y soul, not i n accordance w i t h
m y deserts, b u t a c c o r d i n g t o H i s i n f i n i t e m e r c y .
I t w o r r i e s m e lest m y w i s h t o e x p l a i n s o m e o f m y a c t i o n s
a t t h i s p o i n t m a y s e e m l i k e v a n i t y a n d excessive a t t a c h m e n t to the things o f this w o r l d ; b u t , o n the other h a n d ,
so m a n y c o m r a d e s h a v e p u t t h e i r t r u s t i n m e t o a d e g r e e
far i n excess o f m y o w n m e r i t s ( s o m e t h i n g I see a l l t o o
c l e a r l y , so t h a t I w r i t e t h i s p h r a s e w i t h t h e greatest
s i m p l i c i t y a n d c o n t r i t e s i n c e r i t y ) , a n d s u c h a countless
n u m b e r o f t h e m have been l e d b y m e to take o n tremend o u s risks a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , t h a t I w o u l d t h i n k i t
inconsiderate ingratitude to depart f r o m t h e m a l l w i t h o u t
any kind of explanation.
T h i s is n o t t h e t i m e t o r e p e a t w h a t I h a v e so o f t e n s a i d
a n d repeated a b o u t w h a t we, the founders o f the F a l a n g e ,
w a n t e d t h e F a l a n g e t o b e . I a m a m a z e d t h a t e v e n after
t h r e e y e a r s t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f o u r f e l l o w c o u n t r y m e n
persist i n j u d g i n g us w i t h o u t h a v i n g b e g u n t o u n d e r s t a n d us, w i t h o u t e v e r e v e n h a v i n g s o u g h t o r a c c e p t e d t h e
least i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t us. I f t h e F a l a n g e d o e s c r y s t a l l i z e
265

266

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DE RIVERA:

SELECTED

WRITINGS

i n t o s o m e t h i n g l a s t i n g , I h o p e t h a t a l l w i l l feel t h e p a i n
o f so m u c h b l o o d s p i l t s i m p l y b e c a u s e w e w e r e d e n i e d a
p a u s e o f serene a t t e n t i o n i n t h e m i d s t o f o n e side's f u r y
a n d t h e o t h e r side's distaste. M a y t h i s b l o o d t h a t h a s
flowed f o r g i v e m y s h a r e o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a n d m a y t h e
c o m r a d e s w h o h a v e g o n e before m e to t h e i r s a c r i f i c e
r e c e i v e m e as t h e last o f t h e i r n u m b e r .
Y e s t e r d a y , for t h e v e r y last t i m e , I e x p l a i n e d to m y
j u d g e s w h a t t h e F a l a n g e r e a l l y is. A s o n so m a n y o t h e r
occasions, I w e n t t h r o u g h a n d q u o t e d f r o m the same o l d
precepts o f o u r f a m i l i a r d o c t r i n e . O n c e a g a i n I n o t i c e d
h o w v e r y m a n y faces w h i c h h a d i n i t i a l l y l o o k e d h o s t i l e
l i t u p w i t h a m a z e m e n t at first a n d t h e n w i t h s y m p a t h y .
O n t h e i r features I t h o u g h t I c o u l d r e a d these w o r d s : T f
o n l y w e h a d k n o w n that this was w h a t it was like, we
w o u l d not n o w be here!' A n d indeed, we w o u l d not have
b e e n t h e r e , a n d I w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n u p before a
p o p u l a r c o u r t , a n d others w o u l d n o t be g e t t i n g k i l l e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e fields o f S p a i n . B u t i t w a s t o o l a t e b y t h e n
to p r e v e n t a n y o f t h i s , a n d I c o u l d d o n o m o r e t h a n r e w a r d
the l o y a l t y a n d courage o f m y dear comrades b y o b t a i n i n g
for t h e m the respectful attention o f their enemies.
T h i s is w h a t I d i d m y best to a c h i e v e , i n s t e a d o f t r y i n g
to g a i n f o r m y s e l f t h e p o s t h u m o u s r e p u t a t i o n o f a h e r o
by some k i n d of glittering gallantry. I d i d not c l a i m 'full
responsibility', neither d i d I abide b y any other variant
o f t h e r o m a n t i c i m a g e . I u s e d i n m y o w n defence a l l t h e
skills o f m y p r o f e s s i o n as a l a w y e r , t o w h i c h I h a v e b e e n
d e e p l y d e v o t e d a n d w h i c h I h a v e f o l l o w e d so a s s i d u o u s l y .
After m y death some commentators m a y b l a m e m y
d e l i b e r a t e a v o i d a n c e o f a l l s w a g g e r . E a c h to his taste.
Personally, a n d though I realize that I a m b y no means
the most i m p o r t a n t actor i n the present d r a m a , I w o u l d
h a v e t h o u g h t i t m o n s t r o u s a n d d i s h o n e s t to g i v e u p
w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t t o d e f e n d i t a life w h i c h c o u l d s t i l l be
o f use a n d w h i c h G o d has n o t g i v e n m e to b u r n u p f o r t h e

LAST WILL AND TESTAMENT

267

sake o f v a n i t y i n a d i s p l a y o f f i r e w o r k s . M o r e o v e r , w h i l e
I w o u l d n e v e r h a v e r e s o r t e d to a n y c u l p a b l e ruse a n d h a v e
n o t c o m p r o m i s e d a n y o n e b y m y defence, I d i d h e l p to
d e f e n d m y sister [i.e. s i s t e r - i n - l a w ] M a r g o t a n d m y
brother M i g u e l , w h o were o n trial together w i t h m e a n d
t h r e a t e n e d w i t h e x c e e d i n g l y severe sentences. B u t i n v i e w
o f t h e fact t h a t t h e o b l i g a t i o n to d e f e n d m a d e i t a d v i s a b l e
n o t o n l y t o be s i l e n t o n c e r t a i n c o u n t s b u t t o m a k e
c e r t a i n allegations, based o n the suspicion that I m a y have
been isolated deliberately i n a p a r t o f the c o u n t r y w h i c h
w a s o n t h a t a c c o u n t m a i n t a i n e d i n s u b m i s s i o n [to t h e
government], I n o w declare that I have no p r o o f o n w h i c h
to f o u n d t h i s s u s p i c i o n a n d t h a t , i f e v e r a l o n g i n g f o r
explanations, aggravated by m y solitude, m a y
have
n o u r i s h e d i t s i n c e r e l y i n m y m i n d , I h o l d n o w , i n t h e face
o f d e a t h , t h a t i t c a n n o t a n d m u s t n o t be s u s t a i n e d .
T h e r e r e m a i n s o n e o t h e r p o i n t to b e r e c t i f i e d . T h e t o t a l
i s o l a t i o n i n w h i c h I h a v e l i v e d since s h o r t l y after t h e events
b e g a n has o n l y b e e n i n t e r r u p t e d b y a n A m e r i c a n j o u r n a l i s t , w h o r e c e i v e d p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e a u t h o r i t i e s h e r e to
ask m e to m a k e s o m e statements at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
O c t o b e r . * U n t i l I w a s i n f o r m e d five o r six d a y s a g o o f t h e
i n d i c t m e n t , I k n e w n o t h i n g o f the statements a t t r i b u t e d
t o m e since I w a s g i v e n n o o p p o r t u n i t y to see e i t h e r t h e
newspapers w h i c h h a d p u b l i s h e d t h e m or a n y others.
R e a d i n g t h e m n o w , I m u s t say t h a t a m o n g the v a r i o u s
p a r a g r a p h s s u p p o s e d to b e m i n e , w h i c h i n t e r p r e t m y
t h i n k i n g w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f a c c u r a c y , t h e r e is o n e I
reject a l t o g e t h e r : t h e o n e w h i c h r e p r o a c h e s m y c o m r a d e s
o f the F a l a n g e w i t h h a v i n g co-operated i n the u p r i s i n g
w i t h 'mercenaries brought f r o m abroad'. I have never
s a i d a n y t h i n g o f t h e sort, a n d t h o u g h I c e r t a i n l y h a d
n o t h i n g to g a i n thereby I m a d e that quite clear i n court
y e s t e r d a y . I a m i n c a p a b l e o f i n s u l t i n g t h e a r m e d forces,
w h i c h h a v e s e r v e d S p a i n so h e r o i c a l l y i n A f r i c a . A n d I
* T h i s was J a y A l l e n .

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WRITINGS

a m equally incapable of
flinging
reproaches at m y
comrades from where I am. T h o u g h I k n o w not whether
t h e y a r e w i s e l y o r w r o n g l y l e d a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , I feel
s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g t h e i r best t o i n t e r p r e t w h a t h a v e
ever been m y w a t c h w o r d s a n d d o c t r i n e , i n spite of the
t o t a l b r e a k d o w n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n us. M a y i t
p l e a s e G o d t h a t t h e i r a r d e n t c a n d o u r w i l l n e v e r be used
t o serve a n y p u r p o s e b u t t h e greatness o f S p a i n , as
p r o c l a i m e d b y the F a l a n g e .
W o u l d m i n e w e r e t h e last S p a n i s h b l o o d s h e d i n c i v i l
strife. I f o n l y t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e , so f u l l o f g o o d a n d
l o v a b l e q u a l i t i e s , c o u l d c o m e to f i n d t h e f a t h e r l a n d , b r e a d
a n d justice i n peace.
I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t t h e r e is a n y t h i n g m o r e I w a n t to say
w i t h r e g a r d to m y p u b l i c l i f e . A s f o r m y i m m i n e n t d e a t h , I
d o n o t w e l c o m e i t , since i t is n e v e r p l e a s a n t to d i e at m y
age, b u t I a w a i t i t w i t h o u t p r o t e s t . M a y O u r L o r d a c c e p t
the elements o f sacrifice i t contains i n insufficient c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r w h a t selfishness a n d v a n i t y t h e r e h a s b e e n i n
m u c h o f m y l i f e . I f o r g i v e w i t h a l l m y h e a r t a l l those,
w i t h o u t exception, w h o m a y have h a r m e d or offended me,
a n d I ask a l l those t o f o r g i v e m e t o w h o m I m a y o w e t h e
r e p a r a t i o n o f s o m e w r o n g , be i t g r e a t o r s m a l l . W h e r e u p o n
I g o o n t o settle m y last w i l l i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

CLAUSES

1. I w i s h to b e b u r i e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e rites o f
t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c A p o s t o l i c r e l i g i o n I profess, i n h o l y
g r o u n d a n d u n d e r the p r o t e c t i o n o f the H o l y Cross.
2. M y h e i r s s h a l l be m y f o u r b r o t h e r s a n d sisters,
M i g u e l , C a r m e n , P i l a r a n d F e r n a n d o P r i m o de R i v e r a y
S a e n z d e H e r e d i a , e a c h r e c e i v i n g a n e q u a l s h a r e w i t h the
r i g h t to distribute a m o n g the survivors the share o f a n y
o n e o f t h e m w h o m i g h t d i e w i t h o u t o f f s p r i n g before m e .
I f there were offspring, the share c o r r e s p o n d i n g to

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269

w h a t e v e r b r o t h e r o r sister m a y h a v e d i e d before m e w o u l d
be distributed to t h e m i n equal parts. T h i s disposition
s h a l l be v a l i d e v e n t h o u g h m y b r o t h e r m a y h a v e d i e d
p r i o r t o t h e w r i t i n g o f this w i l l .
3. I l e a v e n o o t h e r l e g a c y , n o r d o I i m p o s e o n m y h e i r s
a n y o b l i g a t i o n s w h i c h c a n be c l a i m e d i n l a w , b u t I w o u l d
ask t h e m :
(a) T o a t t e n d w i t h w h a t I b e q u e a t h to t h e needs a n d
comfort o f o u r aunt, M a r i a Jesus P r i m o de R i v e r a y
O r b a n e j a , whose m a t e r n a l self-denial a n d affectionate
f o r t i t u d e d u r i n g t h e t w e n t y - s e v e n y e a r s she h a s l i v e d w i t h
us c a n n o t ever be r e p a i d b y us i n treasures o f g r a t i t u d e .
(b) T o g i v e s o m e o f m y p e r s o n a l b e l o n g i n g s as s o u v e n i r s
t o m y c o l l e a g u e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y to R a f a e l G a r c e r a n , A n d r d s
de l a C u e r d a a n d M a n u e l S a r r i o n , w h o over a p e r i o d o f
m a n y years h a v e b e e n so u n f a i l i n g l y l o y a l , efficient a n d
patient i n m y far f r o m easygoing c o m p a n y . I t h a n k t h e m
a n d a l l t h e o t h e r s a n d ask t h e m to r e m e m b e r m e k i n d l y .
(c) T o d i s t r i b u t e s o m e o t h e r p e r s o n a l
belongings
a m o n g s t m y best f r i e n d s , w h o m t h e y k n o w w e l l e n o u g h ,
a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n g s t those w h o h a v e s h a r e d w i t h m e
longest a n d m o s t c l o s e l y t h e j o y s a n d a d v e r s i t i e s o f o u r
S p a n i s h F a l a n g e . A t this m o m e n t t h e y a n d a l l t h e o t h e r
comrades occupy a fraternal place i n m y heart.
(d) T o r e c o m p e n s e those m e m b e r s o f o u r h o u s e h o l d
w h o h a v e b e e n longest i n o u r s e r v i c e , w h o m I t h a n k f o r
their l o y a l t y , a s k i n g their p a r d o n for the t r o u b l e I have
given them.
4. I a p p o i n t as t e s t a m e n t a r y e x e c u t o r s , j o i n t l y a n d w i t h
a l l the usual prerogatives, m y d e a r a n d l i f e l o n g friends
R a i m u n d o Fernandez Cuesta y M o r e l o and R a m o n
S e r r a n o S i i f i e r , w h o m I ask e s p e c i a l l y :
(a) T o g o t h r o u g h m y p r i v a t e p a p e r s a n d
those o f a p u r e l y p e r s o n a l n a t u r e , a l l those
t o m e r e l y l i t e r a r y efforts a n d a l l drafts a n d
a n e a r l y stage o f c o m p l e t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h

destroy a l l
pertaining
projects i n
a n y books

270

PRIMO

DE RIVERA:

SELECTED

WRITINGS

f o r b i d d e n b y the C h u r c h o r otherwise p e r n i c i o u s w h i c h
t h e y m a y find i n m y l i b r a r y .
(b) T o c o l l e c t a l l m y speeches, a r t i c l e s , c i r c u l a r s ,
prefaces o f b o o k s , etc., n o t f o r p u b l i c a t i o n unless t h e y
d e e m i t i n d i s p e n s a b l e b u t f o r use as e v i d e n c e w h e n
this p e r i o d o f S p a n i s h p o l i t i c s , w h e r e i n m y c o m r a d e s a n d
I h a v e p l a y e d a p a r t , s h a l l be d e b a t e d .
(c) T o t a k e i m m e d i a t e c h a r g e , w i t h t h e h e l p o f
G a r c e r a n , S a r r i o n a n d M a t i l l a , o f the p e n d i n g professional
m a t t e r s e n t r u s t e d to m e , a n d to c o l l e c t s o m e fees d u e to m e .
(d) T o t r a n s m i t t h e s o l e m n r e c t i f i c a t i o n s c o n t a i n e d i n
t h i s t e s t a m e n t w i t h t h e greatest p o s s i b l e u r g e n c y a n d
effectiveness to
the
offended
persons
and
entities
m e n t i o n e d i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n thereto.
F o r a l l o f w h i c h I t h a n k t h e m as o f n o w m o s t c o r d i a l l y .
A n d i n t h e p r e s e n t f o r m I l e a v e m y last W i l l a n d T e s t a m e n t , i n A l i c a n t e , the aforementioned eighteenth d a y o f
N o v e m b e r , nineteen h u n d r e d a n d thirty-six, at
five
o ' c l o c k p . m . , o n this a n d three o t h e r sheets, a l l n u m b e r e d ,
d a t e d a n d signed i n the m a r g i n .