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Dear Hydronic Professional,

A Technical Journal
from
Caleffi Hydronic Solutions
CALEFFI NORTH AMERICA, INC
3883 W. Milwaukee Rd
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53208 USA
Tel: 414-238-2360
FAX: 414-238-2366
E-mail: idronics@caleffi.com
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Copyright 2011
Caleffi North America, Inc.
Printed: Milwaukee, Wisconsin USA

Welcome
to the 10th
edition of idronics, Caleffis semi-annual design journal for hydronic
Dear Hydronic
Professional,
professionals.
nd
Welcome to the 2 edition of idronics Caleffis semi-annual design journal for
hydronic
professionals.
The
term Biomass
is often heard these days. It broadly refers to any energy source derived
from recently
living organisms. Common examples include methane from landfill waste,
st
of idronics
was released
January
2007isand
to over
The residues,
1 edition
animal
dried
corn, biodiesel
fuels andinethanol.
Wood
alsodistributed
a biomass, and
a focus
people in
onwidely
the topic
hydraulic
separation.
From
of 80,000
this publication.
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source, it Itisfocused
renewable,
available
(especially
in non-urban
the feedback received, its evident we attained our goal of explaining the benefits
areas), does not require a conversion process to produce (like ethanol for example), and has
and proper application of this modern design technique for hydronic systems.
physical properties compatible to both residential and commercial heating.
If you havent yet received a copy of idronics #1, you can do so by sending in the
Over
the past
30 years,
engineering
wood-fired
heating systems
Thehave
attached
reader
response
card, oradvancements
by registeringinonline
at www.caleffi.us.
ledpublication
to improved
efficiencies
and of
dramatically
reduced
emissions.
a result,
willenergy
be mailed
to you free
charge. You
can also
downloadAs
the
wood
systems
haveas
experienced
renewed
popularity
complete
journal
a PDF file from
our Web
site. in North America. Coupled with
increased public environmental awareness, wood-fired boilers and furnaces have the
potential
for significant
growth in the
This second
edition addresses
aircoming
and dirtyears.
in hydronic systems. Though not a new
topic to our industry, the use of modern high-efficiency equipment demands a
understanding
of the
harmful
effects of
dirt,systems
as well as
knowledge
A thorough
key enabler
for widespread
adaption,
however,
is air
thatand
wood
must
reliably
on how
to eliminate
Doing
helps ensure
systems
you design
will best
deliver
heat
when andthem.
where
it isso
needed
within the
a facility.
Hydronics
is the
operate
at
peak
efficiency
and
provide
long
trouble-free
service.
technology available for accomplishing this. In this issue, we explain how to leverage
state-of-the-art hydronics technology with todays various wood-burning devices to
We trust
you willcomfort,
find thisefficiency,
issue of idronics
a useful
educational tool and a handy
provide
maximum
safety and
convenience.
reference for your future hydronic system designs. We also encourage you to send
us feedback on this issue of idronics using the attached reader response card or by
We encourage you to send us feedback on this issue of idronics by e-mailing us at
e-mailing us at idronics@caleffi.com.
idronics@caleffi.com.

If you
are interested in previous editions of idronics, please go to www.caleffi.us where they
Sincerely,
can be freely downloaded. You can also register online to receive future hard copy issues.
Mark Olson
General Manager,
Caleffi North America, Inc.
Mark Olson
General Manager & CEO

INDEX
3 INTRODUCTION
Brief History of Wood Burning and Hydronics
5 WOOD AS A HEATING FUEL
Energy Contained in Wood
Processed Wood Fuel
Creosote
9

WOOD-FIRED HYDRONIC HEAT SOURCES

Outdoor Wood-Fired Furnaces
Wood-Fired Boilers
Wood-Gasification Boilers
Pellet-Fired Boilers

13

HEAT EMITTERS FOR WOOD-FIRED SYSTEMS

Heated Floor Slabs
Heated Thin-Slabs
Other Site-Built Radiant Panels
Panel Radiators
Low-Temperature Fin-Tube Baseboard
Cast Iron Radiators

18

SYSTEMS USING OUTDOOR WOOD-FIRED FURNACES

Open-Loop Considerations
Hybrid Open/Closed Systems
Other Design Considerations
Using an Auxiliary Boiler with an Outdoor Wood-Fired Furnace
Freeze Protection Options

24

DESIGN DETAILS FOR WOOD-FIRED BOILER SYSTEMS

Protecting Against Corrosion
Protection Against Sustained Flue Gas Condensation
Combining a Wood-Fired Boiler with an Auxiliary Boiler
Buffer Tanks
Unpressurized Buffer Tanks
Pressurized Buffer Tanks
Buffer Tank Sizing

36

EXAMPLES OF WOOD-FIRED BOILER SYSTEMS

System 1: Heating Only with Extensive Zoning
System 2: Heating & Domestic Hot Water with Extensive Zoning
System 3: Heating & Domestic Hot Water with Large Buffer Tank
System 4: Heating & Domestic Hot Water with Solar
Supplemental Heating
System 5: Heating & Domestic Hot Water with Geo Heat Pump
Supplemental Heating
System 6: Pellet-Fired Boiler Supplying Heating and Domestic
Hot Water
System 7: Pellet-Fired Boiler Supplying Heating and Domestic
Hot Water with Extensive Zoning
System 8: Wood-Fired Boiler Auxiliary Furnace

45 SUMMARY
46 Appendix A: Piping Symbol Legend
47 Appendix B: Expansion Tank Sizing for Closed-Loop Systems

Disclaimer:Caleffi makes no warranty that theinformation presented inidronicsmeetsthe mechanical, electricalor other code requirements applicable within a
given jurisdiction. The diagrams presented inidronicsare conceptual, and do not represent complete schematics for any specific installation.Local codes may
requiredifferences in design, or safety devices relative to those shownin idronics.It is the responsibility of those adapting any information presented in idronics to
verify that such adaptations meet orexceed local code requirements.

10%

Cert no. XXX-XXX-XXXX

HYDRONICS FOR WOOD-FIRED HEAT SOURCES

1. INTRODUCTION
Humans have used wood as a heating fuel for centuries.
Its availability, or scarcity, has shaped the development of
civilization from its earliest origins. Until the development
of methods for extracting and transporting fossils fuels
and electricity, wood was the staple for heating American
homes, as well as those in other parts of the world.
During this time, nearly all North American homes were
constructed with one or more wood-burning fireplaces or
stoves. Many had woodsheds attached to or located
close by, which were filled and emptied on an annual
basis. Harvesting wood for fuel was a common as
harvesting crops for food.
The history of civilization, dating back to ancient
Greece, shows a recurring pattern of humans using the
most available and easily attained fuel. In many cases,
that fuel was wood. When depletion of the local wood
supply reached a point where convenience, cost or
transportation logistics precluded further exploitation,
attention turned to other fuel sources such as direct
use of solar energy. This is not surprising, but rather
a logical response to an immediate and inescapable
realitythe need to maintain life under ambient
conditions that would otherwise quickly extinguish
human existence.
As interstate transportation systems were developed
for petroleum and natural gas, wood was increasingly
viewed as an antiquated heating fuel. This perception
was further reinforced by the fact that oil, gas and
electrical heat sources provided automatic operation,
freeing occupants to pursue other activities rather than
tending to wood-fired heating devices. To many people,
home heating became as simple as turning a thermostat
dial to the desired temperature and paying a monthly
fuel bill. This convenience obviously appealed to those
who had spent years cutting, splitting and carrying
firewood. Petroleum companies and utilities focused their
marketing on persuading homeowners to modernize to
fully automatic heating using oil, gas and electricity. At the
time there was virtually no concern about the long-term
sustainability or ecological consequences associated
with heating buildings.

Figure 1-1

Civilization has reached a

point where the worldwide
effects of energy options are
better understood, rapidly
communicated and more
accurately extrapolated into the
future. Looking beyond political
or organizational agendas, it
seems obvious that increasing
population imposes tightening
constraints that must be
respected if quality of life is
to be maintained or improved.
One of the most pressing of
those constraints is establishing
sustainable energy supplies.

This led to renewed interest in wood as a heating fuel. The

fact that wood is carbon neutral (i.e., its use as fuel only
releases the carbon that was embodied into the wood as
it was produced through photosynthesis) is a benefit that
is now viewed as highly desirable. This along with modern
technologies that can convert the chemical energy stored
in wood into thermal energy with efficiencies of 90+
percent have sparked worldwide interest in wood as a
rediscovered fuel for central heating.
This issue of idronics was written to show heating
professionals how to leverage modern hydronics to enhance
the performance of wood-fueled heat sources. It examines
devices that use cordwood as well as wood pellets. It
also presents system schematics that allow wood-fired
heat sources to be combined with other devices that can
augment the energy derived from the wood.
The ability to efficiently and reliably deliver heat precisely
when and where it is needed within a building remains a
prerequisite to broad acceptance of wood as a heating
fuel. Hydronics is the premier technology for doing this.

BRIEF HISTORY OF WOOD BURNING

AND HYDRONICS
Early attempts at combining wood-burning devices with
hydronic distribution systems produced mixed results.
In response to the oil embargo of the early 70s, early

hydronic-based wood-burning devices were developed

with little if any engineering or testing. Instead they could
be described as rudimentary heat exchangers attached
to or placed within fireplaces or wood stoves. The
fireplace grate seen in Figure 1-2 is an example.
Figure 1-2

with a continuously maintained fire and transfer heat

into a water-filled compartment that surrounds the
combustion chamber. The heated water is circulated
through underground piping to a heat exchanger inside
the building. The large combustion chamber can hold
enough wood to sustain the fire for several hours.
The current state-of-the art in wood-fired combustion is
wood gasification. This describes the process of heating
wood in the absence of sufficient oxygen for combustion.
The pyrolytic gases emitted by the wood under these
conditions contain chemical energy that can be efficiently
extracted through controlled combustion in oxygen-rich
environments. An example of a modern wood-gasification
boiler is shown in Figure 1-4.
Figure 1-4

Source: Mother Earth News

The combustion efficiency and heat transfer ability of

these devices was often limited by existing material
or shape constraints, and they degraded rapidly due
to formation of creosote or accumulation of ash. Such
devices appealed to those looking for quick solutions,
but at the same time being unaware of the principals
necessary for efficient combustion, good heat transfer or
product longevity. The lackluster performance of some
early devices combined with safety issues discouraged
further expansion of the market.
During the 70s, several wood stove manufacturers
added interior water-filled heat exchange grates to
their products. As with fireplaces, these devices
were developed as add-on options and were usually
constrained by the proportions of the stove. They
also experienced performance issues associated with
creosote and ash accumulation.
Figure 1-3

Another
wood-burning
product that developed in
North America over the last
three decades is known
as an outdoor woodburning furnace. Such
devices resemble a small,
steel storage building,
as shown in Figure 1-3.
They are usually located
several yards away from
the building(s) to which
they supply heat. During
cold weather, they operate

Courtesy of Dunkirk Metal Products

Wood gasification dates back to the 1920s. Early gasifiers

were used to generate synthetic gases along with lesser
amounts of carbon dioxide and hydrogen. This gas was
then used to operate stationary internal combustion
engines, and occasionally even to power automobiles.
Figure 1-5 shows the secondary combustion chamber
of a modern wood gasification boiler. The flame in
this chamber can be likened to that of a blow torch.
Combustion temperatures over 2000F can be achieved.
The result is a highly efficient conversion from chemical

to thermal energy and minimal formation of ash. Modern

wood gasification boilers also provide better control
of heat output relative to non-gasification combustion
devices. Later sections of this manual show how to
leverage this high efficiency using modern hydronics
technology.
Figure 1-5

In many locations, wood is an indigenous energy source.

It seldom requires interstate transportation as do other
energy sources. Its use as a fuel usually keeps dollars in
the local economy. Its use also reduces dependency on
foreign energy suppliers and thus adds to national and
economic security.

ENERGY CONTAINED IN WOOD

One of the most important measures of any fuel is
the chemical energy contained within a given mass or
volume. The BTU content of several common energy
sources used for heating residential and light commercial
buildings is a follows:

Courtesy of Dunkirk Metal Products

2. WOOD AS A HEATING FUEL

Wood is one form of biomass. With proper forestry practices,
it is a fully renewable energy source. In some regions, there
is even an excess of non-lumber grade wood accumulating
in forests. Harvesting this wood for fuel reduces the risk
of forest fires and improves forest health. Wood is also
considered a carbon neutral energy source. Burning it
only releases the carbon that accumulated as the wood
grew. Wood also has very low sulfur content. Its combustion
does not contribute to atmospheric accumulation of sulfur
oxides, a cause of acid rain.
Figure 2-1

#2 fuel oil: 138,500 Btu/gallon

Waste oil: 125,000 Btu/gallon
Natural gas: about 1030 Btu/ cubic foot
Propane: 92,500 Btu per gallon
Electricity: 3413 Btu/ kilowatt-hour
Hard coal (anthracite): 26,000,000 Btu/ton

The fuel energy contained in oven-dried mature wood is

approximately 7950 Btu per pound. This value is based
on weight rather than volume, and is valid for both
hardwoods and softwoods. The latter are less dense,
and thus a given volume of softwood contains less fuel
energy than an equal volume of hardwood.
The fuel energy of 7950 Btu/lb is only attainable in wood
that has been oven dried to zero moisture content. The
lower heating value of wood with other moisture contents
can be approximated by the Formula 2-1.
Formula 2-1:
Where:
LHV = Lower heating value (Btu/lb)*
w = moisture content (%)
*Lower heating value does not include the latent heat
associated with water vapor produced as the wood is
burned.
Thus, wood with 20% moisture content, typical of
firewood thats been keep under cover and air dried for
at least nine months, is approximately:

The greater the moisture content, the lower the available

heat. This is a result of having to evaporate moisture during
the combustion process. Evaporating water requires a

substantial amount of energy (970 Btu/lb).

That energy comes from combustion of
the wood, and as such, is not available for
heating other materials. Thus, to attain the
greatest fuel value, all wood should be as
dry as possible. Freshly cut green wood
can contain 70% to 100% more moisture
than properly dried, seasoned firewood.
The moisture content for wood that has
been air dried under cover for at least nine
months ranges from 20% to 25%.

Figure 2-3

In North America, firewood is typically

sold by volume. Two common units are used:
Full cord: refers to a volume of neatly stacked, split
wood that measures 4 feet high by 8 feet long by 4 feet
deep.
Face cord: Refers to a volume of neatly stacked, split
wood that measures 4 feet high by 8 feet long by 16
inches deep.
Neither of these definitions is precise in the sense
that repeatedly stacking the same firewood will always
produce slightly different overall stack dimensions. Still,
these units have been used in the North American
firewood industry so long that some people refer to
firewood as cordwood.

* 1 MMBtu = 1,000,000 Btu

PROCESSED WOOD FUEL

Although firewood is the most recognized form of wood
fuel, advances in wood processing have made other
forms of wood fuel more readily available over the last
two decades. New methods for transporting and burning
processed wood fuel have been developed.
One of the newest forms of processed wood fuel is wood
pellets. They can be burned in a wide variety of devices
including stoves, furnaces and boilers.
Figure 2-4

Although the fuel value of a pound of hardwood versus

a pound of softwood having the same moisture content
is approximately equal, the density of various woods
will significantly affect the energy contained in the same
volume (e.g., full cord or face cord). Figure 2-3 lists the
approximate lower heating value contained in a full cord
of several different species of wood, all with an assumed
20% moisture content.
Figure 2-2

Wood pellets are produced from wood chips and/or

sawdust. The chips are shredded into small fibers, dried
to approximately 10% moisture content and then forced
through an extrusion device under very high (60,000 psi)
pressure. This extreme pressure forces the natural resins
within the wood cells to act as a bonding agent for the
fibers. No other bonding agents are required. The extruded
cylinders of compressed and bonded wood fiber with a
nominal 1/4-inch diameter randomly break into small pieces
(e.g., pellets) as they exit the extrusion machine.

After manufacturing, pellets are easily handled by

pneumatic and auger transport systems. They can
be stored and transported by equipment similar to
that used for pelletized animal feeds. As such they
lend themselves to existing infrastructures for mass
production and transportation.

Figure 2-6

One of the biggest advantages of pellet-fired boilers

is that the combustion process can be turned on and
off, as well as modulated when necessary. This allows
the output of a pellet-fired boiler to better match the
heating needs of a building without need of a larger
thermal storage tank. High-quality wood pellets also
reduce particulate emissions relative to firewood.
Another recently developed form of processed wood
fuel is known as briquettes, as seen in Figure 2-5.

Source: Wikipedia.org

Figure 2-7

Figure 2-5

These briquettes are

made of shredded
and dried wood fiber
similar to that used
for pellets. The fiber
is compressed under
very high pressure
sufficient to force the
natural resins within
the wood cells to bond
Source: BioPellet LLC
the fibers together.
No other bonding additives are needed. The resulting
briquettes are very hard and dense. One pound of
compressed wood fiber in a briquette has a fuel value
equivalent to 1.7 pounds of firewood. Wood briquettes
are also very clean relative to standard firewood, and
thus appeal to those who dont want the dirt and dust
associated with handling conventional firewood inside
a home.

Figure 2-8

Wood briquettes can be efficiently transported on

tightly packed pallets and must be stored away from
sources of moisture. They are manually fed to the
wood-burning heat source.
Wood chips are another form of processed wood
fuel. They are made by grinding pieces of wood or
non-lumber-grade cull logs into small flat pieces,
as shown in Figures 2-6 and 2-7. Most wood chips
are not kiln dried, and as such, contain significantly
more moisture (40% to 50% moisture) compared to
wood pellets (10% moisture). Unlike the more uniform
consistency of pellets, wood chips can vary widely in
size. Because of how they are made, wood chips are
often mixed with twigs and sawdust. They are not as
easily conveyed by rotating augers as wood pellets. In

Source: Biomasscenter.org

Figure 2-9
Creosote accumulation is extremely
dangerous. Because its formed from
unburned hydrocarbons, creosote has
considerable fuel value. If sufficiently
reheated by other combustion products
or flames, that fuel value can quickly
reappear as a chimney fire. Such fires can
create extremely powerful convective air
flow within the chimney that only further
increases the fires intensity. Some chimney
fires can destroy the chimneys integrity
within minutes, and then quickly spread to
the building structure. They obviously must
be avoided, and such avoidance starts with
not creating conditions that form creosote.
larger installations, wood chips are moved from a storage
pile using a front-end loader and fed to the boiler by a
conveyor belt (see Figure 2-7). At present, most wood
chip boilers are designed for larger commercial or
institutional buildings where the cost and logistics of chip
storage and handling are justified in relationship to the
energy produced.

One of the best ways to minimize creosote formation and

boost efficiency is to burn seasoned firewood as hot as
possible. Doing so usually involves forced air flow into
the combustion chamber. The heat produced under such
operating conditions is often far more than is required
to heat the building. In a properly designed hydronic
system, this heat can be stored for later use.

The energy content of wood that has been processed

into pellets, chips or sawdust is typically expressed as
MMBtu/ton. One MMBtu = 1,000,000 Btu. Typical values
are given in figure 2-9:

Creosote formation within a wood-fired boiler can also

be reduced by maintaining a minimum inlet water
temperature to the boiler. This allows the surfaces of
the water-cooled heat exchanger to remain above the
temperature at which pyrolitic gases condense into
creosote. The details discussed and schematics shown
in later sections provide proper boiler protection.

Like any fuel, the lower heating value only indicates the
theoretical energy yield if that fuel could be combusted
and transferred to some other media at 100% efficiency.
The actual heat delivered to a heating distribution system
by a wood-fired heat source is highly dependent on the
wood used for fuel (primarily its moisture content), as well
as how the combustion process is managed. Efficiencies
can range from as high as 92% in a wood gasification
boiler burning seasoned wood, to as low as 20% in a
device with oxygen-starved combustion burning highmoisture wood. Conditions that increase the temperature
of the combustion process also increase the efficiency of
a wood-fired heat source.

CREOSOTE
When wood is sufficiently heated, it gives off pyrolytic
gases. Given high enough temperatures and sufficient
oxygen, these gases combust to produce heat. However,
if the temperature in the combustion chamber is too low,
or the combustion zone is starved for oxygen, a significant
portion of the pyrolytic gases will not combust. Instead,
they pass into the chimney, cool and condense into a
sticky, tar-like substance called creosote that accumulates
in layers against the chimney walls, as seen in figure 2-10.

Figure 2-10

3. WOOD-FIRED HYDRONIC HEAT SOURCES

This section provides an overview of several types of
wood-fired hydronic heat sources. They range from
outdoor wood-fired furnaces to sophisticated pelletfired boilers. A summary discussion of the operating
characteristics of these heat sources helps designers
make decisions on how best to integrate them with the
balance of the system.

OUTDOOR WOOD-FIRED FURNACES

One approach to heating with wood keeps both the
firewood and the fire outside the buildings being heated.
This can be done using an outdoor wood-fired furnace.
This approach has the following benefits:
It is inherently safer since the fire and fuel are not inside
the building.

Most outdoor wood-fired furnaces are unpressurized

devices in which a water-filled compartment surrounding
the combustion chamber is vented to the atmosphere, as
shown in Figure 3-1. As such, these devices cannot be
classified as boilers.
Most outdoor wood-fired furnaces have thermostatically
controlled blowers and air dampers that provide some
control over heat output. Their fireboxes can hold a large
charge of wood. Thus, they typically only need to be
refueled one or two times in a 24-hour period, depending
on the heating load. On larger units, the water compartment
may hold several hundred gallons. This gives the unit
considerable thermal mass that can often supply heat to the
building for several hours after the fire has subsided.
Figure 3-2

The dirt, smell and insects associated with bringing

firewood inside are eliminated.
Placement of relatively large and heavy heat sources is
simpler outside than inside.
Very little interior space is required for this approach.
Figure 3-1

chimney
vent to atmosphere
water!
compartment

loading!
door
ash!
door

!
rebox

insulated!
shell
!
circulator
!
concrete
base

insulated underground piping

Freeze protection is usually accomplished by continuously

circulating water between the outdoor furnace and
the building it serves. This approach assumes that
electrical energy is available to operate the circulator,
and that sufficient heat from within the building can be
transferred to the circulating water as it passes though
the interior portion of the system. Some designers
consider this a risky approach, especially in cold winter
climates. Antifreeze could be used, but the large water
compartment makes this an expensive option.
The thermal efficiency of outdoor wood-fired furnaces
is significantly lower than other wood-burning heat
sources. The efficiency of a given unit depends on how
it is operated, but average efficiencies in the range
of 35% to 50% are typical. The use of cold firewood
with moisture content greater than 20% will decrease
efficiency and increase creosote formation.
Some municipalities have enacted laws that significantly
restrict or even ban the use of outdoor wood-fired
furnaces. The primary concern is avoiding smoke plumes
that, under certain conditions, do not rise sufficiently
above the low chimneys often used with these devices,
as seen in Figure 3-2.

Although outdoor wood-fired furnaces do not represent

state-of-the-art wood combustion technology, there are
tens of thousands of them in use in North America, and
they remain available in many locations. Later sections
of this issue show how outdoor furnaces can be used
in combination with pressurized hydronic distribution
systems.

WOOD-FIRED BOILERS
Another category of wood-fired heat sources is woodfired boilers. Unlike outdoor furnaces, these boilers have
pressure-rated water compartments and are designed to
operate in closed-loop pressurized systems, much like
oil- or gas-fired boilers.
Some wood-fired boilers are designed to draw air from
the space around them using only the draft created by
their chimney. These so-called atmospheric wood-fired
boilers are typically constructed with cast iron sections.
An example of such a boiler is shown in Figure 3-3.

This boiler uses wet-base cast iron sections that

surround the combustion chamber. Wood is loaded in the
upper chamber, and ash is periodically removed from the
bottom of this chamber through the lower door.
The lower door also has a hinged damper plate that
controls the flow of air into the combustion chamber,
as seen in Figure 3-4. The position of this damper
is regulated by a non-electric thermostatic regulator
that senses boiler water temperature. As the water
temperature near the top of the boiler decreases below
its setpoint, the thermostatic regulator lifts a light
chain that opens the air damper to increase the rate of
combustion. The thermostatic regulator can be adjusted
over a range of temperature.

Figure 3-4

thermostatic!
regulator

air
damper

chain

Low-hanging smoke can drift toward buildings, move

over neighboring properties or drift across roads, causing
pollution as well as safety issues. In some cases, it
is necessary to install a tall chimney adjacent to the
outdoor furnace to lift smoke to a height where it will not
impact adjacent buildings. Due to such concerns and
requirements, outdoor wood-fired furnaces are obviously
more practical in rural locations.

Figure 3-3

combustion!
air

WOOD-GASIFICATION BOILERS
The current state-of-the-art technology for wood-fired
boilers is wood gasification. A typical wood gasification
boiler is shown in Figure 3-5.
These boilers are started much like an atmospheric wood
boiler, using kindling and smaller pieces of firewood
in the boilers upper chamber with an upward draft.
However, once the fire in the upper chamber is stable, the
firebox is loaded to capacity, the upper damper is closed
and a blower turns on to redirect the pyrolitic gases being
emitted by the heated wood in a downward direction, as
shown in Figure 3-6.

Courtesy of QHT, Inc.

10

These gases pass through a slot in a ceramic grate at the

base of the combustion chamber. Air, pressurized by the
blower, is also forced through holes in the side of this slot and

Figure 3-5
Figure 3-7

Courtesy of New Horizons Corporation

Figure 3-6

retubes w/ turbulators
damper !
(closed during gasication)
blower

primary
air

ceramic!
grates

Courtesy of New Horizon Corp.

The solution is to include a well-insulated buffer tank in

any system using a wood-gasification boiler. This tank
absorbs any heat output that exceeds the current load.
When necessary, it can also release heat to the load at
rates significantly greater than the current output from
the boiler. Options for such tanks will be discussed in
later sections.

PELLET-FIRED BOILERS

secondary air

mixes with the hot gases. The resulting combustion is

intense, often reaching temperatures over 2000F and
having the appearance of a blow torch, as seen in Figure
3-7. This form of combustion results in very little residue.
The variable-speed blower in a wood gasification boiler
regulates the rate of combustion based on the water
temperature in the boiler. As the water temperature
approaches a set upper limit, the blowers speed is reduced.
The highest combustion efficiency is achieved by burning
a full load of wood at the maximum possible rate. This
usually results in heat being produced at a rate greater
than that required by the load. This mismatch is a common
characteristic of wood-fired heating systems. It is further
exacerbated by zoned hydronic distribution systems.

Because of the size and handling methods for fuel,

pellet-fueled boilers are very different from boilers that
burn firewood. Most have two major subassemblies: One
consisting of a hopper and auger system to automatically
feed pellets into the burn pot, and the other consisting
of a combustion chamber, fire-tube heat exchanger and
ash management hardware. A cut-away of a modern
pellet-fueled boiler appropriate for residential or light
commercial hydronic systems is shown in Figure 3-8.
The day-hopper seen on the right side of Figure 3-8
can hold enough pellets for several hours of unattended
operation. The hopper can be manually loaded by
pouring in two or three 40-pound bags of pellets, or it can
be automatically loaded with pellets from a bulk storage
device. Such devices include bag silos, underground
storage tanks and bins, as shown in Figure 3-9.
Bulk storage systems for pellets use combinations of
motor-operated augers and pneumatic tubing systems
to move pellets from bulk storage to the day-hopper. The
air pressure differential needed to move pellets through
pneumatic tubing is created by a blower in the day-hopper.

11

Figure 3-8

pellet transport!
suction blower
vent connector
day hopper

controls
exhaust blower

pellet queue

water!
compartment
ue gas tubes!
w/ rotating
cleaning assembly

slider gate
auger drive

burn pot

ignition!
assembly

ash drawer
Courtesy of Tarm Biomass.

Bulk supply systems are periodically filled from a delivery

truck and allow a pellet-fueled boiler to operate unattended
for weeks. The only manual intervention is occasional
removal of fly ash from the lower compartment on the
boiler. The ash produced by high-quality premium wood
pellets is less than 1%of the pellets original volume. Ash is
typically removed from the boiler every two to four weeks
depending on usage and the quality of pellets burned.
Figure 3-9

Unlike boilers that burn firewood, pellet boilers can

automatically start when there is a demand for heat. The
startup process begins when a motorized auger loads a
quantity of pellets into the burn pot. They are then ignited
using superheated air or a ceramic heating element.
Once started, the combustion process is regulated using
oxygen-sensing devices in the combustion stream to
control a variable-speed combustion air blower speed.
This technology minimizes excess air and can yield
combustion efficiencies of 90% or more.
Modern pellet-fueled boilers can also modulate heat
output over a limited range. However, a buffer tank is
still recommended, especially if the hydronic distribution
system supplied by the boiler is extensively zoned.
The exhaust gases from pellet boilers contain water
vapor. Such boilers should only be vented through
stainless steel or other approved piping. Always follow
the boiler manufacturers instructions for venting and
combustion air requirements.

Courtesy of Tarm Biomass.

12

4. HEAT EMITTERS FOR WOOD-FIRED SYSTEMS

Hydronic distribution systems that operate with low
water temperatures are preferred in wood-fired boiler
systems, especially those systems with high water
content. The lower the temperature at which distribution
systems can deliver heat, the longer the wood-fired
boiler and its associated thermal storage can supply
heat before refueling. Lower water temperatures also
allow for smaller buffer tank volumes since they extend
the lower end of the temperature cycling range. Finally,
low water temperatures increase the thermal efficiency
of supplemental or auxiliary heat sources such as
solar thermal collectors, heat pumps or modulating/
condensing boilers.
Space-heating distribution systems that provide design
(i.e., maximum) heating load output using supply water
temperatures no higher than 120F are suggested as a
reasonable design criteria.
Distribution systems that supply each heat emitter using
parallel piping branches rather than series configurations
are also preferred because they provide the same supply
water temperature to each heat emitter.
Examples of space-heating systems
that allow wood-fired hydronic heat
sources to provide good performance
include:

Heated floor slabs with

low-resistance coverings
Heated thin-slabs over framed floors
with low-resistance coverings
Heated walls or ceilings
Generously sized panel radiator
systems with parallel piping
High output fin-tube baseboard

Figure 4-1

details are imperative in achieving good low-temperature

performance.
The graph in Figure 4-2 shows upward heat output from
a heated slab based on tube spacing of 6 inches and 12
inches, and for finish floor resistances ranging from 0 to
2.0 (Fhrft2/Btu). The steeper the line, the lower the water
temperature required for a specific rate of heat delivery.
For example, achieving an upward heat output of 20 Btu/
hr/ft2 from a slab with no covering (e.g., Rff = 0) and 6-inch
tube spacing requires the driving T (e.g., the difference
between average water temperature in tubing and room
air temperature) to be 17.5F. Thus, in a room maintained
at 70F, the average water temperature in the circuit needs
to be 87.5F. The supply water temperature to the circuit
would likely be in the range of 9598F. This is a relatively
low supply water temperature, and should allow buffer
tanks associated with wood-fired or pellet-fired boilers to
supply heat for longer periods without refueling.
For comparison, consider supplying the same 20 Btu/hr/
ft2 load using a heated floor slab with 12-inch tube spacing
and a finish floor resistance of 1.0Fhrft2/Btu. The

edge insulation
underslab insulation
steel reinforcing
concrete slab
embedded tubing
nish ooring

polyethylene vapor barrier

Each of these will be presented in

more detail.

compacted soil

HEATED FLOOR SLABS

Heated floor slabs with relatively close
tube spacing and low finish floor
resistances are generally well suited
for use with wood-fired heat sources.
Figure 4-1 shows an appropriate
cross section. Notice that the tubing
has been placed at approximately
mid-depth within the slab, and that
the underside and edge of the slab
are well insulated. Both of these

foundation

13

Figure 4-2

Figure 4-3

Upward heat output !

vs.!
Driving T!
for 4" concrete slab

upward heat ux!

(Btu/hr/ft2)

6-inch tube spacing

12-inch tube spacing
Rff=0

60

Rff=0.5
Rff=1.0

40

Rff=1.5
Rff=2.0

20
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Driving T (Tw-Tr) (F)!
Average water temp. - room air temp

Rff = resistance of nish ooring (F/hr/ft^2/Btu)

driving T must now be 42.5F. The average circuit water

temperature required to maintain a room temperature
of 70F would be 70 + 42.5 = 112.5F, and the supply
temperature would be likely in the range of 120123F.
This higher temperature could be produced by woodfired boilers, but would limit the lower temperature of the
buffer tank, and thus require more frequent refueling.
The following guidelines are suggested in applications
where a heated floor slab will be used to deliver heat
derived from a wood-fired hydronic heat source:
Tube spacing within the slab should not exceed 12
inches.
Slab should have minimum of R-10 underside and edge
insulation.
Tubing should be placed at approximately half the slab
depth below the surface, as shown in Figure 4-2. Doing
so decreases the required water temperature required for
a given rate of heat output. Lower water temperatures
improve heat source performance.
Bare, painted or stained slab surfaces are ideal because
the finish floor resistance is essentially zero.
Other floor finishes should have a total R-value of 1.0
or less.

HEATED THIN-SLABS
Another common method of installing floor heating uses a
thin slab (1-1/2-inch to 2-inch thickness) poured over a
wooden floor deck. Figure 4-3 shows an example of such
an installation, awaiting placement of the slab material.

14

Courtesy of Harvey Youker

Because the slab is thinner than with slab-on-grade floors,

it has slightly lower lateral heat dispersal characteristics.
This translates into a slightly higher water temperature
requirement for a given rate of heat output relative to that
required for a slab-on-grade. This difference is slight.
A 1-1/2-inch-thick concrete thin slab with 12-inch tube
spacing and covered with a finish flooring resistance of
0.5Fhrft2/Btu yields about 8% less heat output than
a 4-inch-thick slab with the same tube spacing and
finishing flooring. This can be easily compensated for by
using 9-inch rather than 12-inch tube spacing.
The following guidelines are suggested:
Tube spacing within the thin slab should not exceed 9
inches.
Slab should have minimum of R-19 underside insulation.
Floor finishes should have a total R-value of 1.0 or less.
Never use lightweight concrete for heated thin slabs.

OTHER SITE-BUILT RADIANT PANELS

Radiant panels can be integrated into walls and ceilings
as well as floors. Several of these configurations may
be suitable for use with wood-fired hydronics systems.
The key is ensuring that the radiant panel can deliver
design load output while operating at a relatively low
water temperature. This helps ensure the thermal storage
associated with the wood-fired boiler can be discharged
to the lowest possible temperature before the boiler must
be refueled.
This criterion favors radiant panels that have high surface
areas relative to the rate of heat delivery. It also favors
panels that have relatively low internal resistance between
the tubing and the surface area releasing heat to the
room.

Figure 4-4
7/16" oriented strand board

cross section

3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate insulation

wooden nailer (@ end of wall)

2.5" drywall screws

6"x24" aluminum heat transfer plates

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX tubing
1/2" drywall

berglass insulation

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX tubing (8-inch spacing)

6" x 24" aluminum heat transfer plates

3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate foam strips

7/16" oriented strand board

Figure 4-5

top side insulation

ceiling framing

tube
7/16" oriented strand board
aluminum heat transfer plate
3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate foam strips

1/2" drywall

One example is a radiant wall panel constructed

as shown in Figure 4-4.
When finished, this radiant wall is
indistinguishable from a standard interior wall.
Its low thermal mass allows it to respond quickly
to changing internal load conditions or zone
setback schedules. The rate of heat emission
to the room is approximately 0.8 Btu/hr/ft2
for each degree Fahrenheit the average water
temperature in the tubing exceeds room air
temperature. Thus, if the wall operates with an
average water temperature of 110F in a room
with 70F air temperature, each square foot of
wall would release about 0.8 x (110 - 70) = 32
Btu/hr/ft2. This performance makes it well suited
for use with wood-fired hydronic heat sources.
Another possibility is a radiant ceiling using the
same type of construction as the radiant wall,
as shown in Figure 4-5.

thermal image of ceiling in operation

As with the radiant wall, this radiant ceiling

has low thermal mass and responds quickly to
interior temperature changes. Heated ceilings

15

For the construction shown in Figure 4-5, the rate of

heat emission is approximately 0.71 Btu/hr/ft2 for each
degree Fahrenheit the average water temperature in
the tubing exceeds room air temperature. Thus, if the
ceiling operated with an average water temperature of
110F in a room with 70F air temperature, each square
foot of wall would release about 0.71 x (110 - 70) =
28.4 Btu/hr/ft2. This performance makes the radiant
ceiling well suited for use with a wood-fired hydronic
heat source.

Figure 4-6

PANEL RADIATORS
Generously sized panel radiators can also provide good
performance when used as part of a wood-fired or pelletfired hydronic system. Again, the suggested guideline is
to size panels so they can deliver design space-heating
output using a supply water temperature no higher
than 120F. An example of a panel radiator with integral
thermostatic radiator valve is shown in Figure 4-6.

also have the advantage of not being covered or blocked

by coverings or furniture, and thus are likely to retain
good performance over the life of the building.

Figure 4-7

TRV

TRV

Manufacturers provide output ratings for their panel

radiators in either tabular or graphical form. In many cases,
reference heat output ratings for a given size panel are
stated along with corresponding water temperature and
room air temperatures. Correction factors are then given,

TRV

thermostatic!
radiator valves!
(TRV) on each!
radiator

TRV

TRV
TRV

pressure !
regulated!
circulator

16

which, when multiplied by the reference heat output,

give the actual heat output for specific water and room
air temperatures. As an approximation, a panel radiator
operating with an average water temperature of 110F in a
room maintained at 68F, provides approximately 27% of
the heat output it yields at an average water temperature
of 180F. Lager panels (longer, taller and deeper) are
available to increase surface area to compensate for
lower operating temperatures.
For the best low-temperature performance, panel
radiators should be piped in parallel. Ideally, each panel
radiator is served by its own supply and return piping. A
manifold-based distribution system, as shown in Figure
4-7, uses small diameter PEX or PEX-AL-PEX tubing to
supply each radiator. Tube sizes in such systems varie
from 3/8-inch to 5/8-inch depending on flow rate and
head loss allowances.
The flow of heated water through each panel radiator
is regulated by a wireless thermostatic valve, as seen
mounted on the radiator in Figure 4-7. This allows
each room to respond to the currently set comfort
requirements, as well as to compensate for heat gain
from sun or other internal heat sources.
A pressure-regulated circulator that can be set to
maintain a constant differential pressure is ideal for such
a distribution system. Such circulators will automatically
adjust their speed in response to radiator valves opening
or closing. They provide just the flow needed at any
given time and significantly reduce electrical power
consumption relative to fixed-speed circulators.
This type of distribution system is shown in several
schematics in later sections.

LOW-TEMPERATURE FIN-TUBE BASEBOARD

The hydronics industry, worldwide, is keenly aware
that low-temperature heat sources will be increasingly
common in future systems. This has led to reconfigurations
of traditional products in ways that allow them to operate
at lower water temperatures. Few products have been
more traditional to North American hydronics than fintube baseboard.

Figure 4-8

Courtesy of Smith's Environmental Products

However, new products recently introduced in the North

American market are aimed at eliminating this limitation.
The fin-tube element shown in Figure 4-8 has significantly
greater fin area compared to that of a standard fin-tube
element. It also has two tubes passing through the fins.
This allows significantly higher heat out at lower water
temperatures. The rated output of this element when both
pipes operate in parallel is 272 Btu/hr/ft at an entering
water temperature of 90F, and 532 Btu/hr/ft at an
entering water temperature of 120F, both at a total flow
rate of 1 gallon per minute.

CAST IRON RADIATORS

Cast iron radiators sized for steam heating but converted
for use with higher temperature water are also unlikely
to be suitable for use with wood-fired hydronic heat
sources. The possible exception would be in a building
that has undergone extensive weatherization since
the steam radiators were installed. In some cases, the
significant reduction in heating load may allow design
heat output to be attained at water temperatures no
higher than 120F. This would allow them to function
with wood-fired hydronic heat sources. In such cases,
the original radiator system should also be internally
cleaned and flushed to remove any accumulated residue
associated with steam heating.

Fin-tube baseboard was originally developed for the high

water temperatures available from conventional boilers.
These baseboards are often sized based on supply water
temperatures ranging from 170 to 200F. This is higher
than the water temperatures that can be sustained for
many hours by wood-fired boilers. Thus, traditional fintube baseboard is not recommended in such applications.

17

5. SYSTEMS USING OUTDOOR

WOOD-FIRED FURNACES

Figure 5-2

The constraints imposed by outdoor wood-fired furnaces

are significantly different from those of wood-fired boilers.
This section details methods for working with those
constraints to create systems that take advantage of
state-of-the-art hydronic concepts and hardware.

OPEN-LOOP CONSIDERATIONS
Nearly all outdoor wood-fired furnaces have a nonpressurized water compartment that is vented to the
atmosphere. As such, they are considered open-loop
devices and should be applied accordingly.
One concern of any open-loop system is the ability of
water to reabsorb oxygen into the solution as the water
cools. This oxygen is available from the atmosphere
through the vent tube, even if there is a slight amount
of water in that tube. Over time, the constant availability
of oxygen can feed corrosion reactions within the
system, especially if it contains carbon steel or cast
iron components. Such reactions can form sludge in the
system (see Figures 5-1 and 5-2) and eventually lead
to pinhole leaks. Most circulator manufacturers will not
warrant cast iron circulators for use in open-loop systems.
Instead, they recommend circulators with stainless steel
or bronze volutes. Although usually available, such
circulators are significantly more expensive than their cast
iron equivalents. Other ferrous metal components such
as steel panel radiators, cast iron radiators, black iron
piping, cast iron valves, air scoops and steel expansion
tanks are not recommended in open-loop systems.
Another issue in open-loop systems is that water in
piping located above the water level in the outdoor
Figure 5-1

Courtesy of Tony Hillard

18

furnace will be under sub-atmospheric pressure when

the system circulator is off. The higher the system piping
rises relative to the water level in the outdoor furnace, the
greater the negative pressure in the piping. The situation
is shown in Figure 5-3.
Although it is possible to operate a hydronic system
under such conditions, there are two details that must be
observed to avoid problems:
1. There cannot be any automatic venting devices or
air separators located above the water level in the
system. Such devices will admit air into the system
under negative pressure. That air will then make gurgling
sounds as it travels through piping when the circulator is
on. The use of valves with packings or other devices that
are not capable of completely sealing against negative
pressure should be avoided.
2. The height of the system piping should be limited
based on maximum water temperature. The goal is to
avoid conditions that can cause the water to boil within
the piping. Doing so requires that the water remain
below its vapor pressure at all locations and at all times.
The most common problem is steam flash created by
hot water high in system piping. When the circulator
turns off, the pressure on this water can instantly drop
below the vapor pressure corresponding to the waters
temperature. The liquid water immediately flashes to
steam and creates very noticeable banging sounds
within the piping.

Figure 5-4

Figure 5-3

30

vapor pressure (psia)

25
20

14.7 psia

15

heat emitter
with non-ferrous!
waterways

10
5

vent to atmosphere

water level in furnace

sub-atmospheric
pressure will
occur in any
piping above
this line

insulated underground piping

50

100
150
200
water temperature (F)

250

H = height from top of system piping down to water level

in outdoor furnace (ft)

outdoor
furnace!
circulator

outdoor!
wood-red!
furnace!
(non-pressurized)

212 F

exible!
reinforced!
tubing

ll / purging!
valves

The curve in Figure 5-4 shows the absolute pressure

at which water will boil based on its temperature. For
example: Water at 212F boils at an absolute pressure
of 14.7 psi. This corresponds to typical atmospheric
pressure at sea level (0 psi gauge pressure).
The static gauge pressure of system water located above
the water level in the outdoor furnace can be found using
Formula 5-1:
Formula 5-1

Where:
pstatic = static gauge pressure of the water at a given
location (with circulator off) (psig)

Example: Determine the static gauge pressure of water

located 15 feet above the water level in the outdoor
furnace. If the temperature of this water is 190F, will it
boil at the top of the system when the circulator turns off?
Solution: Use Formula 5-1 to calculate the static gauge
pressure at the top of the system:

The water will boil if its static gauge pressure is lower

than (e.g., more negative) than the vapor pressure of
190F water. Figure 5-4 shows the vapor pressure of
190F water to be 9.5 psi absolute. This corresponds to
a static gauge pressure of 9.5 - 14.7 = -5.2 psi. Because
the static gauge pressure at the top of the system (-6.5
psig) is lower than the vapor pressure of the water (-5.2
psig), boiling will occur. This situation must be avoided.
One way to prevent boiling is to lower the water temperature.
Another option might be to design the distribution system
with a lower overall height. Still another possibility is to
interface the outdoor furnace to a closed/pressurized
distribution system. This is discussed next.

HYBRID OPEN/CLOSED SYSTEMS

One way to avoid the issues associated with a fully open
hydronic system is to interface the outdoor furnace with

19

according to the ASTM F876

standard. The minimum tube size
is 1 inch. Larger tube sizes may
be justified base on flow rate and
the distance between the outdoor
furnace and the building.

Figure 5-5

TRV

closed!
pressurized!
distribution!
system!

vent to atmosphere
TRV

auxiliary!
boiler
outdoor
unit!
circulator

outdoor!
wood-red!
furnace!
(non-pressurized)

check!
valve

insulated underground piping

exible!
reinforced!
tubing

VENT

heat!
exchanger

a closed/pressured distribution system. A stainless steel

brazed plate heat exchanger provides the necessary link,
as shown in Figure 5-5. All piping components on the
lower temperature side of this heat exchanger are part of
a closed-loop distribution system that can operate under
a slight positive pressure. This portion of the system
can use cast iron circulators and other ferrous metal
components. It can also be equipped with an auxiliary
heat source.

OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

It is very important that the underground piping between
the outdoor furnace and building is properly selected and
detailed.
The most commonly used tubing for such underground
installations is crosslinked polyethylene manufactured

20

other!
zones!

Manufacturers of outdoor furnaces

may have specific limitations on how
PEX tubing should be connected to
their unit. A minimum length of metal
piping may be required between the
furnaces water compartment and
the PEX tubing.
This tubing must be insulated using
materials and methods specifically
intended
for
underground
installation. The insulation system
must prevent ground moisture from
entering through its outer jacket. It
must also be strong enough to
absorb stresses created by soil
expansion and contraction.
Wrapping piping with fiberglass or
lost fitting molded foam insulation
does not provide adequate thermal
or moisture protection. The result
will be high heat loss to the soil,
and reduced system efficiency.

Pre-insulted piping such as that

shown in Figure 5-6 is now the
standard for such installations. It is
available in both single tube (Figure
5-6a) and dual tube (Figure 5-6b)
configurations. Special fittings as well as compression
sealing collars for watertight wall penetrations (Figure
5-6c) are also available.
Pre-insulated tubing should be buried in trenches at least
three feet deep and not subject to water accumulation
or settling. It should be bedded in sand or other fine
soil. Special care should be taken to ensure there is no
settling near wall penetrations, which can impose large
shear forces on the tubing.
The fluid transferring heat from an outdoor wood-fired
furnace to a building is subject to wide temperature
variations. This, combined with the fact that PEX tubing
expands and contracts approximately ten times as much
as metal pipe when it changes temperature, demands
proper detailing where the piping enters the building

Figure 5-6a

and where it connects to the outdoor furnace. The

latter details are typically specified by the furnace
manufacturer.
Formula 5-2 can be used to estimate the linear
expansion of PEX tubing based on its length and
temperature change.
Formula 5-2

Where:
L = change in length (inches)
L = length of tubing before temperature change (inches)
T = change in temperature of tubing (F)

Figure 5-6b

Example: PEX tubing runs 100 feet from an outdoor

wood-fired furnace to its termination just inside a
basement wall. The tubing was placed when its
temperature was 60F. Determine how much expansion
will occur if the tubing reaches a temperature of 190F.
Solution: 100 feet is 1200 inches. Putting this value and
the other numbers into Formula 5-2 yields:

This is a considerable amount of movement. If provisions

are not made to accommodate it, the tubing is subject
to deformation, either of itself or in combination with
the interior tubing it connects to.

Figure 5-6c

The expansion and contraction movement of PEX

tubing can be accommodated by either reinforced
flexible hoses that connect it to rigid tubing inside the
building, or by expansion compensators that are sized
for the required movement. These should be located
so that piping expansion movement is absorbed by
the compensator while imposing little stress on interior
rigid piping. The latter should be rigidly fixed near the
compensator, as shown in Figure 5-7. This isolates the
movement and stress from rigid interior piping.

USING AN AUXILIARY BOILER WITH AN

OUTDOOR WOOD-FIRED FURNACE
Many owners desire systems in which a conventional
heat source automatically turns on whenever the
outdoor wood-fired furnace cannot supply the spaceheating load. They also want the outdoor wood-fired
furnace to be able to contribute to domestic water
heating. The versatility of hydronics allows for such
systems. One example is shown in Figure 5-8.
Courtesy of Uponor

21

Figure 5-7

xed!
support

insulated!
PEX tubing

interior!
piping

exible!
expansion!
compensator

All components on the lower temperature (load) side

of the heat exchanger form a closed-loop pressurized
distribution system. Heat can be supplied from
the outdoor wood-fired furnace through the heat
exchanger or from the conventional boiler shown.
Since low-temperature heat emitters are assumed, the
Figure 5-8

conventional boiler is equipped with a

thermostatic boiler protection valve
to maintain its inlet water temperature
sufficiently high to prevent sustained
flue gas condensation. These valves
are discussed in detail in later sections.
The HydroLink provides hydraulic
separation between the heat source
circulators and those supplying the
space-heating circuits and indirect
water heater.

mechanical seals

vent !
to !
atmosphere

This piping arrangement allows either

heat source to supply all the loads. It also
allows the possibility of simultaneous
heat input from both sources. The latter
scenario must be carefully managed
to avoid the possibility of heat from
the auxiliary boiler being inadvertently
routed to the outdoor furnace (other
than if required for freeze protection).
This can be done by monitoring the temperature
rise between the incoming water from the wood-fired
furnace and the water returning from the load side of the
system, as shown in Figure 5-9.

anti-condensation!
mixing valve

closed!
pressurized!
distribution!
system!

other!
zones!

outdoor
unit!
circulator

outdoor!
wood-red!
furnace!
(non-pressurized)

check!
valve

low!
temperature!
heat
emitters

auxiliary!
boiler

HydroLink

expansion!
insulated
underground compensation
piping
heat!
exchanger

VENT

indirect water heater

22

Figure 5-9

T1
from
wood-red!
furnace

FREEZE PROTECTION OPTIONS

differential!
temperature!
controller

to load

T2
load-side!
circulator

If the auxiliary boiler is operating, but the temperature rise

across the heat exchanger approaches zero (or perhaps is
less than a 1F detectable rise), the wood-fired furnace
is contributing very little heat. Under such conditions, the
circulator providing flow through load side of the heat
exchanger should be turned off. This prevents heat from
being transferred back outside in systems where the
furnaces outdoor circulator remains on at all times. If the
temperature differential rises to perhaps 2F, as it might if
the wood-furnace is refueled, the load side circulator can
be turned back on.

The methods used to avoid freezing in combination with

outdoor wood-fired furnaces vary by manufacturer and
location. In some areas, the outdoor furnace and its
associated piping are filled with an antifreeze solution.
Although effective, this can also be expensive due to the
large volume of the water compartment in these furnaces.
Some manufacturers suggest wiring the furnaces
circulator so that it provides continuous (24/7) flow
between the furnace and building during cold weather.
Assuming the furnace is being fired on a daily basis, and
that electricity remains available at the site, this is also
effective in preventing freezing. However, a power failure
that lasts for several hours during cold weather or not
firing the outdoor furnace for several days increase the
likelihood of freezing.
Another possibility, assuming that the system includes an
auxiliary hydronic heat source and that electricity remains
available, is to circulate slightly warmer water through the
outdoor furnace in such a way that its water compartment
remains above freezing. One possible configuration is
shown in Figure 5-10.

Figure 5-10

outdoor!
wood-red!
furnace

auxiliary!
boiler

temperature sensor

HydroLink
load-side!
circulator!
w/ check!
(off)

VENT

Calef 132 ow setter

temperature controller

small "shunt"!
circulator w/ check

23

Figure 6-1
160

dewpoint temperature of ue gas (F)

When the temperature sensor in the outdoor furnace

reaches a pre-established low limit, a small shunt
circulator routes warm water returning from the system
through the load side of the heat exchanger. The same
temperature controller that handles this function also
ensures that the circulator in the outdoor furnace is
operating. Flow through the load side of the heat
exchanger should be limited so that excessive heat
is not transported to the outdoor furnace, and so that
indoor comfort is not compromised. Use of a HydroLink
or Hydro Separator between the heat sources and loads
allows this mode of operation regardless of whether
heating loads are on or off.

150
140

40% moisture

130

30% moisture

120
20% moisture

110

6. DESIGN DETAILS FOR WOOD-FIRED

BOILER SYSTEMS
The characteristics of various wood-fired furnaces and
boilers have been discussed. So have several options for
low-temperature hydronic heating distribution systems.
Now lets discuss how these heat source characteristics
and distribution options can be combined to form complete
systems using wood-fired boilers and pellet-fired boilers.
State-of-the-art hydronic components can be used that
leverage the heat produced by these boilers to deliver
superior comfort and energy efficiency. We begin with a
discussion of important design details and subsystems.

PROTECTING AGAINST CORROSION

Like other boilers constructed of cast iron or carbon steel,
wood-fired and pellet-fired boilers are designed to be
used in closed-loop pressurized hydronic systems. The
dissolved oxygen that initially enters these systems when
they fill with water quickly reacts with the interior surfaces
of ferrous metals to form a superficial oxide layer that is
not detrimental to the boiler or other metal components.
At that point, the potential for the water to deliver oxygen
that fuels corrosion reactions is very low.

PROTECTION AGAINST SUSTAINED

FLUE GAS CONDENSATION
Another similarity with gas- and oil-fired boilers is the
need to protect wood-fired boilers and some pellet-fired
boilers against the corrosive effects of sustained flue gas
condensation. Such condensation forms on the fire-side
surface of the boilers heat exchanger or inside the flue if
those surfaces are at or below the dewpoint temperature
of water vapor in the flue gas stream. This temperature
depends on the moisture content of the firewood, as well
as the amount of air passing through the combustion
chamber. Figure 6-1 shows how the dewpoint temperature
of the flue gases varies within these parameters.

24

100

0% moisture

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

air/fuel ratio

The air/fuel ratio is the ratio of the actual amount of

air supplied to the combustion process divided by the
stoichiometric minimum amount of air needed to
completely burn the fuel. Supplying excess air to the
combustion process creates a drying effect that lowers
the dewpoint of the flue gases. However, as more air is
supplied, more heat is carried away in the exhaust stream.
The higher the moisture content of the firewood, the
higher the dewpoint of the flue gases. Properly seasoned
firewood should have a moisture content of approximately
20%. Lower flue gas dewpoint temperatures are desirable
because they allow the boiler to operate with lower jacket
heat losses.

BOILER PROTECTION VALVE

Caleffi offers specialized hardware to protect woodfired boilers from the damaging effects of sustained
flue gas condensation. One such product is the boiler
protection thermostatic mixing valve, as shown in Figure
6-2. This valve is designed for high flow rates and low
pressure drop.
This boiler protection valve uses a non-electric
thermostatic element (see cut away in Figure 6-3) to
regulate the flow of hot water from the boiler outlet and
cooler water returning from the load, so that the inlet
water temperature to the boiler is hot enough to prevent
sustained flue gas condensation.
Four different thermostatic cartridges are available for use
in this valve. They have fixed temperature settings of 115,
130, 140, and 160F. The lower setting is appropriate for

Figure 6-4 a,b,c

Figure 6-2

bypass

(a)
no ow
to load

closed

boiler!
circulator
boiler!
protection!
valve

wood-red boiler

no ow
from load

(b)

Figure 6-3

bypass

to load

Hot inlet
from boiler
boiler!
circulator

Valve body
Spring

Shutter
(c)

to load

Cool return
from system

Mixed return
to boiler

boiler!
protection!
valve

wood-red boiler

Thermostatic
sensor

from load

no ow
through!
bypass
closed

boiler!
circulator

Plug

very dry firewood (10% to 15% moisture content) being

burned with relatively high excess air. The upper setting
would be appropriate for wood with higher moisture
content (30% or more) being burned with low excess air.
A cartridge calibrated for 140F is suggested for woodfired boilers operating with seasoned wood.
When the boiler is first fired, the water leaving it is well
below the temperature setting of the boiler protection
valve. Under this condition, the cool water inlet port of
the valve is fully closed and the hot water inlet is fully
open, as shown in Figure 6-4a. All water leaving the boiler
is routed directly back to the boilers inlet. No water is
routed to the load. This allows the boiler temperature
to rise as quickly as possible, and thus minimizes
condensing mode operation.

wood-red boiler

from load
boiler!
protection!
valve

temperature = Tsetting +18F

As the water temperature leaving the boiler rises, the

thermostatic element within the valve steadily closes the
hot water inlet port and simultaneously opens the cool
water inlet port. This allows some heated water to flow to
the load, as shown in Figure 6-4b.
When the water temperature returning to the boiler
reaches 18F or more above the temperature setting of
the boiler protection valve, the valves hot water inlet port
will be completely closed, and the cool port completely
open. Under this condition, there is no flow in the bypass
pipe, and all water leaving the boiler flows to the load, as
shown in Figure 6-4c.

25

Another Caleffi product combines the functionality of

the boiler protection valve with the boiler circulator and
a unique check valve that allows for thermosyphon flow
between the boiler and load during a power outage. This
ThermoBloc mixing device is shown in Figure 6-5. A
cross section of the ThermoBloc is shown in Figure 6-6.

Figure 6-7

bypass

THERMOBLOC MIXING DEVICE

Figure 6-5

to load

from load

wood-red boiler

!
ThermoBloc!
boiler protection!
device

the ThermoBloc incorporates the boiler circulator, and thus

speeds installation and reduces installation space and
fittings. The ThermoBloc also includes thermometers that
indicate the temperature of the hot and cool inlet streams,
as well as the mixed temperature of the outlet stream.

Figure 6-6

A unique feature of the ThermoBloc is its ability to

allow natural thermosyphon flow between the boiler and
load during power outages. This operating mode helps
prevent excessive heat buildup within the wood-fired
boiler, which would eventually cause the pressure relief
valve to open. During a power outage, a lightly loaded
flapper valve within the ThermoBloc is pushed open
by the slight pressure differential created by buoyancy

Hot inlet
from boiler

Temperature pocket
well
Anti-condensation
thermostatic sensor
Temperature pocket
well

Mixed return
to boiler

Temperature pocket
well

circulator is off

Cool return
from system

Three-speed
pump

Figure 6-8

Valve for natural

circulation

Tr

The ThermoBloc is installed as shown in Figure 6-7.

During normal operation (e.g., when electrical power is
available), the ThermoBloc performs the same functions as
the previously discussed boiler protection valve. However,

26

normally closed check valve

opens due to bouyancy forces
to allow thermosyphon flow
Tset

heat dump!
(active during power failure)

Figure 6-9

Although the configuration shown in Figure 6-9 provides

both boiler protection and overheat protection, it is
significantly more complicated and expensive than the
alternative of using a ThermoBloc. It is also limited to
situations where sufficient space is available to install the
fin-tube above the boiler.

!
normally-open!
zone valve!
(opens during!
power failure)

blower!
off

COMBINING A WOOD-FIRED BOILER

WITH AN AUXILIARY BOILER

to load

There are several ways to connect a wood-fired boiler

with an auxiliary boiler. The usual intent is for the
wood-fired boiler to handle the heating load until its
output decreases due to fuel depletion. At that point,
the conventional boiler turns on to supplement and
eventually take over for the wood-fired boiler.

from load
boiler!
protection!
valve

wood-red boiler

effects of heated water in the boiler and cooler water in

the storage tank, as shown in Figure 6-8. This flapper
valve would normally be held shut by the pressure
differential created by the circulator.
The ThermoBloc mixing device typically eliminates the
need to include other heat dumps into residential and
light commercial systems using wood-fired boilers. One
common form of such a heat dump is shown in Figure
6-9. It uses a normally open zone valve in combination
with several feet of fin-tube mounted above the boiler.
During a power outage, the zone valve opens to allow
thermosyphon flow through the fin-tube.

One seemingly simple method is to connect the boilers

in series, as shown in Figure 6-11. Series piping requires
system water to flow through both boilers, even if one
of them is not operating. Air currents moving through
and around the unfired boiler can absorb heat from this
water and carry it up the chimney. Piping the boilers in
series also increases the head loss against which the
circulator must operate. Although the head loss of most
wood-fired boilers as well as conventional boilers is
small, this is not the case for some current-generation
mod/con boilers. Series piping also precludes use of
proper boiler protection. Because of these limitations,
series piping is not recommended.

heat dump!
(active during power failure)

Figure 6-10

bypass

!
normally-open!
zone valve!
(opens during!
power failure)

to load

blower!
off

to load

from load

from load
ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

wood-red boiler

boiler!
protection!
valve

27

both the wood-fired boiler and the auxiliary boiler. It is

especially appropriate when the auxiliary boiler has low
thermal mass, or when the space-heating distribution
system is extensively zoned. It is also desirable when the
thermal mass of the buffer tank is being maintained at a
temperature suitable for domestic water heating.

Figure 6-11

wood-red boiler

auxiliary boiler

Parallel piping of multiple boilers is much preferred over

series piping. Figure 6-12 shows a wood-fired boiler
piped in parallel with an auxiliary boiler.
This arrangement places the auxiliary boiler before the
buffer tank. It allows the tank to buffer heat input from

Figure 6-13 shows the auxiliary boiler piped after the buffer
tank. This allows the buffer tank to cool to low temperatures
at the same time the auxiliary boiler supplies heat to
the load. Its appropriate in systems where the auxiliary
boilers heat output is well matched to the zoning of the
distribution system so that short cycling will not occur. Its
also appropriate in systems where other low-temperature
heat sources such as solar collectors or geothermal heat
pumps may be used to add heat to the buffer tank when
the wood-fired boiler is not operating. Keeping heat from
the auxiliary boiler out of the buffer tank allows it to cool
when the wood-fired boiler is not being used. Lower tank
temperatures improve the heat gathering efficiency of both
solar collectors and hydronic heat pumps.

Figure 6-12
auxiliary!
boiler

bypass

to load

from load
ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

28

ThermoCon tank

Figure 6-13

auxiliary!
boiler

bypass

to load

from load
ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

ThermoCon tank

Figure 6-14
generously sized headers!
(for low head loss)

hydraulic!
separator

to / from!
load

bypass

bypass

swing!
check

thermostatic!
anti-condensation !
valve

pellet-red boiler

ThermoBloc

auxiliary boiler!
(conventional)

29

Some pellet-fired boilers can maintain reasonable control

over the rate of fuel combustion and may not require
buffer tanks. In such a case, the pellet-fired boiler and
an auxiliary boiler can be piped as shown in Figure 6-14.

Figure 6-15

The pellet-fired boiler is equipped with a ThermoBloc

protection/circulation unit. The conventional auxiliary
boiler (e.g., one not intended to operate with sustained
flue gas condensation) is equipped with a thermostatic
boiler protection valve. The boilers are piped in parallel
to a common set of headers that connect to a hydraulic
separator. The latter device isolates the boiler circulators
from any circulators on the load side of the system.
It also provides high-efficiency air separation and dirt
separation for the system. A detailed discussion of
hydraulic separators is given in idronics #1.
Courtesy of American Solartechnics

Each boiler is equipped with a check valve that prevents

reverse flow of heated water through an inactive boiler.
The check valve on the pellet-fired boiler should only
be a swing check valve with very low forward opening
resistance. This, in combination with the internal check
mechanism in the ThermoBloc mixing device, allows for
thermosyphon flow through the pellet-fired boiler during
a power failure.

BUFFER TANKS
One of the challenges associated with wood-burning
boilers is that the fire cannot be instantly turned on and
off as it can with an oil- or gas-fired boiler. There will be
many times when the heat output of the boiler exceeds
the heating load of the building. There will also be times
when the output from the wood-fired boiler cannot satisfy
the load. This is especially true of wood gasification
boilers that are designed to operate at high rates of
combustion to achieve high combustion efficiency.
To achieve stable operation, thermal mass must be
present in the system. Most outdoor wood-fired furnaces
have large water volumes, and thus inherently provide
sufficient thermal mass to stabilize system operation.

example of an unpressurized buffer tank that can be siteassembled is shown in Figure 6-15.
Such tanks typically have a rectangular or cylindrical
structural shell, sidewall, top and bottom insulation, and
a flexible waterproof liner that can withstand years of
contact with hot water.
Unpressurized tanks are not completely filled with water.
A few inches of air space above the water accommodates
the increased expansion volume as the water is heated.
Piping connections are usually routed through the upper
side wall or top of the tank so they remain above the
water level, and thus are not subject to leakage.
For wood-fired boiler heating applications, these tanks
typically have at least two copper coil heat exchangers
suspended within the tank. An example of such a coil is
shown in Figure 6-16.
Figure 6-16

Wood-fired boilers typically do not have sufficient water

volume to absorb all the heat generated by multiple hours
of operation. The solution is to add water content to the
system using a well-insulated buffer tank.
Buffer tanks can be either pressurized or unpressurized.
Both approaches have their strengths and limitations.

UNPRESSURIZED BUFFER TANKS

An unpressurized tank is essentially an insulated shell
with a cover and vent tube. The latter ensures that no
positive pressure develops at the top of the tank. An

30

Courtesy of American Solartechnics

(modulating)!
tankless!
water heater

Figure 6-17

thermostatic!
diverting!
valve

anti-scald!
tempering!
valve

hot
check valve
prevents
thermosyponing

cold

vent

to / from!
space
heating

!
air
space

bypass

VENT

ThermoBloc

insulation

wood-red boiler

liner

VENT

Each coil is part of a separate closed and pressurized

hydronic circuit: One for delivering heat from the boiler
to the tank, the other for transferring heat from the tank
to the distribution system. This approach allows the
use of unpressurized tanks, but retains the advantages
of closed/pressurized hydronic circuits. For example, a
boiler constructed of cast iron or steel can be used since
it is part of the closed-loop circuit. Since the tank water
is isolated from both closed-loop circuits, the expansion
tanks in those circuits do not have to accommodate
the expansion of water within the buffer tank. A third
suspended copper coil may be used for domestic water
preheating, as shown in Figure 6-17.
One downside of using an open tank is that water
evaporates from it over time. It is necessary to
periodically check tank water level and add water

to keep all coils fully submerged. Also, because

heat is typically added and extracted through heat
exchangers, the temperature at which the tank can
still supply sufficient heat to the load will be slightly
higher than in systems where no heat exchanger is
present. This is undesirable because it decreases the
effective temperature range through which the tank can
be cycled, and hence increases the necessary volume
required to store a given amount of heat.
Its also possible to use a single suspended heat
exchanger coil for adding heat as well as removing heat
from an unpressurized storage tank. This eliminates
the cost of the second heat exchanger, and it improves
the thermal efficiency of the system by reducing the
temperature difference between the heat source and
load. Figure 6-17a shows one way to do this.

31

Figure 6-17a

modulating / condensing !
auxiliary boiler

3-way
diverter
valves

HydroLink

space
heating
loads

space heating loads

VENT

2-position!
motorized!
actuator

alternate!
position of!
valve's vane

4-way mixing valve body

vent

air space

suspended copper!
heat exchanger!
(removing heat from tank)
ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

suspended copper!
heat exchanger!
(adding heat to tank)

In this approach, a 4-way mixing valve body with standard

internal vane has been combined with a 2-position
motorized actuator. This combination allows the valve
to reverse the flow direction through the suspended coil.
The position of the actuator is controlled by either a line
voltage or 24 VAC signal. Applying voltage to the actuator
drives its shaft to the 90 position. Removing voltage
allows an internal spring to return the actuators shaft
to the 0 position. The movement of the actuator shaft
produces a corresponding 90 rotation of the vane inside
the 4-way valve.

tank. Reversing the flow direction maintains counterflow

heat exchange while heat is being removed from the tank.

Hot water passes downward through the coil when adding

heat to the tank. This maximizes counterflow heat
exchange between the coil and the stratified water in the

Heat can also be extracted from the storage tank and

passed to the HydroLink without having to pass through
the wood-fired boiler. This reduces heat loss in cases

32

This configuration also allows heat from the wood-fired

boiler to pass to the HydroLink, and on to any active
heating loads, without first warming the storage tank. This
can be useful in situations where the building is recovering
from a setback temperature while the storage tank is at
a low temperature. In this mode, the 3-way motorized
diverter valve bypasses flow around the suspended coil
heat exchanger.

Figure 6-18
no air vents or other devices that could admit!
air should be placed above the water level

vent

no air vents or other devices that could admit!

air should be placed above the water level

!
air
space

DHW

bypass

DHW!
HX

to / from!
space
heating

tankless
electric!
water
heater

CW

ow
switch

ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

purge!
valves
all circulators handling tank water!
should be stainless steel or bronze circulators

where the storage tank is heated, but the wood-fired

boiler is inactive. This is the mode shown in Figure 6-17a.
The piping configuration also allows easy integration
of an auxiliary modulating/condensing boiler. A second
3-way motorized valve routes flow through the auxiliary
boiler when necessary and bypasses flow around it at
other times. With proper controls, it is even possible to
absorb some heat from the wood-fired boiler and add
supplemental heat from the auxiliary boiler.
A second suspended coil could be added to the storage
tank for domestic water preheating. Another possibility
would be to handle domestic water preheating using
the subassembly shown in Figure 6-18 and described
in the next paragraphs.
Figure 6-18 shows an alternative approach for combining
closed-loop subsystems with a non-pressurized tank. In
this system, externally mounted stainless steel brazed
plate heat exchangers are used in lieu of suspended
copper coils.
To maintain temperature stratification within the tank,
cooler water needs to be extracted near the bottom of
the tank and routed to the boiler-side heat exchanger.
Likewise, cool water returning from the load-side
heat exchangers needs to be diffused into water
near the bottom of the tank. Ideally, the water would
be introduced and extracted from the tank through
horizontally oriented diffusers such as the tees shown
in Figure 6-18.

The circulators that move fluid between the tank and

external heat exchangers must be rated for open-loop
applications, and as such will have wetted components
made of stainless steel, bronze or polymers. Its important
to mount these circulators at least 3 or 4 feet below the
water level in the storage tank. Doing so maintains a
higher net positive suction head which helps avoid
cavitation.
Purging valves have been shown in Figure 6-18 to allow
water to be rapidly added to piping that enters the tank.
High-velocity flow displaces air in the piping above the
tanks water level, driving it down and out through the
open ends of the dip tubes. Once this air is displaced,
water will remain in the piping above the water level
provided that no air can enter this piping when it is under
slight negative pressure. No air vents, valves or other
piping components that could allow air entry should be
placed in any piping above the tanks water level.
The system in Figure 6-18 uses a third external heat
exchanger to preheat domestic water. A flow switch
turns on a small circulator whenever domestic hot
water demand reaches approximately 0.5 gpm. Heated
water from the buffer tank immediately flows through
the tank side of the heat exchanger, transferring heat
to the cold domestic water passing through the other
side. In this system, a tankless electric water heater
adds any additional heat needed to achieve the desired
domestic hot water delivery temperature. An anti-scaldrated thermostatic tempering valve should be installed as
shown to protect against the possibility of excessively hot

33

outdoor
temperature
sensor

Figure 6-19

!
3-way!
mixing!
valve

supply
temperature
sensor

bypass

to load

from load
ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

ThermoCon !
buffer tank

bypass

Figure 6-20

ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

domestic water being delivered during periods when the

buffer tank is at elevated temperature.

PRESSURIZED BUFFER TANKS

Because they eliminate need for some heat exchangers,
pressurized storage tanks allow for somewhat simpler
design and slightly improved thermal performance. Because
they become part of a closed hydronic system, tanks

34

ThermoCon !
buffer tank

ThermoCon !
buffer tank

constructed of carbon steel are acceptable. Likewise, other

ferrous metal components such as cast iron circulators can
also be used in these systems.
Pressure-rated tanks tend to cost more than unpressurized
tanks on a dollar/gallon basis. They also require larger
expansion tanks within the system.

air
vent

Figure 6-21

bypass

temperature
sensor well

ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

Figure 6-19 shows the basic concept of an insulated/

pressure-rated buffer tank placed between the wood-fired
boiler and the load. In this configuration, the buffer tank
also provides excellent hydraulic separation between the
boiler circulator and any circulators on the load side of the
system. A swing check valve is shown on the supply pipe
from the boiler to the tank. Its purpose is to prevent reverse
thermosyphoning between the buffer tank and boiler.
A 3-way motorized mixing valve is shown on the outlet
side of the buffer tank. Its purpose is to reduce the supply
water temperature from the potentially hot buffer tank to
the temperature required by the space-heating distribution
system. This valve can be operated so that it supplies a
fixed temperature to the load, or it can be configured for
outdoor reset control. Additional information on applying
3-way mixing valves is available in idronics #7.
Multiple buffer tanks, such as the Caleffi ThermoCon,
can be combined to increase total storage capacity. In
such applications, the tanks should be piped in a parallel
reverse return configuration, as shown in Figure 6-20. This
encourages approximately equal flow through all tanks.
Another option is to use a large single tank, as shown in
Figure 6-21. In such cases, the tanks piping should be
such that temperature stratification is encouraged and
preserved within the tank.
Be sure to check any relevant mechanical code requirements
to see if tanks larger than 119 gallons need to be ASME
certified. Caleffi can supply large buffer tanks meeting
ASME requirements.

pressurized thermal storage tank

BUFFER TANK SIZING

The size of the buffer tank used with wood-fired boilers
depends on several factors. They include:
How the boiler will be operated
How much wood can be added to the boilers firebox
The potential heat content of the firewood being used
The minimum operating temperature of the heating
distribution system
The temperature and pressure ratings of the buffer tank
In some applications, the operator desires to fully charge
the boiler with wood at a given time of day and have all
heat produced by burning that wood sent to the buffer
tank, regardless of any concurrent heating load. This
method of operation is usually based on convenience and
the time of day at which the operator is available to add
wood. For example, the operator may want to fully charge
the boiler in the morning before leaving for work and not
add wood until the following evening. This is a common
approach, and one that tends to increase the required
size of the buffer tank.
The operating temperature of the heating distribution
system will also affect the size of the tank. The lower
the water temperature at which the distribution system
can operate, the longer a given tank can supply the load
before the system must shift to an auxiliary boiler. Low
water temperature distribution systems that use heat
emitters, such as radiant panels, panel radiators, extended
surface fin-tube convectors or air handlers with large
surface area coils, were discussed in section 4 and are
recommended for systems with wood-fired heat sources.

35

The upper temperature limit of the buffer tank also plays

a role in determining its size. Unpressurized storage
tanks typically have temperature limits of 180F to
perhaps 200F. Pressurized metal storage tanks could
theoretically contain water at temperatures above the
atmospheric boiling point (212F), but this is seldom done
due to the safety considerations associated with storing
superheated water.
The sizing procedure that follows is based on the buffer
tank absorbing all the heat from a full charge of firewood
and conservatively assumes no concurrent heating load.
The volume of the buffer tank can be determined using
Formula 6-1.
Formula 6-1

Where:
v = required buffer tank volume (gallons)
w = weight of firewood that can be loaded in the
combustion chamber (lb)
n = average efficiency of the combustion process (decimal
percent)
T = temperature rise of the tank based on absorbing all
heat from the combustion (F)
738 = a constant based on the heating fuel value
associated with 20% moisture content firewood.
For example: Assume that the firebox of a wood-fired
boiler, when fully loaded, can hold 100 pounds of
seasoned firewood. The boilers average combustion
efficiency is 80%. Determine the buffer tank volume
needed assuming the tank will rise 60F as it absorbs
heat from burning the full charge of wood.
Solution: Putting the data into Formula 6-1 yields:

This result shows that substantial volume may be required.

It could be achieved with a single tank or by combining
multiple tanks piped in parallel.
One way to reduce the required volume is to implement
a control strategy that widens the temperature range
over which the tank is used. With the upper temperature
typically limited to 200F, the temperature range is usually
widened by reducing the temperature at which the spaceheating distribution system can operate.

36

7. EXAMPLES OF SYSTEMS USING WOOD-FIRED

AND PELLET-FIRED BOILERS
This section presents several schematics for complete
systems using either a wood-fired or pellet-fired boiler
as their primary heat source. These systems are
intended to cover the majority of applications in
residential or light commercial buildings. However,
when circumstances dictate, the versatility of modern
hydronics, along with proper application of the design
principals and subsystem discussed in earlier sections,
should allow an efficient, stable and reliable alternative
to be configured.

SYSTEM 1:
Description: Space heating from a wood-fired boiler
supplying a zoned distribution system.

This is a basic system for space heating with an
extensively zoned distribution system. The wood-fired
boiler adds heats to the two ThermoCon buffer tanks
piped in parallel reverse return. The boiler is protected
against sustained flue gas condensation by a ThermoBloc
mixing device.
The very low flow resistance of the buffer tanks provides
hydraulic separation between the ThermoBloc circulator
and the variable-speed pressure-regulated circulator
used in the distribution system.
A 3-way motorized mixing valve operates based
on outdoor reset control to provide stable delivery
temperature to the heat emitters and to protect them from
potential high-temperature water in the buffer tanks.
No auxiliary boiler is used.

SYSTEM 2:
Description: Space heating and domestic water preheating
from a wood-fired boiler with an auxiliary boiler and
extensive zoning.
This system uses a low-mass mod/con (e.g.,
modulating/condensing) auxiliary boiler on the input
side of the buffer tank, along with the wood-fired
boiler. This arrangement buffers heat input from both
the wood-fired boiler and the auxiliary boiler. Buffering
heat input from the low-mass boiler prevents short
cycling when heat is supplied to an extensively zoned
distribution system. This configuration also allows the
buffer tank to act as a hydraulic separator between the
circulators on the heat input side of the buffer tank and
those on the load side.

Figure 7-1

extensively zoned
distribution system
3-way!
motorized!
mixing valve

zone!
valves
(P1)

bypass

variable speed!
pressure regulated!
circulator

wood-red boiler

Figure 7-2

!
ThermoCon !
buffer tank

!
ThermoCon !
buffer tank

ThermoBloc

!
expansion!
tank

auxiliary boiler!
(mod/con)
outdoor!
reset!
controller
extensively zoned
distribution system
3-way!
motorized!
mixing valve

(P2)

zone!
valves
(P1)

small

variable speed!
pressure regulated!
circulator

(P3) circulator
with check

bypass

valve

DHW!
HX

tankless
electric!
water
heater

DHW
CW

ow switch

ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

ThermoCon !
buffer tank

The buffer tank temperature is continually monitored

by an outdoor reset controller. Upon a call for space
heating from any of the zones, this controller determines
if the water temperature in the tank can supply space
heating based on the controllers settings and the current

outdoor temperature. If so, the auxiliary boiler is not fired.

If the temperature of the buffer tank is too low to supply
space heating, the auxiliary boiler is fired to reheat the
buffer tank to the temperature required by the spaceheating distribution system.

37

The red and blue dots above and

below the yellow dot represent a
10F temperature differential that is
centered on the target temperature.
If the water temperature in
the buffer tank is less than the
target temperature minus half the
differential (e.g., 95 - [10/2] = 90F),
the auxiliary boiler comes on if there
is a call for space heating. Assuming
the call for heating remains active,
the auxiliary boiler remains on until
the tank temperature climbs to
the target temperature plus half
the differential (e.g., 95 + [10/2] =
100F). Having a differential above
and below the calculated target
temperature prevents the boiler
from short cycling.

Figure 7-3

Supply water temperature (F)

140
130

boiler supplies heat when!

temperature is climbing. !
Buffer tank supplies heat !
when temperature is dropping

buffer tank supplies heat

120

10F!
differential!
(shown)

110

calculated target temperature

100

contacts on reset controller!

open to allow buffer tank!
to serve as heat source

90
boiler
supplies
heat

80
70

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

contacts on reset controller!

close to enable boiler!
as heat source

-10 -20

Outdoor temperature (F)

Figure 7-3 shows an example of how a reset controller

might be configured in such a system, assuming that the
system uses low-temperature heat emitters.
At an outdoor temperature of 25F, the target temperature
calculated by the reset controller represented by Figure
7-3 is 95F (green vertical and horizontal lines on graph).
The target temperature is the ideal supply temperature
for the distribution system given the current outside
temperature and associated heating load. This condition
is represented by the yellow dot in Figure 7-3.

The slope of the reset line and

the differential temperature range are adjustable on
most currently available reset controllers. Also, some
boilers now have outdoor reset functionality built into
them, and thus do not require a separate controller. The
subject of outdoor reset control is covered in detail in
idronics #7.
This outdoor reset strategy allows heat to be extracted
from the buffer tank to the lowest possible temperature
usable by the distribution system. This lengthens the
time between firing cycles of the wood-fired boiler.

Figure 7-4
outdoor
reset
controller

(P1)

(T1)

(P4)

small

(P3) circulator
with check

bypass

valve

DHW!
HX

T
controller

tankless
electric!
water
heater

ThermoBloc

38

(P2)
large thermal storage tank

variable speed!
pressure regulated!
circulator
(T2)

ow switch

wood-red boiler

3-way!
motorized!
mixing valve

Domestic water is heated instantaneously as it is needed.

A flow switch detects whenever domestic water is
required at a flow rate at or above 0.5 gpm. Under this
condition, it powers on a small circulator that moves
heated water from the buffer tank through the primary
side of a stainless steel heat exchanger. Cold water is
instantaneously preheated (or fully heated depending
on the buffer tank temperature) as it passes through the
other side of the heat exchanger. An electric tankless
water heater provides any necessary boost in domestic
hot water delivery temperature. An anti-scald-rated
thermostatic mixing valve protects against high domestic
water temperatures when the buffer tank is at an elevated
temperature. For the fastest possible response, the piping
between the buffer tank and heat exchanger should be
short and fully insulated.

Figure 7-5
L1

transformer
120/24 VAC

24 VAC

thermostat
M

thermostat
M

This configuration allows for domestic water preheating

whenever the buffer tank is above the temperature of the
entering cold domestic water. It is beneficial when the
tank is coasting down to a lower temperature several
hours after its last firing, or perhaps when fired only
once every couple of days in warmer weather. It is also
beneficial if other low-temperature heat sources such as
solar thermal collectors or heat pumps are being used to
add heat to the buffer tank when the wood-fired boiler is
inactive. Arrangements for each of these scenarios are
given in this section.
The 3-way motorized mixing valve is an essential part of
the distribution system. It protects the low-temperature
distribution system from what could be very high
buffer tank temperatures when the wood-fired boiler is
operating. The valves controller also operates based on
outdoor reset logic to ensure stable indoor temperature
and excellent comfort, regardless of which heat source is
supplying the load.

3-way!
mixing!
valve!
controller

outdoor!
reset!
controller
R

(P4)

relay

T1

SYSTEM 3:

Figure 7-5 in an electrical wiring diagram for controlling

this system. A description of operation based on this
wiring diagram is also given.

relay

T2

Description: Space heating and domestic water preheating

from a wood-fired boiler supplying a large, pressurized
storage tank with an auxiliary boiler and limited zoning.
This system assumes that a large pressured buffer tank
(500 gallons or larger) is used to absorb rapid heat
generation from a wood gasification boiler. It uses a mod/
con boiler for supplemental space heating. However,
unlike the previous system, heat from the mod/con
boiler is not stored in the buffer tank. Thus, to avoid
short cycling, zoning should be limited based on the
modulation ability of the auxiliary boiler.

120 VAC

P2
T controller!
N.O. contacts closed!
if (T1-T2)>=2 F

relay

TT
boiler

P1
DHW ow switch

P3

39

DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION:
Upon a call for space heating from either of the zone
thermostats, the outdoor reset controller is turned on.
If it determines the tank temperature is warm enough
to supply the space heating load, a 24 VAC relay turns
on circulator (P2). The 3-way mixing valve controller and
variable-speed distribution circulator are also turned on
upon a demand for heat from either zone.
If the tank temperature is too cool to supply the load, the
normally open contact in the outdoor reset controller closes
to power up a T (differential temperature) controller. This
controller measures the difference between hottest water
at the top of the buffer tank and return temperature from
the distribution system. If the top of the tank is at least
2F above the return temperature, the normally open
contact in the T controller closes to keep circulator (P2)
operating. The boiler and circulator (P1) are also operating
at this time. In this mode, there is simultaneous heat input
from the auxiliary boiler and the buffer tank.
If the temperature difference between the buffer tank and
the return side of the distribution system drops to less
than 1F, there is very little heat being extracted from
the tank. Under this condition, the T controller turns off
circulator (P2) to prevent heat generated by the auxiliary
boiler from being added to the buffer tank. The auxiliary
boiler and circulator (P1) remain on to supply the space
heating load as required.
When the buffer tank temperature again rises to where
the temperature differential between the top of the tank
and the return side of the distribution system reaches 2F
or more, circulator (P2) is turned back on to again extract
available heat from the tank.
This control strategy is appropriate for larger storage
tanks, where the ability to lower tank temperature a few
additional degrees Fahrenheit represents perhaps 1 to 3
hours of heat input to the building.
Domestic water is heated instantaneously as needed. A
flow switch detects a domestic water flow of 0.5 gpm
or higher. Under this condition, it powers on a small
circulator that moves heated water from the buffer tank
through the primary side of a stainless steel brazed plate
heat exchanger. Cold water is instantaneously preheated
(or fully heated depending on tank temperature) as it
passes through the other side of the heat exchanger. An
electric tankless water heater provides any necessary
boost in domestic hot water delivery temperature. An
anti-scald-rated thermostatic mixing valve protects
against high domestic water temperatures when the
buffer tank is at an elevated temperature. For the fastest

40

possible response, the piping between the buffer tank

and heat exchanger should be as short as possible and
fully insulated.
This arrangement allows for domestic water preheating
whenever the buffer tank is above the temperature of the
entering cold domestic water. It is beneficial in situations
where the tank is coasting down to a lower temperature
many hours after it received heat from the wood-fired
boiler. It is also beneficial if other low-temperature heat
sources such as solar thermal collectors or heat pumps
are being used to add heat to the buffer tank when the
wood-fired boiler is inactive.
The 3-way motorized mixing valve is an essential part of
the distribution system. It protects the low-temperature
distribution system from what could be very high buffer
tank temperatures when the wood-fired boiler is operating.
The actuator controlling this valve operates based on
outdoor reset logic. This ensures stable indoor temperature
and excellent comfort, regardless of which heat source
is currently supplying the load. Schematics presented
later in this section show how such heat sources can be
incorporated on the heat input side of the buffer tank.

SYSTEM 4:
Description: Space heating and domestic water preheating
from a wood-fired boiler supplying a pressurized buffer
tank. Supplemental heat comes from a closed-loop solar
thermal circuit.
This system is a modification of system 2. All details on
the load side of the buffer tank are identical to those of
system 2.
A closed-loop solar thermal system has been added to
the heat input side of the buffer tank. The collector circuit
operates with antifreeze and transfers heat to the buffer
tank through a stainless steel brazed plate heat exchanger.
The collector loop circulator and solar heat exchanger
circulator are simultaneously operated by a differential
temperature controller that continuously monitors the
temperature difference between the collector array and
the buffer tank. Whenever the collector temperature is
a few degrees Fahrenheit above the tank temperature,
these circulators are turned on to gather solar heat.
This system is particularly appropriate in situations where
the wood-fired boiler will be infrequently fired during
warmer/sunnier weather. During such times, very little, if
any, space heating is required. Thus, much of the collected
solar energy is available for domestic water heating. The
latter is handled by the same instantaneous subsystem
as discussed in the previous system.

air vent!
w/ shut off
valve

so
la

co
lle
ct
or

ar
ra
y

Figure 7-6

solar!
circulation!
station

extensively zoned
distribution system
3-way!
motorized!
mixing valve

zone!
valves
(P1)

small

variable speed!
pressure regulated!
circulator

(P2) circulator
with check

bypass

valve

DHW!
HX

tankless
electric!
water
heater

DHW
CW

ow switch

ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

ThermoCon !
buffer tank

SYSTEM 5:
Description: Space heating and domestic water preheating
from a wood-fired boiler supplying a pressurized buffer
tank. Supplemental heat comes from a water-to-water
geothermal heat pump.
This is another modification of system 2. It substitutes
a water-to-water geothermal heat pump for the auxiliary
boiler. This heat pump may be operated during off-peak
rate periods in lieu of firing the boiler.
Because most currently available heat pumps can only
operate at leaving load water temperatures of about

125F, a temperature controller is used to lock out heat

pump operation if the buffer tank temperature is at or
above this limit.
The details on the load side of the buffer tank are identical
to those of the previous two systems.

SYSTEM 6:
Description: Space heating from a pellet-fired boiler
supplying a pressurized buffer tank and limited high mass
zoning. It provides indirect domestic water heating with
no supplemental heat source.

41

Figure 7-7

extensively zoned
distribution system
3-way!
motorized!
mixing valve

zone!
valves
(P1)

small

variable speed!
pressure regulated!
circulator

(P3) circulator
with check

bypass

valve

DHW!
HX

tankless
electric!
water
heater

DHW
CW

ow switch

ThermoBloc
wood-red
Comp. boiler

ThermoCon !
buffer tank

condenser

evaporator

compressor

TXV

water-to-water!
heat pump
(heating only)

geothermal
manifolds

purging!
valves
earth loop circuits

The heat output of a pellet-fired boiler can be better

controlled compared to that of a wood-fired boiler
designed to rapidly burn a full load of firewood. If the
system has limited zoning, and especially if those zones
use high thermal mass heat emitters such as heated floor
slabs, it is not necessary to install a buffer tank.

separation between all circulators in the system. It also

provides the system with high- efficiency air separation
and dirt separation.

The system in Figure 7-8 shows a pellet-fired boiler

supplying radiant panels that operate as separate zones
and at different supply water temperatures. Domestic
water is heated by an indirect water heater operating as
a third zone.

When any zone calls for heat, the pellet-fired boiler

initiates combustion and its internal controls attempt to
sustain a programmed supply water temperature on the
outlet side of the hydraulic separator.

A hydraulic separator is used between the boiler and

distribution system. This, in combination with generously
sized load-side headers, provides good hydraulic

42

The boiler is protected against sustained flue gas

condensation by the ThermoBloc mixing device.

A 3-way motorized mixing valve operates based on

outdoor reset control to maintain the required supply
water temperature to the lower temperature radiant panel.

The indirect water heater

may be configured as a
priority load based on
the ability of the boilers
controls.

Figure 7-8

SYSTEM 7:
Description: Space heating
and
domestic
water
preheating from a pelletfired boiler supplying a
pressurized buffer tank. No
supplemental heat source.

outdoor!
temperature!
sensor

Hydro!
Separator

Because pellet-fired boilers

can automatically start
and stop based on heat
demand, they are often
the sole heat source in the
system. The system shown
in Figure 7-9 is based on
this assumption. The pelletfired boiler supplies heat to
a relatively modest buffer
tank that also serves as a
hydraulic separator between
the ThermoBloc and the
circulators on the load side
of the buffer tank.

ThermoBloc

indirect water heater

Figure 7-9

TRV

TRV

other!
zones!

bypass

small
circulator
with check
valve

DHW!
HX

tankless
electric!
water
heater

ow switch

Monobloc
ThermoCon !
buffer tank

HydroLink

DHW

The
boilers
internal
controller monitors the
temperature of the buffer
tank and maintains it
suitably high for domestic
water heating.
Upon a demand for space
heating from any of the
zones, the appropriate zone
circulator or mixing station
is turned on. All spaceheating zones are supplied
through the HydroLink, which
receives flow directly from
the buffer tank.

CW

Domestic water is heated

instantaneously as needed.
A flow switch detects a
domestic water flow of 0.5
gpm or higher. Under this
condition, it powers on a
small circulator that moves

43

Figure 7-10

optional differential!
temperature controller
3-way!
motorized!
mixing valve
T1
(P1)

T2

bypass

water-to-air!
heat exchanger !
coil

ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

blower

!
ThermoCon !
buffer tank

!
ThermoCon !
buffer tank

heated water from the buffer tank through the primary

side of a stainless steel brazed plate heat exchanger.
Cold water is instantaneously preheated (or fully heated
depending on tank temperature) as it passes through the
other side of the heat exchanger. An electric tankless
water heater provides any necessary boost in domestic
hot water delivery temperature. An anti-scald-rated
thermostatic mixing valve protects against high domestic
water temperatures when the buffer tank is at an elevated
temperature. For the fastest possible response, the piping
between the buffer tank and heat exchanger should be
short and fully insulated.

SYSTEM 8:
Description: Space heating from a wood-fired boiler
supplying a coil in a forced-air plenum.

Figure 7-11
L1
transformer
120/24 VAC

24 VAC
furnace!
blower

relay
sensors
R

2-stage!
thermostat

This system is for buildings with a forced-air furnace. The

wood-fired boiler delivers heat to the buffer tank(s). In this
case, two Caleffi ThermoCon tanks are shown piped in
parallel reverse return.
Upon a demand for heat from the first stage of a
two-stage thermostat, the load circulator and 3-way
motorized mixing valves are turned on. Hot water from the
buffer tanks is delivered to a multi-pass coil mounted in
the discharge plenum of the furnace. The furnaces burner
remains off at this point.

T controller!
N.O. contacts !
closed!
if (T1-T2)>=2 F

44

relay

The air temperature leaving the plenum is monitored by

the controller of the 3-way mixing valve. Depending on
the ducting system, supply air temperatures of 100 to

120 VAC

3-way!
mixing!
valve!
controller

relay

T1

T2
24 VAC!
burner valve

P1

125F are typical. The air delivery temperature could also

be based on outdoor reset control.
If the heat delivered by the plenum coil is insufficient to
maintain room setpoint, the second stage contacts of
the two-stage thermostat close. These contacts allow
the burner in the furnace to operate. Circulator (P1)
could be turned off at this point. Doing so prevents heat
generated by the furnace from being absorbed by water
flow through the coil. Circulator (P1) should have an
internal check valve, or an external check valve should be
provided to prevent any significant heat transfer from the
coil back to the storage tanks.
If a large buffer tank volume is used, the control system
could also be expanded to include differential temperature
measurement across the coil when the furnace is operating.
If the temperature drop across the coil is greater than a set
minimum value (perhaps 2F), the coil is still contributing
some heat to the air stream, and thus could remain active
even when the furnaces burner is operating. Once the
temperature differential drops to perhaps 1F, very little
heat is being contributed and circulator (P1) as well as

the mixing valve can be turned off. All heat is now being
provided by the furnace. The control wiring schematic in
Figure 7-11 shows the basic concept. However, wiring
modifications may be needed depending on the internal
wiring of the furnace blower and gas valve.
The schematic in Figure 7-10 doesnt show provisions
for domestic water heating. However, the instantaneous
domestic water heating system shown in several previous
system schematics could easily be incorporated into this
system.

SUMMARY:
The rekindled interest in wood as a heating fuel presents
many opportunities for creative hydronic system design.
The operating characteristics of wood-fired heat sources
need to be respected when designing the balance of the
system. Modern hydronic concepts such as buffer tanks,
hydraulic separation, variable-speed distribution systems
and low-temperature heat emitters can be combined
to leverage the high-combustion efficiency attained by
state-of-the-art wood- and pellet-fired boilers.

45

APPENDIX A: PIPING SYMBOL LEGEND

GENERIC COMPONENTS
circulator

circulator w/!
isolation anges !

CALEFFI COMPONENTS
3-way !
thermostatic mixing
valve

3-way motorized
mixing valve

4-way motorized
mixing valve

ow-check valve

swing check valve

gate valve

spring loaded!
check valve

globe valves

purging valve

oat -type!
air vent

VENT

ball valve
pressure gauge
thermostatic!
radiator valve

thermostatic!
radiator valve

strainer
primary/secondary!
tting

hose bib!
drain valve

diverter tee

pressure
relief
valve
pressure &
temperature
relief valve

ThermoBloc

DISCAL central!
air separators !

union
circulator w/!
internal check valve!
& isolation anges !

boiler!
protection!
valve

owcal!
balancing!
valve

balancing!
valve w/!
owmeter

backow preventer

pressure
reducing!
valve

zone valve!
(2 way)

Hydro
Separator

zone valve!
(3 way)
pressure!
relief valve

metered
balancing
valve

brazed !
plate!
heat !
exchanger

differential !
pressure!
bypass valve

air & dirt!

separator

DIRTCAL!
dirt separator

cap

diaphragm-type !
expansion tank

Hydrolink!
(3 congurations)

conventional boiler

distribution!
station

manifold station with

balancing valves

solar!
circulation!
station

mixing units!
(2 congurations)

Modulating / condensing boiler

indirect water heater (with trim)

high temperature!
solar DISCAL !
air separators !
high temperature!
solar pressure!
relief valve!
solar collector array

high temperature!
solar air vent

wood-red boiler

46

high temperature!
shut-off valve for!
solar air vent

high temperature!
solar 3-way thermostatic!
mixing valve
isolar !
differential
temperature
controller

high
temperature!
solar !
expansion!
tank

APPENDIX B: SIZING DIAPHRAGM-TYPE

EXPANSION TANKS

Figure B-2

All closed-loop hydronic systems require expansion tanks

regardless of the heat source used. Closed-loop systems
with wood-fired boilers and relatively large buffer tanks
often require substantially larger expansion tanks due to
the volume of water in the system. This appendix presents
information for sizing the diaphragm-type expansion tanks
commonly used in residential and light commercial systems.
A properly sized diaphragm-type expansion tank allows
the pressure relief valve to reach a pressure about 5 psi
lower than its rated opening pressure when the system
reaches its maximum operating temperature. The 5 psi
margin prevents the relief valve from leaking just below its
rated opening pressure.
The first step in sizing a diaphragm-type expansion tank
is to determine the proper air-side prepressurization of
the tank using Formula B-1.
Formula B-1
Where:
Pa = air-side pressurization of the tank (psi)
H = distance from inlet of expansion tank to top of system (ft)
Dc = density of the fluid at its initial (cold) temperature
(lb/ft3)
The proper air-side prepressurization is equal to the static
fluid pressure at the inlet of the tank, plus an additional 5
psi allowance at the top of the system. The pressure on
the air-side of the diaphragm should be adjusted to the
calculated prepressurization value before fluid is added
to the system. This is done by either adding or removing

air through the Schrader valve on the shell of the tank. A

small air compressor or bicycle tire pump can be used
when air is needed. An accurate 0 to 30 psi pressure
gauge should be used to check this pressure as it is being
adjusted. Many smaller diaphragm-type expansion tanks
are shipped with a nominal air-side prepressurization of
12 psi. However, the air-side pressure should always be
checked before installing the tank.
Proper air-side pressure adjustment ensures the diaphragm
will be fully expanded against the shell of the tank when the
system is filled with fluid, but before it is heated.
Failure to properly prepressurize the tank can result in
the diaphragm being partially compressed by the fluids
static pressure before any heating occurs. If this occurs,
the full expansion volume of the tank will not available as
the fluid heats up.

Figure B-1

47

Once the air-side prepressurization is determined,

Formula B-2 can be used to find the minimum required
volume of the expansion tank:
Formula B-2

Where:
Vt = minimum required tank volume (gallons) Not
acceptance volume.
Vs = fluid volume in the system (gallons)
Dc = density of the fluid at its initial (cold) temperature
(lb/ft3)
Dh = density of the fluid at the maximum operating
temperature of the system (lb/ft3)
Pa = air-side pressurization of the tank found using
Equation B-1 (psi)
PRV = rated pressure of the systems pressure-relief valve
(psi)
System volume can be estimated based on the total
volume of the boiler, piping and other components
in the system. Figure B-1 gives volumes for several
common pipe types and sizes used in residential and light
commercial systems.
The density of water over the temperature range of 50 to
250F can be read from Figure B-2.

Boiler volume = 20 gallons

Piping estimates:

50 feet of 1.5 copper

100 feet of 1 copper

2000 feet of 1/2 PEX
Miscellaneous component volume = 3 gallons
Maximum buffer tank temperature = 200F
Minimum system water temperature = 50F
Vertical distance from top of system to inlet of expansion
tank = 12 feet
Pressure relief valve setting = 30 psi
Solution: Start by getting the density of water at both
extremes:
D50F = 62.4 lb/ft3
D200F = 60.15 lb/ft3
The total estimated system volume is found by totaling up
the volume in piping and other components:
Vs = (50)(0.09505) + (100)(0.0454) + (2000)(0.009609) + 23
+ 2(119) = 290 gallons
Formula B-1 can now be used to calculate the cold fill
pressurization of the expansion tank:

Formula B-2 can now be used to calculate the expansion

tank volume:

Example: Determine the minimum-size diaphragm-type

expansion tank for the system shown and described in
Figure B-3.
Figure B-3

ThermoBloc
wood-red boiler

48

!
ThermoCon !
buffer tank!
(119 gallon)

!
ThermoCon !
buffer tank!
(119 gallon)

Discussion: This expansion tank volume is conservatively

large because it assumes that all water in the system
reaches the upper temperature of 200F simultaneously.
This is not the case for piping downstream of the mixing
valve (e.g., the radiant panel circuits). Thus, it is not
necessary to add any additional safety factor to this
volume.
The expansion tank volume is also considerably larger
than required in most residential hydronic systems. This
is a direct result of the large buffer tank volume (238
gallons) out of the total system volume (290 gallons). In
this case, the expansion tank volume was approximately
10% of the total system volume. Given similar system
operating conditions, it is reasonable to make a rough
estimate of expansion tank volume using the 10% rule
of thumb. However, variations in temperature, height or
pressure-relief valve settings should always be evaluated
using the above procedure.

49

ThermoMix boiler protection

high-flow thermostatic mixing valve

CALEFFI

series 280

Function
The ThermoMix boiler protection high-flow thermostatic mixing
valve is used in hydronic heating systems with non-condensing
boilers, including solid fuel, biomass, gas, LP or oil-fired. It can be
installed with steel, cast iron and copper tube style boilers,
automatically controlling the return water temperature, preventing
condensation of the water vapor contained in the flue gas.
The 280 series ThermoMix valve mixes bypass flow from the boiler
with return flow from the system, sending a fixed temperature flow to
the boiler which protects against corrosion from condensation
occurring when a minimum flue gas temperature is not otherwise
maintained.
Changable thermostatic sensor cartridges modifies valve temperature setting. The thermostatic sensor cartridge can easily be
removed for maintenance or to change the valve set temperature,
with out removing the valve body from the piping.

Product range
Code 280xxxA Boiler protection high-flow thermostatic mixing valve with 140F cartridge, threaded and sweat connections
Code F29633 Themostatic sensor cartridge
Code F29634 Themostatic sensor cartridge
Code F29635 Themostatic sensor cartridge
Code F29636 Themostatic sensor cartridge

Technical specifications

sizes 1, 1-1/4
115 F
130 F
140 F
160 F

Dimensions

Materials
Body and lower body plug:

brass

Shutter:

polysulfone

Spring:

stainless steel

Seal:

EPDM

Union seals:

non-asbestos fiber

Thermostatic sensor:

wax

Performance
Suitable fluids: water, up to 50% glycol solutions
Max working pressure:
Working temperature range:
Thermostatic sensor cartridge:

140 F
150 psi

150 psi (10 bar)

40-212F (5-100C)
140F (60C) standard

115F (45C), 130F (55C), 160F (70C) optional cartridges

Sensor cartridge accuracy:
By-pass from boiler complete
closing temperature:
Cv:
Connections: - NPT male union
- sweat union

50

3.6F (2C)
Tset +18F (10C)
size 1... 10Cv
size 1-1/4 ... 14Cv
1 and 1
1 and 1

Code
280166A
280966A
280176A
280976A

A
B
1 NPT
3 1/2
1 SWT
3 1/2
1 1/4 NPT 3 13/16
1 1/4 SWT 3 13/16

C
7
7
7 5/8
7 5/8

D
6
6
6 3/16
6 3/16

E
1 5/8
1 5/8
1 9/16
1 9/16

F
4 3/8
4 3/8
4 3/8
4 3/8

Construction details

Characteristic components

The brass body prevents the formation of ferrous residues in the

system, prolonging boiler operating life.

Bypass
from boiler

The thermostatic sensor can be easily replaced

for maintenance or set point change.

Temp gage pocket

wells (4)

The boiler protection mixing valve body features

temperature gage pocket wells on front and rear
sides, allowing installation of a temperature
gage (code F29571) for monitoring the working
temperatures: bypass from boiler, return from
system, and mixed to boiler.

Valve body
Shutter

Flow curve
1

Tf=Bypass flow from boiler

Tset=Boiler protection valve set point temperature

4.3

1.5

0.7

Cv:

88
200

22

size 1... 10
size 1-1/4 ... 14

Tf > Tset START OF SYSTEM LOADING

by-pass open
system return open
Tf > Tset, Tr < Tset, Tmix=Tset

SOLID
FUEL
BOILER

Tmix = Tset + 18F BY-PASS CLOSING

by-pass closed
system return open
Tf > Tmix = Tset +18F , Tmix=Tr

SOLID
FUEL
BOILER

20

When the mixed flow to the boiler temperature Tmix is greater than
the set point of the boiler protection mixing valve by approximately
18F (10C), the bypass flow from the boiler port closes and water
returns to the boiler at the same temperature as the return flow from
the system.

The thermostatic sensor, completely immersed in the medium,

controls the movement of a shutter that regulates the bypass flow
from the boiler and toward the system. At boiler startup, the boiler
protection thermostatic mixing valve recirculates the bypass flow
from the boiler to bring the boiler up to temperature as quickly as
possible (fig. 1). When the bypass flow from the boiler Tf exceeds the
setting of the boiler protection mixing valve Tset, the valves return
from the system port starts opening to produce the water mixing
Tmix: in this phase the system loading begins (fig. 2).

SOLID
FUEL
BOILER

21
4.5

10

Operating principle

Tf Tset SYSTEM START UP

by-pass open
system return closed
Tf Tset, Tmix=Tf

p (psi)

System return

Plug

1-1/4

Flowrate
(l/min) (gpm)

Mixed
to boiler

Return
from system

Thermostatic
sensor

44

Spring

Tmix > Tset + 18F SYSTEM LOADED

by-pass closed
system return open
Tf > Tmix > Tset +18F , Tmix=Tr

SOLID
FUEL
BOILER

Tmix=Mixed flow to boiler temperature

Tr=Return from system temperature

51

ThermoBloc Boiler protection

recirculation and distribution unit

CALEFFI

series 281
Function

The ThermoBloc boiler protection recirculation and distribution

unit is used in hydronic heating systems with non-condensing
boilers, including solid fuel, biomass, gas, LP or oil-fired. It can be
installed with steel, cast iron and copper tube style boilers,
automatically controlling the return water temperature, protecting
against corrosion from condensation occurring when a minimum
flue gas temperature is not otherwise maintained.
The ThermoBloc unit is compact for easy installation, reducing
required space and fittings. It combines the functionality of a boiler
protection valve with a circulation pump and a unique flapper check
valve allowing for thermosyphon flow between the boiler and
distribution system during a power outage. The ThermoBloc
includes three temperature gages and is encased in an insulation
shell.

Product range

Code 281xxxA Boiler protection unit, with 140 F cartridge, threaded and sweat connections
Dimensions

Technical specifications
Materials
Body:
Shutter:
Spring:
Flapper check valve
Seal:
Thermostatic sensor:

sizes 1, 1-1/4

brass
PSU
stainless steel
PPS
EPDM
wax

Performance
Suitable fluids:
water, up to 50% glycol solutions
Max working pressure:
150 psi (10 bar)
Working temperature range:
40-210F (5-100C)
Termperature gage scale:
30-250F (0-120C)
Thermostatic sensor cartridge:
140F (60C) standard
115F (45C), 130F (55C), 160F (70C) optional cartridges
Sensor cartridge accuracy:
3.6F (2C)
Bypass from boiler complete
closing temperature:
Tset +18F (10C)
Connections: - NPT male union
- sweat union
Pump
Three speed pump:
Body:
Power supply: 115 V - 60 Hz
Max. pressure:
Max. temperature:
Agency approval:
Insulation
Material:
Mean thickness:
Density:
Working temperature range:
Thermal conductivity:
Reaction to fire (UL94):

52

1 and 1-1/4
1 and 1-1/4

Wilo Star S-16 U15

cast iron
150 psi (10 bar)
230F (110C)
cULus

EPP
30 mm
3
45 kg/m
40-210F (5-100C)
0.037 W/(m.K) at 10C
class HBF

210 F
150 psi
140 F

Code
281166A
281966A
281176A
281976A

A
1 NPT
1 SWT
1 1/4 NPT
1 1/4 SWT

B
8 3/4
8 3/4
8 3/4
8 3/4

281 Pump characteristcs

C
5 5/8
5 5/8
5 5/8
5 5/8

D
3
3
3
3

E
9 7/8
9 7/8
9 7/8
9 7/8

F
1 7/8
1 7/8
1 7/8
1 7/8

G
8
8
8
8

Characteristic components

By-pass from boiler

Tf

4
Temp. gauge pocket
well (3)

Ritorno Three-speed
al generatore pump

by-pass open

return
Ritorno system
closed
impianto

Shuttle
Thermostatic sensor

Mixed
to boiler

Return
from system

Valve body

Tmix

Tr

Tset

Tf > Tset START OF SYSTEM LOADING

Tf > Tset, Tr < Tset, Tmix=Tset

By-pass from boiler

Valve for natural

circulation

Return
from system

By-pass
from boiler

Mixed
to boiler

Tf Tset BOILER START UP

Tf Tset, Tmix=Tf

Tf

Operating principle
The thermostatic sensor, completely immersed in the medium,
controls the movement of a shutter that regulates the bypass flow
from the boiler and toward the system. At boiler startup, the boiler
protection recirculation and distribution unit recirculates the bypass
flow from the boiler to bring the boiler up to temperature as quickly as
possible (fig. 1). When the bypass flow from the boiler Tf exceeds the
setting of the fixed thermostatic sensor Tset, the units return from
the system port starts opening to produce the water mixing Tmix: in
this phase the system loading begins (fig. 2).

Tset

Return
from system

system return
open

Mixed
to boiler

By-pass from boiler

Tmix

T mix > Tset + 18F SYSTEM LOADED

Tf > Tmix > Tset +18F, Tmix=Tr

Tr

Tf

When power is out and the circulation pump stops running, the
flapper check valve, which is closed during normal operation, opens
with a slight pressure differential resulting from the effects of heated
water in the boiler and cooler water in the distribution syste, a natural
thermosyphon flow. This prevents a excessive heat buildup which
eventually would cause the pressure relief valve to open(fig. 4).

by-pass closed

The compact brass body casting houses the pump and all functioning components, offering easy installation, either on the right or left
side of the boiler. The temperature gages can be easily removed and
re-inserted on the back side of the unit.

Tmix

Mixed
to boiler

The brass body prevents the formation of ferrous residues in the

system, prolonging boiler operating life.

The flapper check valve allows the natural

thermosyphon circulation of the system heat
transfer fluid when the pump stops running
due to power failer. When the pump is
running under normal conditions the thust of
the flowing medium keeps the flapper closed,
forcing flow past the thermostatic sensor.
When the pump stops running and the fluid in
the boiler is at high temperature, natural
circulation begins, bypassing the thermostatic sensor, preventing overheating in the
boiler.

Tset

PUMP OFF

Normally closed check valve opens due to

buoyancy forces to allow thermosyphon flow

By-pass from boiler

Tf

by-pass open
system return
closed

Mixed
to boiler

The unit features a thermostatic sensor to control the temperature of

water returning to the boiler to prevent condensation. The sensor can
be easily replaced for maintenance or set point change.

Tr

Return
from system

system return
open

Tr

Tmix

Tset

Return
from system

When the mixed flow to the boiler temperature Tmix is greater than
the set point of the boiler protection recirculation and distribution unit
by approximately 18F (10C), the bypass flow from the boiler port
closes and water returns to the boiler at the same temperature as the
return flow from the system (fig. 3).

by-pass open

53

ThermoCon buffer storage tanks

CALEFFI

series NAS200

Function
ThermoCon tanks are designed to be used for wood boilers, solar
and geothermal storage, plus in heating systems with low-mass
boilers, chilled water systems and low-mass radiation. ThermoCon
tanks are used in systems operating below the design load
condition, which is most of the time, or in systems having several low
cooling or heating loads demands at different times. Boilers operating at low loads will short cycle, resulting in reduced operating
efficiency and shorter equipment life. When piped correctly, the
ThermoCon will serve as both a thermal buffer and a hydraulic
separator. The solar, boiler or chiller system will be hydraulically
separated from the distribution system.
Meets and exceeds CSA C309 requirements

Product range
Code NAS20050
Code NAS20080
Code NAS20120

Storage tank
Storage tank
Storage tank

50 gallon
80 gallon
120 gallon

Dimensions

Technical specifications
Tank materials:
Tank insulation:
Tank external cover:
Insulation thermal conductivity:
Connections:

porcelain coated steel

2" non-CFC foam
powder-coated steel (20-24 ga.)
R16

2NPT

8
4

NPT

top (3) 3/4" NPT female

side (7) 2 NPT female
Maximum working pressure:
150 psi
Testing pressure:
300 psi
Maximum tank temperature:
180F
Recommended maximum delivery hot water temperature:
120F

2NPT
B
C

The ThermoCon tanks are engineered with seven (7) 2 NPT

connections. Two connections can be piped to the solar, boiler or
chiller side and two connections can be piped to the distribution
system. Two additional connection are 90 degree from another
which allows for positioning tank into a corner with the piping at a
right angle. The tank has one 2 NPT connection for connecting an
external heat exchange in the middle of the tank.

54

2NPT

Construction details

F
A

Model

NAS20050

22

48

39

23

NAS20080

24

64

53

32

11

NAS20120

28

65

53

32

11

air vent !
w/ shut off
valve

so

la
r

co

lle
c

to
r

ar
ra
y

Applications

solar !
circulation !
station

extensively zoned
distribution system
3-way !
motorized !
mixing valve

zone !
valves
(P1)

bypass

(P2)

small
circulator
with check
valve

variable speed !
pressure regulated !
circulator

tankless
electric !
water
heater

DHW !
HX

DHW
CW
flow switch

wood-fired boiler
ThermoCon !
buffer tank

extensively zoned
distribution system
3-way !
motorized !
mixing valve

zone !
valves
(P1)

bypass

(P3)

DHW !
HX

small
circulator
with check
valve

variable speed !
pressure regulated !
circulator

tankless
electric !
water
heater

DHW
CW
flow switch

wood-fired
Comp.boiler
ThermoCon !
buffer tank

condenser

evaporator

compressor

TXV

water-to-water
heat pump

(heating only)

geothermal
manifolds

purging !
valves
earth loop circuits

55

CALEFFI BIOMASS :

HUG NATURE, HUG CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES

COMPONENTS FOR BIOMASS SYSTEMS
Designed and manufactured specifically to be used in systems
with wood solid fuel boilers in terms of efficiency and safety.
ThermoBloc combines boiler protection valve with pump into
one unit to protect flue gases from condensing.
ThermoMix boiler protection valve is design to control
the return temperature to boiler to protect flue gases from
condensing.
ThermoCon insulated buffering glass lined storage tank
absorbs all the heat generated by multiple hours of operation.
DISCAL air separator automatically removes microbubbles from
system to improve efficiency and safety.

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