1

Method Development and

Validation of Analytical Procedures
Kapil Kalra
Dev Bhoomi Institute of Pharmacy and Research, Dehradun, Uttarakhand,
India
1. Introduction
Method validation is the process used to confirm that the analytical procedure employed for
a specific test is suitable for its intended use. Results from method validation can be used to
judge the quality, reliability and consistency of analytical results; it is an integral part of any
good analytical practice. It is the process of defining an analytical requirement, and confirms
that the method under consideration has performance capabilities consistent with what the
application requires. Use of equipment that is within specification, working correctly and
adequately calibrated is fundamental to the method validation process. Likewise the
operator carrying out the studies must be competent in the analysis under study and have
sufficient knowledge of the method/analysis to draw conclusions from the observations as
the validation work proceeds. Quite often method validation evolves from method
development and so the two activities are often closely tied, with the validation study
employing the techniques and steps in the analysis as defined by the method development.
Analytical methods need to be validated or revalidated

before their introduction into routine use;

whenever the conditions change for which the method has been validated (e.g., an
instrument with different characteristics or samples with a different matrix); and

whenever the method is changed and the change is outside the original scope of the
method.
Method validation has received considerable attention in the literature and from industrial
committees and regulatory agencies.

The U.S. FDA CGMP request in section 211.165 (e) methods to be validated: The
accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility of test methods employed by the
firm shall be established and documented. Such validation and documentation may be
accomplished in accordance with Sec. 211.194(a). These requirements include a
statement of each method used in testing the sample to meet proper standards of
accuracy and reliability, as applied to the tested product. The U.S. FDA has also
proposed industry guidance for Analytical Procedures and Methods Validation.

ISO/IEC 17025 includes a chapter on the validation of methods with a list of nine
validation parameters. The ICH has developed a consensus text on the validation of
analytical procedures. The document includes definitions for eight validation
characteristics. ICH also developed guidance with detailed methodology.

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The U.S. EPA prepared guidance for methods development and validation for the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The AOAC, the EPA and other
scientific organizations provide methods that are validated through multi-laboratory
studies.

1.1 When should methods be validated?

A method should be validated when it is necessary to verify that its performance parameters
are adequate for use for a particular analytical problem. For example:
Method just developed
Revised method or established method adapted to a new problem;
When a review of quality control indicates an established method is changing with
time;
When an established method is used in a different laboratory, with different analysts or
with mdifferent equipment
Demonstration of the equivalence between two methods, e.g. a new method and a
standard. Certain areas of analytical practices, such as in clinical chemistry will specify
validation requirements relevant to the method. This ensures that particular validation
terminology together with the statistics used is interpreted in a manner consistent
within the relevant sector. Official recognition of a method may require characterisation
using a collaborative study.
1.2 Strategy for the validation of methods
The validity of a specific method should be demonstrated in laboratory experiments using
samples or standards that are similar to unknown samples analyzed routinely. The
preparation and execution should follow a validation protocol, preferably written in a stepby-step instruction format. This proposed procedure assumes that the instrument has been
selected and the method has been developed. It meets criteria such as ease of use; ability to
be automated and to be controlled by computer systems; costs per analysis; sample
throughput; turnaround time; and environmental, health and safety requirements.
1. Develop a validation protocol, an operating procedure or a validation master plan for
the validation
2. For a specific validation project define owners and responsibilities
3. Develop a validation project plan
4. Define the application, purpose and scope of the method
5. Define the performance parameters and acceptance criteria
6. Define validation experiments
7. Verify relevant performance characteristics of equipment
8. Qualify materials, e.g. standards and reagents for purity, accurate amounts and
sufficient stability
9. Perform pre-validation experiments
10. Adjust method parameters or/and acceptance criteria if necessary
11. Perform full internal (and external) validation experiments
12. Develop SOPs for executing the method in the routine
13. Define criteria for revalidation
14. Define type and frequency of system suitability tests and/or analytical quality control
(AQC) checks for the routine
15. Document validation experiments and results in the validation report

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Method Development and Validation of Analytical Procedures

2. Steps in method validation

Successful acceptance of the validation parameters and performance criteria, by all parties
involved, requires the cooperative efforts of several departments, including analytical
development, QC, regulatory affairs and the individuals requiring the analytical data. The
operating procedure or the Validation Master Plan (VMP) should clearly define the roles
and responsibilities of each department involved in the validation of analytical methods.
The scope of the method and its validation criteria should be defined early in the process.
These include the following questions:

What analytes should be detected?

What are the expected concentration levels?

What are the sample matrices?

Are there interfering substances expected, and, if so, should they be detected and
quantified?

Are there any specific legislative or regulatory requirements?

Should information be qualitative or quantitative?

What are the required detection and quantitation limits?

What is the expected concentration range?

What precision and accuracy is expected?

How robust should the method be?

Which type of equipment should be used? Is the method for one specific instrument, or
should it be used by all instruments of the same type?

Will the method be used in one specific laboratory or should it be applicable in all
laboratories at one side or around the globe?

What skills do the anticipated users of the method have?

The methods performance characteristics should be based on the intended use of the
method. It is not always necessary to validate all analytical parameters that are available for
a specific technique. For example, if the method is to be used for qualitative trace level
analysis, there is no need to test and validate the methods limit of quantitation, or the
linearity, over the full dynamic range of the equipment. Initial parameters should be chosen
according to the analysts experience and best judgment. Final parameters should be agreed
between the lab or analytical chemist performing the validation and the lab or individual
applying the method and users of the data to be generated by the method.
2.1 Quality control plan and implementation for routine
For any method that will be used for routine analysis, a QC plan should be developed. This
plan should ensure that the method, together with the equipment, delivers consistently
accurate results. The plan may include recommendations for the following:
1. Selection, handling and testing of QC standards
2. Type and frequency of equipment checks and calibrations (for example, should the
wavelength accuracy and the baseline noise of an HPLC UV detector be checked after
each sample analysis, or on a daily or weekly basis?)
3. Type and frequency of system suitability testing (for example, at which point during
the sequence system should suitability standards be analyzed?)
4. Type and frequency of QC samples (for example, should a QC sample be analyzed after
1, 5, 20 or 50 unknown samples, and should there be single or duplicate QC sample
analysis, or should this be run at one or several concentrations?)

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5.

Acceptance criteria for equipment checks, system suitability tests and QC sample
analysis
6. Action plan in case criteria 2, 3 and/or 4 are not met.
In many cases, methods are developed and validated in service laboratories that are
specialized in this task. When the method is transferred to the routine analytical laboratory,
care should be taken that the method and its critical parameters are well understood by the
workers in the departments who apply the method. A detailed validation protocol, a
documented procedure for method implementation and good communication between the
development and operation departments are equally important. If the method is used by a
number of departments, it is recommended to verify method validation parameters and to
test the applicability and usability of the method in a couple of these departments before it is
distributed to other departments. In this way, problems can be identified and corrected
before the method is distributed to a larger audience. If the method is intended to be used
by just one or two departments, an analyst from the development department should assist
the users of the method during initial operation. Users of the method should be encouraged
to give constant feedback on the applicability and usability of the method to the
development department. The latter should correct problems if any arise.
2.2 Transferring validated routine methods
Validated routine methods are transferred between laboratories at the same or different sites
when contract laboratories offer services for routine analysis in different areas or when
products are manufactured in different areas. When validated routine methods are
transferred between laboratories and sites, their validated state should be maintained to
ensure the same reliable results in the receiving laboratory. This means the competence of
the receiving laboratory to use the method should be demonstrated through tests, for
example, repeat critical method validation experiments and run samples in parallel in the
transferring and receiving laboratories. The transfer should be controlled by a procedure,
The recommended steps are:

Designate a project owner

Develop a transfer plan

Define transfer tests and acceptance criteria (validation experiments, sample

analysis: sample type, #replicates)

Describe rational for tests

Train receiving lab operators in transferring lab on equipment, method, critical

parameters and troubleshooting

Repeat 2 critical method validation tests in routine lab

Analyze at least three samples in transferring and receiving lab

Document transfer results

2.3 Revalidation
Most likely some method parameters have to be changed or adjusted during the life of the
method if the method performance criteria fall outside their acceptance criteria. The
question is whether such change requires revalidation. In order to clarify this question
upfront, operating ranges should be defined for each method, either based on experience
with similar methods or else investigated during method development. These ranges should
be verified during method validation in robustness studies and should be part of the
method characteristics. Availability of such operating ranges makes it easier to decide when

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Method Development and Validation of Analytical Procedures

a method should be revalidated. A revalidation is necessary whenever a method is changed,

and the new parameter lies outside the operating range. If, for example, the operating range
of the column temperature has been specified to be between 30 and 40C, the method should
be revalidated if, for whatever reason, the new operating parameter is 41C.
Revalidation is also required if the scope of the method has been changed or extended, for
example, if the sample matrix changes or if operating conditions change. Furthermore,
revalidation is necessary if the intention is to use instruments with different characteristics,
and these new characteristics have not been covered by the initial validation. For example,
an HPLC method may have been developed and validated on a pump with a delay volume
of 5 mL, but the new pump has a delay volume of only 0.5 mL.
Define and document
change

Change fits the methods

scope, parameters
and limits?

yes

no
Perform part or full
revalidation

Define and perform

system suitability testing

Fig. 1. Flow diagram for revalidation

Part or full revalidation may also be considered if system suitability tests, or the results of
QC sample analysis, lie outside preset acceptance criteria and where the source of the error
cannot be traced back to the instruments or any other cause.
Whenever there is a change that may require part or full revalidation, the change should
follow a documented change control system. The change should be defined, authorized for
implementation and documented. Possible changes may include

new samples with new compounds or new matrices,

new analysts with different skills,

new instruments with different characteristics,

new location with different environmental conditions,

new chemicals and/or reference standards and

modification of analytical parameters.

An evaluation should determine whether the change is within the scope of the method. If so,
no revalidation is required. If the change lies outside the scope, the parameters for revalidation
should be defined. After the validation experiments, the system suitability test parameters
should be investigated and redefined, if necessary.

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2.4 Bionalytical method development and validation

The process by which a specific bioanalytical method is developed, validated, and used in
routine sample analysis can be divided into
1. Reference Standard preparation
2. Bioanalytical method develo`pment and establishment of assay procedure
3. Application of validated bioanalytical method to routine drug analysis and acceptance
criteria for the analytical run and/or batch.

3. Parameters for method validation

The parameters for method validation have been defined in different working groups of
national and international committees and are described in the literature. Unfortunately,
some of the definitions vary between the different organizations. An attempt at harmonization
was made for pharmaceutical applications through the ICH where representatives from the
industry and regulatory agencies from the United States, Europe and Japan defined
parameters, requirements and, to some extent, methodology for analytical methods validation.
3.1 Selectivity/specificity
The terms selectivity and specificity are often used interchangeably, the term specific generally
refers to a method that produces a response for a single analyte only, while the term selective
refers to a method that provides responses for a number of chemical entities that may or
may not be distinguished from each other. If the response is distinguished from all other
responses, the method is said to be selective. Since there are very few methods that respond
to only one analyte, the term selectivity is usually more appropriate Selectivity and specificity
are measures of the reliability of measurements in the presence of interferences. Where the
measurement stage is non-specific, method development should indicate which analytes do
not interfere. There will be cases where chemical interferences can be identified for a
particular method but the chances of encountering them in real life may be improbable. The
analyst has to decide at what point it is reasonable to stop looking for interferences. These
parameters apply to both qualitative and quantitative analysis. The selectivity of a method is
usually investigated by studying its ability to measure the analyte of interest in test portions
to which specific interferences have been deliberately introduced (those thought likely to be
present in samples). Where it is unclear whether or not interferences are already present, the
selectivity of the method can be investigated by studying its ability to measure compared to
other independent method/techniques. Another aspect of selectivity which must be
considered is where an analyte may exist in the sample in more than one form such as: free
or complexed; inorganic or organometallic; or the possibility of a component such as
Chromium ion being present in different oxidation states such as Cr3+ or Cr6+.
3.2 Precision and reproducibility
Precision is method and concentration specific, which in prac tice can be very varied. The
two most common precision measures are repeatability and reproducibility. They
represent the two extreme measures of precision, which can be obtained. Repeatability (the
smallest expected precision) will give an idea of the sort of variability to be expected when a
method is performed by a single analyst on one piece of equipment over a short timescale,
i.e. the sort of variability to be expected between results when a sample is analysed in
duplicate. If a sample is to be analysed by a number of laboratories for comparative
purposes then a more meaningful precision measure is reproducibility (this is the largest

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Method Development and Validation of Analytical Procedures

measure of precision normally encountered). It may be that some in-between measure is the
most useful in particular cases; for example precision measured between different analysts,
over extended timescales, within a single laboratory. This is sometimes known as
intermediate precision, but the exact conditions should be stated. Precision is usually
stated in terms of standard deviation or relative standard deviation. Both repeatability and
reproducibility are generally dependent on analyte concentration, and so should be
determined at a number of concentrations and if relevant, the relationship between
precision and analyte concentration should be established. The Purpose of carrying out a
determination is to obtain a valid estimate of a true value. When one considers the criteria
according to which an analytical procedure is selected, precision and accuracy are usually
the first time to come to mind. Precision and accuracy together determine the error of an
individual determination. They are among the most important criteria for judging analytical
procedures by their results. Precision refers to the reproducibility of measurement within a
set, that is, to the scatter of dispersion of a set about its central values. The term set is
defined as referring to a number (n) of independent replicate measurements of some
property. One of the most common statistical terms employed is the standard deviation of a
population of observation. Standard deviation is the square root of the sum of squares of a
deviations of individual results for the mean, divided by one less than the number of results
in the set.
The standard deviation S, is given by

S = =

1 N
(xi x )2 ,
N i =1

Standard deviation has the same units as the property being measured.
The square of standard deviation is called variance (s2). Relative standard deviation is the
standard deviation as a fraction of the mean, i.e. S/x. It is some times multiplied by 100 and
expressed as a percent relative standard deviation. It becomes a more reliable expression of
precision.
% Relative Standard Deviation (RSD)= S * 100/x
3.3 Accuracy and recovery
The accuracy of an analytical method is the extent to which test results generated by the
method and the true value agree. Accuracy can also be described as the closeness of
agreement between the value that is adopted, either as a conventional, true or accepted
reference value, and the value found. The true value for accuracy assessment can be
obtained in several ways. One alternative is to compare the results of the method with
results from an established reference method. This approach assumes that the uncertainty of
the reference method is known. Secondly, accuracy can be assessed by analyzing a sample
with known concentrations (e.g., a control sample or certified reference material) and
comparing the measured value with the true value as supplied with the material. If certified
reference materials or control samples are not available, a blank sample matrix of interest
can be spiked with a known concentration by weight or volume. After extraction of the
analyte from the matrix and injection into the analytical instrument, its recovery can be
determined by comparing the response of the extract with the response of the reference
material dissolved in a pure solvent. Because this accuracy assessment measures the
effectiveness of sample preparation, care should be taken to mimic the actual sample

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Quality Control of Herbal Medicines and Related Areas

preparation as closely as possible. If validated correctly, the recovery factor determined for
different concentrations can be used to correct the final results.
3.3.1 Calibration
Calibration is the most important step in bioactive compound analysis. A good Precision
and accuracy can only be obtained when a good calibration procedure is adopted. In the
Spectrophotometric methods, the concentration of a sample cannot be measured directly,
but is determined using physical measuring quantity y (absorbance of a solution). An
unambiguous empirical or theoretical relationship can be shown between this quanity and
the concentration of an analyte. The calibration between y = g(x) the calibration function can
be obtained by fitting an adequate mathematical model through the experimental data. The
most convenient calibration function is linear, goes through the origin and is applicable over
a wide dynamic range. In practice however, many deviations from the ideal calibration line
may occur. For the majority of analytical techniques uses the calibration equation.

Y = a + bX
In calibration, univarate regression is applied, when means that all observations are
dependent upon a single variable X.
3.3.2 Standard deviation of slope (Sb)
The standard deviation of slope is proportional to standard error of estimate and inversely
proportional to the range and square root of the number of data points.
3.3.3 Standard deviation of intercept, (Sa)
Intercept values of least squares fits of data are often to evaluate additive errors between or
among different methods.
3.3.4 Correlation coefficient, (r)
The correlation coefficient r (x,y) is more useful to express the relationship of the chosen
scales. To obtain a correlation coefficient the covariance is divided by the product of the
standard deviation of x and y.

( xi x ) ( y i y )
n

r=

i =1
n

(xi x )2 ( yi y )2
i =1

i =1

The absolute recovery of analytical method as the response of a processed spiked matrix
expressed as a percentage of the response of pure standard. Which has not been subjected to
sample pre-treatment and indicates whether the method provides a response for the entire
amount of analyte that is present in the sample. It is best established by comparing the
responses of extracted samples at low, medium and high concentrations in replicates at least
6 with those non- extracted standards, which represent 100% recovery.
Absolute recovery =

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response of an spike into matrix (processed)

100
response of an analyte of pure standard (unprocessed)

Method Development and Validation of Analytical Procedures

11

If an internal standard is used, its recovery should be determined independently at the

concentration levels used in the method.
3.3.5 Linearity and sensitivity of the method
It may be demonstrated directly on the drug substance (by dilution of a standard stock
solution) and/or separate weighings of synthetic mixtures of the drug product components,
using the proposed procedure. The latter aspect can be studied during investigation of the
range. Linearity should be evaluated by visual inspection of a plot of signals as a function of
analyte concentration or content.The correlation coefficient, y-intercept, slope of the regression
line, and residual sum of squares should be submitted. A plot of the data should be included.
According to the Beers Lambert Law, Absorbance is the ratio of logarithm of Intensity of
incident light and Intensity of transmitted light, or A = CT. Knowledge of the sensitivity of
the color is important and the following terms are commonly employed for expressing
sensitivity. The absorbance (A) is proportional to the concentration (C) of the absorbing
species, if absorptivity () and thickness of the medium (t) are constant. When concentration
is in moles per litre, the constant is called molar absorptivity. Beers Law limits and Emax
values are expressed as g/ml and moles/cm respectively. Sandells Sensitivity refers to the
number of g of the drug to be determining, converted to the colored product, which in a
column solution of cross section 1cm2 shows an absorbance of 0.001(expressed as g/cm).
3.4 Stability
The term system stability has been defined as the stability of the samples being analyzed in
a sample solution. System stability should be determined by replicate analysis of the sample
solution. System stability is considered appropriate when the RSD, calculated on the assay
results obtained at different time intervals, does not exceed more than 20 percent of the
corresponding value of the system precision. If, on plotting the assay results as a function of
time, the value is higher, the maximum duration of the usability of the sample solution can
be calculated.
Response
Linear range

Slope = sensitivity
LOQ

e.g. RSD > 10%, S/N > 20

e.g. S/N > 3

LOD
Intercept
Amount

Fig. 2. Definitions for linearity, range, LOQ, LOD

3.5 Range
The range of an analytical method is the interval between the upper and lower levels
(including these levels) that have been demonstrated to be determined with precision,

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accuracy and linearity using the method as written. The range is normally expressed in the
same units as the test results (e.g., percentage, parts per million) obtained by the analytical
method. For assay tests, the ICH (5) requires the minimum specified range to be 80 to 120
percent of the test concentration, and for the determination of an impurity, the range to
extend from the limit of quantitation, or from 50 percent of the specification of each
impurity, whichever is greater, to 120 percent of the specification.
3.6 Limit of detection
The limit of detection is the point at which a measured value is larger than the uncertainty
associated with it. It is the lowest concentration of analyte in a sample that can be detected
but not necessarily quantified. The limit of detection is frequently confused with the sensitivity
of the method. The sensitivity of an analytical method is the capability of the method to
discriminate small differences in concentration or mass of the test analyte. In practical terms,
sensitivity is the slope of the calibration curve that is obtained by plotting the response
against the analyte concentration or mass.
In chromatography, the detection limit is the injected amount that results in a peak with a
height at least two or three times as high as the baseline noise level. Besides this
signal/noise method, the ICH (4) describes three more methods:
1. Visual inspection: The detection limit is determined by the analysis of samples with
known concentrations of analyte and by establishing the minimum level at which the
analyte can be reliably detected.
2. Standard deviation of the response based on the standard deviation of the blank:
Measurement of the magnitude of analytical background response is performed by
analyzing an appropriate number of blank samples and calculating the standard
deviation of these responses.
3. Standard deviation of the response based on the slope of the calibration curve: A
specific calibration curve is studied using samples containing an analyte in the range of
the limit of detection. The residual standard deviation of a regression line, or the standard
deviation of y-intercepts of regression lines, may be used as the standard deviation.
3.7 Limit of quantitation
The limit of quantitation is the minimum injected amount that produces quantitative
measurements in the target matrix with acceptable precision in chromatography, typically
requiring peak heights 10 to 20 times higher than the baseline noise. If the required precision
of the method at the limit of quantitation has been specified, the EURACHEM (22) approach
can be used. A number of samples with decreasing amounts of the analyte are injected six
times. The calculated RSD percent of the precision is plotted against the analyte amount.
The amount that corresponds to the previously defined required precision is equal to the
limit of quantitation. It is important to use not only pure standards for this test but also
spiked matrices that closely represent the unknown samples. For the limit of detection, the
ICH (5) recommends, in addition to the procedures as described above, the visual inspection
and the standard deviation of the response and the slope of the calibration curve.
Any results of limits of detection and quantitation measurements must be verified by
experimental tests with samples containing the analytes at levels across the two regions. It is
equally important to assess other method validation parameters, such as precision,
reproducibility and accuracy, close to the limits of detection and quantitation. Figure 6
illustrates the limit of quantitation (along with the limit of detection, range and linearity).
Figure 7 illustrates both the limit of detection and the limit of quantitation.

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Method Development and Validation of Analytical Procedures

Limit of detection
Signal/Noise = 2-3

Limit of quantitation
Signal/Noise = 10-20

Signal

Noise

Fig. 3. Limit of detection and limit of quantitation via signal to noise

Precision (%RSD)

Define expected precision for

limit of quantitation
Prepare spiked matrix sample
Dilute and inject 6 times
Calculate %RSD for each
concentration
Plot precision vs. concentration
Concentration at expected
precision = limit of quantitation
Concentration (ppm)

Limit of quantitation

Fig. 4. Limit of quantitation with the EURACHEM (80) method

3.8 Repeatability
From the repeatability standard deviation or or sr it is useful to calculate the repeatability
limit r, which enables the analyst to decide whether the difference between duplicate
analyses of a sample, determined under repeatability conditions, is significant.
3.9 Reproducibility
From the reproducibility standard deviation oR or sR it is useful to calculate the
reproducibility limit R, which enables the analyst to decide wheth er the difference
between duplicate analyses of a sample, determined under reproducibility conditions, is
significant. These calculations can be performed directly with the built-in statistics function
of the instrument, if available, or by using a pocket calculator or a PC (Personal Computer)
with a suitable software pac kage (e.g. spreadsheet program).
3.10 Measurement uncertainty
Measurement uncertainty is a single parameter (usually a standard deviation with a
coverage factor or confidence interval) expressing the range of values possible on the basis
of the measurement result. A measurement uncertainty estimate takes account of all
recognised effects operating on the result; the uncertainties associated with each effect are
combined according to well-established procedures. An uncertainty estimate for analytical
chemistry is often termed an uncertainty budget and should take into account:

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The overall, long-term precision of the method;

Bias and its uncertainty, including the statistical uncertainty involved in the bias
measurements, and the reference material or method uncertainty. It may be necessary
to increase the estimate where a significant bias is detected but left uncorrected.
Calibration uncertainties. As most equipment calibration uncertainties will be
negligibly small by comparison with overall precision and uncertainty in the bias; this
needs only to be verified;
Any significant effects operating in addition to the above. For example, temperature or
time ranges permitted by the method may not be fully exercised in validation studies,
and their effect may need to be added. Such effects can be usefully quantified by
robustness studies (see Ruggedness below) or related studies which establish the size
of a given effect on the result. Where the contribution of individual effects is important,
for example in calibration laboratories, it will be necessary to consider the individual
contributions from all individual effects separately. Note that, subject to additional
consideration of effects outside the scope of a collaborative trial, the reproducibility
standard deviation forms a working estimate of a measurement uncertainty provided
that the laboratorys bias, measured on relevant materials, is small with respect to the
reproducibility standard deviation, the in-house repeatability precision is comparable to
the standard method repeatability and the laboratorys intermediate precision is not
large than the published reproducibility standard deviation.

3.11 Sensitivity
This is effectively the gradient of the response curve, i.e. the change in instrument response,
which corresponds, to a change in analyte concentration. Where the response has been
established as linear with respect to concentration, i.e. within the linear range of the method,
and the intercept of the response curve has been determined, sensitivity is a useful
parameter to calculate and use in formulae for quantitation. Sensitivity is sometimes used to
refer to limit of detection but this use is not generally approved.
3.12 Ruggedness (or robustness)
Ruggedness is normally evaluated during method development, typically by the originating
laboratory, before collaborating with other laboratories and is a measure how well a method
stands up to less than perfect implementation. In any method there will be certain stages,
which, if not carried out sufficiently carefully, will have a severe effect on method
performance, and may even result in the method not working at all. These stages should be
identified, usually as part of method development, and if possible, their influence on
method performance evaluated using ruggedness tests, sometimes also called robustness
tests. This involves making deliberate variations to the method, and investigating the
subsequent effect on performance. It is then possible to identify the variables in the method,
which have the most significant effect and ensure that, when using the method, they are
closely controlled. Where there is a need to improve the method further, improvements can
probably be made by concentrating on those parts of the method known to be critical.
Ruggedness tests are normally applied to investigate the effect on either precision or accuracy.

4. The validation tools

1.

Reagent blanks: Reagents used during the analytical process (including solvents used
for extraction or dissolution) are analysed in isolation in order to see whether they

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Method Development and Validation of Analytical Procedures

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

15

contribute to the measurement signal. The measurement signal arising from the analyte
can then be corrected accordingly.
Sample blanks: These are essentially matrices with no analyte. They are difficult to
obtain but such materials are necessary to give a realistic estimate of interference that
would be encountered in the analysis of test samples.
Samples / test materials: Test materials taken from real samples are useful because of
the information they yield on interferences etc. which could be realistically encountered
in day-to-day work. If the true analyte content of a test material is accurately know it
can be used as a way of assessing the accuracy of the method. However the true analyte
content is usually difficult to determine unless there is the possibility of using other
methods which are known to show negligible bias.
Spiked material: These are material or solutions, which have been fortified with the
analyte(s) of interest. These materials or solutions may already contain the analyte of
interest so care is needed lest fortification inadvertently leads to levels outside of the
range of applicability of the method. Fortification with a known amount of analyte
enables the increase in response to the analyte to be measured and calculated in terms
of the amount added (assuming 100% recovery), even though the absolute amounts of
analyte present before and after the fortification are not know. Note that most methods
of fortification add the analyte in such a way that it will not be as closely bound to the
sample matrix as it would be if it was present naturally. Therefore, recovery
determinations obtained by fortification can be expected to be over-optimistic. The
nature of the spike obviously needs to be identified.
(Measurement) Standards: These are traditionally thought of as solutions of single
substances but in practice can be anything in which a particular parameter or property
has been characterized to a sufficient extent it can be used for reference or calibration
purposes.
Reference materials: frequently confused with certified reference materials. Reference
materials can be virtually any material used as a basis for reference, and could include
laboratory reagents of known purity, industrial chemicals, or other artefacts. The
property or analyte of interest needs to be stable and homogenous but the materials
does not need to have the high degree of characterisation, traceability and certifi cation
more properly associated with certified reference materials.
Certified reference materials: The characterisation of the parameter of interest in a certified
reference material is generally more strictly controlled than for a reference material, and in
addition the characterised value is certified with a stated uncertainty by a recognised
institution. Characterisation is normally done using several different methods, so that as
far as possible, any bias in the characterisation is reduced or even eliminated.

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Quality Control of Herbal Medicines and Related Areas

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Quality Control of Herbal Medicines and Related Areas

Edited by Prof. Yukihiro Shoyama

ISBN 978-953-307-682-9
Hard cover, 282 pages
Publisher InTech

Published online 07, July, 2011

Published in print edition July, 2011

The authors of this thematic issue provide a comprehensive summary of most recent knowledge and
references on quality control in wide fields. Quality control is essential for natural products like natural medicine
and related food products. In this issue fifteen chapters have been included, discussing in detail various
aspects of quality control. It will certainly prove useful not only for phytochemical researchers, but also many
scientists working in numerous fields. Much effort has been invested by the contributors to share current
information. Without their efforts and input 'Quality Control of Herbal Medicine and Related Areas' could not
exist.

How to reference

In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Kapil Kalra (2011). Method Development and Validation of Analytical Procedures, Quality Control of Herbal
Medicines and Related Areas, Prof. Yukihiro Shoyama (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-682-9, InTech, Available
from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/quality-control-of-herbal-medicines-and-related-areas/methoddevelopment-and-validation-of-analytical-procedures

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