www.impactmin.

eu
IMPACT monitoring
of mineral resources
exploitation

Funded by:

European Commission
Framework Programme 7
Cooperation

Contract N
244166

Thematic Area
Environment 6.4
Earth Observation and assessment tools for sustainable development

WP3 Socio-economics
Deliverable D3.3
Best practice for reducing the carbon
footprint of the mining industry
Date of preparation: October 2011

Dr Elizabeth Adey, UNEXE - Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK

Professor Frances Wall, UNEXE - Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK
Dr. Robin Shail, UNEXE - Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK
Jamie Keech UNEXE - Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK
William Neal, UNEXE - Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK
Ruj-ura Limprasert, UNEXE - Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK
Carmen Roba, UBB - University of Babes-Bolyai, Romania
Colin Delmore, GEO Geonardo Environmental Technologies Ltd., Hungary

Submitted by:

GEONARDO Environmental Technologies Ltd.

(Project Coordinator)
Project Coordinator name:
Mr. Peter Gyuris
Project Coordinator organization name:
GEONARDO, Hungary

This report has been submitted to the European Commission for evaluation and for approval.
Currently the content of this report does not reflect the official opinion of the European Union.
Responsibility for the information and views expressed in the report therein lies entirely with the
author(s).

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ 2
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 5
Executive summary: Carbon footprint and the Mining Industry ....................................... 6
Figure list: .................................................................................................................... 8
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 12
1.1

Aims of the project ........................................................................................... 12

1.2 Regulations .......................................................................................................... 12

1.2.1 IS0 14000 ...................................................................................................... 13
1.2.2 European Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) .......................................... 15
1.2.3 Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CRPS) ............................................... 15
1.3 Kyoto Protocol ..................................................................................................... 16
1.4 Copenhagen Accord ............................................................................................ 18
1.5 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) .............................................................................. 18
1.6 Best Available Techniques (BATs) ...................................................................... 20
1.7 The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) ..................................... 21
1.8 Discussion and Conclusions ................................................................................ 22
Chapter 2 Promising minerals in Europe ....................................................................... 23
2.1 General Market .................................................................................................... 23
2.2 Availability of Specific Minerals ............................................................................ 24
2.3 Environmental Issues .......................................................................................... 24
2.4 Socio-Economic Factors ...................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3 Mining technologies ...................................................................................... 26
3.1 Renewable Energy .............................................................................................. 26
Wind Power ............................................................................................................ 26
Discussion .............................................................................................................. 28
Solar Energy .......................................................................................................... 28
Photovoltaics (PV).................................................................................................. 28
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP).......................................................................... 30
Discussion .............................................................................................................. 31
Biofuel .................................................................................................................... 32
2

Biodiesel ................................................................................................................ 32
Biogasoline ............................................................................................................ 34
Discussion .............................................................................................................. 34
Hydropower ............................................................................................................ 35
Discussion .............................................................................................................. 36
3.2 GHG Reducing Technologies .............................................................................. 37
Natural Gas (LNG) ................................................................................................. 37
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) ............................................................................... 38
3.3 Optimization ......................................................................................................... 41
3.3.1 Haul Ramp vs. Shaft (underground) .............................................................. 41
3.3.2 Truck vs. Conveyor ....................................................................................... 42
3.4 In-Pit Crushing and Conveying ............................................................................ 43
3.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 43
3.4.2 Recent projects ............................................................................................. 45
3.5 Load and haul fleets efficiency ............................................................................ 48
Engine load ............................................................................................................ 50
Operational practice ............................................................................................... 51
3.6 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 57
Company Comparison ........................................................................................... 58
Chapter 4 Carbon offsetting and carbon trading. Case study: Roia Montan (Romania)
...................................................................................................................................... 63
4.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 63
4.2. The "flexible mechanisms" of Kyoto Protocol...................................................... 63
4.3 Romanias commitments according to Kyoto Protocol ......................................... 64
4.4 The implementation stage of Romanian commitments ........................................ 65
4.4.1. Romania versus the International Emissions Trading (IET) mechanism ...... 65
4.4.2. Romania versus the Joint Implementation (JI) mechanism .......................... 67
4.5 CO2 reduction strategies in the case of Roia Montan mining project ............... 68
4.5.1 Carbon Trading ............................................................................................. 68
4.5.2 Invest in cleaner technology and green energy ........................................... 68
4.5.3 Reforestation ................................................................................................. 69
4.6 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 72
Chapter 5 Case Study of setting up a new mine: Roia Montan-Romania .................. 73
5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 73
5.4 Carbon footprint ................................................................................................... 78
3

5.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 78

5.5 Mitigation measures and CO2 reduction strategies .............................................. 84
5.6 Impacts of Roia Montan mining project implementation ................................... 84
5.6.1 The actual economical and social status of Roia Montan .......................... 84
5.6.2 Socio-economic impacts of RMGC Project implementation .......................... 85
5.6.3 Environmental rehabilitation .......................................................................... 88
5.7 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 88
Chapter 6 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 90
6.1 Recommendations for Further Research ............................................................. 91
Reference List ............................................................................................................... 93
Bibliography used for Chapters 5 and 6................................................................... 103

Summary
The ImpactMin demo site descriptions and background information are provided in
report 3.1. Report 3.1 also contains information on: responsible mining, potential socioeconomic impacts of mining, corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the mining
industry, environmental and social regulations and standards that are used within the
industry, in addition to providing a detailed socio-economic background of each of the
demo sites used in this study. Report 3.2 presents the results of the comparative study
across the seven ImpactMin demo sites, looking at what people think of mining and how
mining has affected their lives. These findings provide information on what the socioeconomic impacts of mining have been at each of the sites, including how mining
companies develop social responsibility programmes, how they engage with different
stakeholders and ultimately what the stakeholder perceptions are from people who have
participated in the interviews and surveys.
The purpose of report 3.3 is to increase the understanding of what is being done in the
mining industry to reduce its carbon footprint including demand reducing solutions, the
potential for integrating renewable energy into mining technology and operations and
offsetting.
This report comprises seven chapters: chapter 1 describes the drivers for reducing the
carbon footprint in the mining industry, chapter 2 discusses minerals in Europe, chapter
3 mining technologies, chapter 4 carbon offsetting and trading, chapter 5 the case study
of setting up a new mine in Roia Montan and chapter 6 discusses overall conclusions.

Executive summary: Carbon footprint and the Mining Industry

There is now a consensus among the majority of scientists that anthropogenic climate
change is a likely to produce significant changes which, ultimately, may severely affect
the quality of life for humankind. Global temperature rise would result in global
repercussions. The natural process of climate change has been magnified by human
activity. This can be attributed to our enormous output of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions. It is estimated that globally we produce 8 billion tonnes of CO 2 emissions
each year (Heinzerling, 2010); nearly 22 million tonnes per day. If we are to maintain
quality of life on our planet it will require a change in how we live, how we consume,
and, specific to this report, how we produce our raw materials.
The phrase often proclaimed by the mining enthusiast that if it cant be grown it, it has
to be mined, is irrefutable. Our world and lifestyles are irrevocably linked to mining and
minerals. For example, the computer this report has been written on has necessitated
the use of at least 66 minerals (NMA, 2006). These raw materials can be produced in
an environmentally and socially responsible manner, thus preparing them for industries
that take a responsible approach to manufacturing and consumption.
The mining industry is a major global energy user, making it one of the most significant
GHG producers. The EU has set the goal of a 20% reduction in GHG emissions by
2020; if this is to be obtained carbon footprint reduction in the mining industry will play a
crucial part.
The term carbon footprint is defined by the UK carbon trust as: A carbon footprint
measures the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by a
person, organisation, event or product (Carbontrust, 2010). A carbon footprint
measurement considerers all the six of the Kyoto Protocols classified GHGs, this
include:
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Hydroflourocarbons (HFCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)
CO2 emissions were measured to Scope 2 requirements as defined by the GHG
Protocol. There are three different scopes of GHG emissions, defined as:
Scope 1: All direct GHG emissions.
Scope 2: Indirect GHG emissions from consumption of purchased electricity,
heat or steam.
Scope 3: Other indirect emissions, such as the extraction and production of
purchased materials and fuels, transport-related activities in vehicles not owned

or controlled by the reporting entity, electricity-related activities (e.g. T and D

losses) not covered in Scope 2, outsourced activities, waste disposal, etc.
Whilst scope 3 emissions do have an impact they were emitted for two reasons. Firstly,
they were beyond the scope of the data obtained from mining companies which would
have made data collection extremely time consuming and inaccurate. Secondly they are
beyond the immediate control of the mining operation. While the mine can, in many
cases, choose the supplier of its goods, this is outside of the purpose of this report
which will look at the GHG emission directly related to mining and how those can be
reduced.
Overall, this report shows the growing need to reduce carbon emissions through energy
reduction strategies. The increasing number of regulations and voluntary codes are
discussed in chapter 1, such as the ISO 14000 environmental management system and
the Kyoto Protocol and Copenhagen Accord. Chapter 2 deals with the European
minerals market. Chapter 3 discusses in depth the possible solutions that are currently
available to reduce carbon emissions, through evolving mining technologies such as:
renewable energy initiatives that can be employed at mine sites, GHG reducing
technology, methods of optimising mine site equipment and load and haul fleet
technology and best practice. Chapter 4 details options for offsetting or trading carbon
emissions using the case study of Roia Montan, Romania. Chapter 5 also refers to
Roia Montan, using it as a case study of best practical solutions in reducing carbon
emissions and energy consumption in establishing a new mine. This unique case takes
a practical approach to discussing the best options available in the context of limitations
at this specific site. Chapter 6 makes some overall conclusions and recommendations
for further research.

Figure list:
Figure 1 Embodied energy in various metals (Norgate and Haque, 2009). ................... 13
Figure 2 Kyoto protocol participation (UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, 2007). ...................... 17
Figure 3 Mining LCA assessment system and model boundaries (Durucan, Korre and
Munoz-Melendez, 2004)................................................................................................ 19
Figure 4 Lee Ranch wind speed / energy correlation (SNL, 2002). ............................... 27
Figure 5 PV solar panel diagram (Strathclyde, 2005). ................................................... 29
Figure 6 Worldwide PV breakdown (Oliver and Jackson, 1999). .................................. 29
Figure 7 Parabolic trough and solar dish CSP (Hutchinson, 2008). .............................. 31
Figure 8 Elemental carbon emissions of biodiesel and diesel particulate matter
(Biodiesel, 2008). .......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 9 Global hydroelectric power consumption (EIA, 2009). .................................... 36
Figure 10 Organic Rankine Cycle Technology (Powerverde, 2010). ............................. 39
Figure 11 Conveyor power consumption (Nordell, 2010). ............................................. 42
Figure 12 Example of IPCC in large open-pit mines. a and b (Tutton and Streck, 2009),
are from Chuquicamata mine in Chile with a steep conveyor. C is Escondida mine, Chile
(Schrder, 2003) and d is Highland Valley Copper in Canada. .................................... 46
Figure 13 Rolling Resistance versus performance (Tannant and Regensburg, 2001). . 49
Figure 14 Effect of Total Resistance on CO2 emissions and truck cycle time ............... 50
Figure 15 Sensitivity analysis: Effect of velocity constraints on fuel intensity (The Energy
Efficiency Opportunities, 2010) ..................................................................................... 51
Figure 16 Recommended excavator and truck operating position ................................ 52
Figure 17 Double side loading of excavator and trucks ................................................. 53
Figure 18 Trends in the total emissions and removals of greenhouse gases in Romania
(EEA, 2010). .................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 19 The national carbon emissions cap allocated for different sectors
(http://carboncreditromania.wordpress.com). ................................................................ 66
Figure 20 Cumulative carbon footprint assuming 8000 ha reforestation, Romanian
energy blend (Bobar, 2009). .......................................................................................... 70
Figure 21 Cumulative carbon footprint assuming 5000 ha reforestation, EU energy
blend (Bobar, 2009)....................................................................................................... 71
Figure 22 Cumulative carbon footprint assuming 1000 ha reforestation, Romanian
energy blend (Bobar, 2009). .......................................................................................... 71
Figure 23(a, b) Gold underground exploitation method used in the 18 th century.
Engraving placed inside the Museum of SM Certej. Ancient photography of miners from
Roia Montan (Toth et al., 2006). ................................................................................ 74
Figure 24 The Golden Quadrilateral (Metaliferi Mountains): a) the location of the
Golden Quadrilateral within the Eastern European cold anomaly map (Mrton et al.,
2006); b) major historical mining districts (Manske et al., 2006).................................... 75
Figure
25
Roia
Montan
mine
site
layout
(http://data,etallogenica.com/pages/minidisc/html/rosiamontana-mapsect/page.html). . 76
Figure 26 Geological overview of Roia Montan Au-Ag deposit, Apuseni Mountains,
Romania (Leary et al., 2004; Sahy and Sctte, 2006). .................................................. 77
Figure 27 Geological cross-section through Carnic and Cetate Dacitic intrusions of
Roia Montan Au-Ag deposit, Spuseni Mountains, Romania (OConnor et al., 2003;
Sahy and Schtte, 2006). .............................................................................................. 77
8

Figure 28 CO2 emissions from different sources (Bobar, 2009). ................................... 79

Figure 29 Haul truck acquisition schedule (Bobar, 2009). ............................................. 81
Figure 30 The emissions of CO2 per tone of processed ore in several mining projects
comparable (size and type) with Roia Montan (Bobar, 2009; Keech, 2010). ............. 83
Figure 31 Important protected patrimony area in Roia Montan (http;//en.rmgc.ro/rosiamontanaproject/patrimony.html). ................................................................................... 87

Table List:
Table 1 Ranking of the Worlds top ten emitters (MNP, 2007). ..................................... 17
Table 2 BATs breakdown (EPA, 2010).......................................................................... 20
Table 3 Biodiesel emissions (NBB, 2010). .................................................................... 33
Table 4 Fossil fuel emission levels comparison (NaturalGas.org, 2010). ...................... 37
Table 5 Comparison of in-pit crusher systems (Tutton and Streck, 2009) ..................... 44
Table 6 Comparison of truck haulage and in-pit crushing units ..................................... 45
Table 7 Effect of total Resistance on fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. ................ 49
Table 8 Load factor guide (Caterpillar, 2007) ................................................................ 50
Table 9 GHG reduction methods in the mining industry (Keech, 2010). ....................... 58
Table 10 Comparison of all mitigation options (please note: the scores are based on the
authors opinion.) ........................................................................................................... 59
Table 11 Mitigation option assessment matrix .............................................................. 61
Table 12 The top of the allocated greenhouse gases emissions national certificates
during 2008 and 2012 (GD No 60/2008). ...................................................................... 66
Table 13 Roia Montan Gold Project categorized grade tonnage. .............................. 73
Table 14 Assumptions made in order to estimate CO2 emissions (Bobar, 2009). ......... 78
Table 15 The CO2 emissions during the mining and processing of 13,400 000 tonnes of
ore per year (Bobar, 2009). ........................................................................................... 79
Table 16 Mobile equipment and vehicles for construction phase (RMGC Staff, 2009). 80
Table 17 Mobile equipment and vehicles for operation phase (RMGC Staff, 2009). ..... 80

10

Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without the kind assistance of a large number
of people who we would like to thank, including: Professor Calin Baciu from the
University of Babes-Boylai, Romania; Thomas Ejdemo, Professor Frauke Ecke and Dr
Lena Alakangas from Lule University of Technology, Sweden; Professor Ivan Lovric,
Professor Ivo Colak, Mirna Rai, Danijela Maslac and Dr Ivana Zouko from the
University of Mostar, Bosnia Herzegovina, Dr Valery Udachin, Dr Oleg Telenkov,Dr
Pavel Aminov, Eugene Bazhenov and Ivan Startez from the Institute of Mineralogy,
Miass, Russia; Dr Peter Whitbread-Abrutat from the Eden Project and Dr Matthias Varul
from the University of Exeter. We would also like to thank Peter Gyuris the ImpactMin
project coordinator and Jamie Keech for his help in undertaking the work in Roia
Montan. There are lots of other people across the 5 different sites who have supported
the logistics of this work through various different ways, such as by helping translate
and arrange the work schedule. We thank you all for your cooperation and assisstance
with the project.
We would also like to acknowledge the support of the mining companies who helped in
the research, including; Roia Montan Gold Corporation, in particular Cecilia Szentesy
and Adrian Minut; Western United Mines, Imerys, Boliden AB and other companies who
kindly provided data .

11

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Aims of the project
ImpactMin Work Package 3 aims to create a better understanding of the socioeconomic impacts of mining, investigating how we can develop corporate social
responsibility policy that will incorporate and disseminate best practice within the
industry. One of the reasons behind the ImpactMin WP3 work is the premise that in the
future there will be a need to increase mining within Europe as a way of ensuring
security of supply of mineral resources. One of the most urgent priorities of
environmentally responsible industry is the reduction of carbon footprint and
greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions occur at all stages of the mining life cycle
from exploration to closure. The purpose of this report is to explore the carbon footprint
of mining projects throughout Europe and internationally. The focus will be on large
scale mining operations, who produce the most significant carbon emissions, but also
have the greatest means of leading the field in carbon footprint management.

1.2 Regulations
The information gathered within this chapter was based primarily upon the websites of
mining companies, trade organisations, regulatory bodies, and governmental legislation.
In addition to this a literary review of journal articles and related reports as well as
interviews with industry professionals and academics were complied. Relevant
guidelines were selected and reviewed based on their appropriateness to the minerals
industry, their ability to address CO2 related issues, as well as their popularity and ease
of implementation. Guidelines that were considered narrow or limited to select portions
of the industry were excluded in favour of examples that had wide ranging recognition
and application. A particular focus was taken on regulations and legislature accepted
and practiced with Britain the EU. Problems and areas of improvement within existing
frameworks were identified and recommendations made where appropriate.
There is no single standard set to govern best practice guidelines regarding carbon
footprint and CO2 emissions in the mining industry. Although carbon footprint best
practices exist throughout governments and businesses, there have been fewer
initiatives in the mining industry. While legislation and metrics for acceptable levels of
CO2 emission do exist, they vary around the globe and lack detailed plans of action,
recommendations, or standards specific to the mining industry about how it is expected
to control and reduce its carbon footprint. Where best practice guidelines are being
employed it is almost certainly due to the initiative of the company as opposed to any
independent accrediting or governing body. Possible reasons for this include:

The most energy intensive stage in producing a metal is often the extractions of
the metals, via smelting or via hydrometallurgical prcesses rather than the mining
and processing (Norgate and Haque, 2009). Figure 1 provides a graphical
representation of the embodied energy of different metals. As can be seen the
extraction process generally requires significantly more energy consumption than
12

the mineral processing stages. These metal extraction processes make take
place on site at the mine, or many thousand kilometres away at a separate plant.
This graph does not account for the energy requirements involved in transport,
manufacturing and packaging.

Figure 1 Embodied energy in various metals (Norgate and Haque, 2009).

Another aspect is that mining often occurs in developing nations that lack the
expertise and resources to develop and implement a reliable set of best practice
guidelines. These countries are often more attractive to certain companies as
their lack of environmental regulation can reduce the costs of operations. The
host countries may be loath to lose this incentive to encourage mining
companies.
It is notoriously difficult to accurately and efficiently measure emissions as a
result of mining and minerals processing. The fact that many emissions come
from numerous sources which vary with terrain, time, and a host of other
conditions, only adds to difficulties. For example, it would be both costly and time
consuming to accurately measure the emissions of each blast at a mine.

Despite this, in the western world, particularly Canada, Australia, and the EU, there is
an abundance of policy regarding carbon footprint, CO2 emissions, and climate change.
1.2.1 IS0 14000
The International Standards Organisation (ISO) ...is the worlds largest developer and
publisher of international standards. It consists of a network of the national standards
institutes of 163 countries, one member per country, with a Central Secretariat in
Geneva, Switzerland, that coordinates the system (ISO, About ISO, 2010). ISO 14000
is the family of ISO standards that deals specifically with environmental management
13

systems (EMS). According to the website the ISO 14000 system will provide users with
a management tool able to:

identify and control the environmental impact of its activities, products or

services, and to
improve its environmental performance continually, and to
implement a systematic approach to setting environmental objectives and
targets, to achieving these and to demonstrating that they have been achieved
(ISO, International Organisation for Standardization: 14000, 2010).

Unlike other standards and best practices mentioned in this report, the ISO 14000
system does not set specific standards and regulations, nor is it specific to mining or
carbon footprint management. Rather the ISO 14000 system provides the ...framework
for a holistic, strategic approach to the organisations environmental policy, plans and
actions (ISO, International Organisation for Standardization: 14000, 2010). This in turn
allows the organisation employing the ISO 14000 system to adapt it to their specific
needs and industry standards and requirements. It allows an organisation to develop an
EMS or set of best practices relevant to their industry.
The ISO 14000 family also lays out guidelines dealing specifically with carbon footprint
quantification and greenhouse gas reduction strategies for affiliated organisations.
Standards exist for a variety of carbon footprint related topics for example:

ISO 14067 on the carbon footprint of products will provide requirements for the
quantification and communication of greenhouse gases (GHGs) associated with
products. The purpose of each part will be to: quantify the carbon footprint (Part
1); and harmonize methodologies for communicating the carbon footprint
information and also provide guidance for this communication (Part 2)
(ISO14000, 2009).
ISO 14069 will provide guidance for organisations to calculate the carbon
footprint of their products, services and supply chain (ISO14000, 2009).

The ISO 14000 guidelines provide a comprehensive and adaptable set of environmental
management principals and are widely used within the mining industry for developing
EMSs. One of their greatest strengths is their ability to be tailored to the specific needs
of an organisation. ISO 14000 is able to adapt to external expectations such as regional
environmental expectations, and internal objectives, whilst simultaneously ensuring that
the organisation is conforming to international standards and is committed to continuous
improvement (ISO14000, 2009).
Mining companies all over the world currently employ the ISO 14000 Environmental
Management System. ISO 14000 compliant companies include: Barrick Gold, Teck, Rio
Tinto, and BHP. As previously mentioned, the EMSs are tailored to the companies
needs and the regulatory standards of the region. These may or may not include
dealing with carbon footprint calculations and reduction, greenhouse gas emissions
reduction and other environmental issues. That said, the aforementioned companies are
14

organisations that have taken a proactive approach to GHG reductions and include
GHG reduction in their EMS strategy (Rio Tinto, 2006).
1.2.2 European Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS)
The European Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) was the first and is currently the
largest multinational emissions trading scheme of carbon dioxide (Ellerman et al.,
2007). Launched in 2005, the scheme aimed to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions by 21% from 2005 levels by 2020 (European Commission, 2010). The
scheme has run for three periods, the first running from 2005 until 2007, the second
from 2008 to 2012 and the third will run from 2013-2020. The EU ETS shares, in many
respects, various similarities with the approach taken by the Kyoto Protocol, placing an
obligation upon significant GHG contributors to record and inform a regulatory body of
its emissions. In the example of the EU ETS, companies that emit significant amounts of
carbon dioxide are obliged to monitor, annually report and inform their government of its
emissions. Under the ETS, governments of the EU Member States initially agree upon
national emission caps which are then subsequently passed down and reallocated to
industrial operators. Companies that successfully fall within their allotted emissions limit
have the opportunity to keep or sell the remaining emission allowance onto a company
for profit. On the other hand, a company which surpasses its emissions allowance will
be fined (Phylipsen, 2005).
Despite the similarities of the approach that is taken by the EU ETS and Kyoto, it is
clear that the objectives of these two schemes are very different. At the heart of the EU
ETS, the cap and trade approach has established a sector by sector/ company to
company appraisal of carbon trading, a resolution that is in stark contrast to the nation
by nation included within the Kyoto Protocol. The obvious shortfall of the EU ETS is its
consideration only of carbon dioxide emissions. This is clearly a major drawback given
that approximately 17% of EU Member GHG emissions are not carbon dioxide
(Phylipsen, 2005). Other greenhouse gases are effectively neglected from auditing
however work is currently ongoing into the feasibility of including other greenhouse
gases in EU ETS making up the LETS update study. In the first period ETS covers, for
example power stations and factories making cement, glass, lime, bricks and ceramics.
In 2008, the proposal was made to include aluminium and ammonia producers. In
addition, the date for the inclusion of freight transport by road and mining is to be
specified by 2013. The proposals were to exclude any of less than 35 MW installations
and 25,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent of reported emissions in each of the preceding
three years. In addition, carbon capture and storage projects are to be financed
(OUZK, 2008).
1.2.3 Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CRPS)
In 2008, the Australian Government released its proposal for a Carbon Pollution
Reduction Scheme (CPRS) which was intended to serve as a cap-and-trade system for
anthropogenic greenhouse gases a policy which was due to be introduced in 2010.
The emissions covered represent around 75% of Australias emissions (Department of
Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, 2010). Under this scheme, businesses and
15

industries covered by the CPRS will need to surrender an emissions unit for each tonne
of CO2e that they have emitted during the compliance period. The CPRS will include all
greenhouse gases included under the Kyoto Protocol. The objective of this proposal
initially targeted at coal mining companies, was to introduce a carbon tax on mining
facilities that achieved a threshold of 25,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide per annum
inclusive of emissions generated by transport and processing infrastructure.
Additionally, coal mines will have to serve as proxies for domestic users of coal which
fall below the 25,000 tonnes CO2e per year (Taberner, 2009). This scheme was
intended to form part of Australias long term commitment to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions by 60 per cent compared with concentrations from 2000, a clearly ambitious
target given that mining alone consumes approximately 10% of Australias total annual
energy consumption. The Australian government has committed to providing assistance
to the coal mining sector through the Coal Sector Adjustment Scheme (CSAS) and the
Coal Mining Abatement Fund. The CSAS assistance would be 60% of fugitive
emissions and available to the coal mines that have fugitive emissions intensity (gassy
coal mines) above a threshold of 0.1 tonnes of CO2e per tonne of saleable coal
produced. For the latter fund, a quarter of the project cost would be granted for coal
sector abatement projects and capital grants with a priority for electricity generation
from waste coal mine gas (Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency,
2010). Since the measure and mitigation of the coal fugitive emissions technologies are
still at the experimental stages. The Australian Coal Association noted that the major
coal competing nations of Australia excluded and have yet to commit to applying the
coal fugitive emissions pricing (Pegler, 2011).

1.3 Kyoto Protocol

One of the most significant and prolific attempts at controlling climate change and
reducing greenhouse gases, on a global scale, is the Kyoto accord (UNFCCC, An
Introduction to the Kyoto Protocol Compliance Mechanism, 2010). The stated objectives
of the Kyoto accord are:
The stabilisation of atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a
level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to
enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner (UN, United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1997).
The Kyoto protocol set the target of reducing participating countries GHG emissions by
an average of 5.2% per annum for five years (2008-2012) using the level of emissions
produced in 1990 as a benchmark (UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, 2007). Thirty seven first
world countries and the EU (referred to as Annex I countries) committed to meeting
these targets. The emissions targets set by the Kyoto Protocol, unlike those in the Kyoto
accord that merely recommended goals, are legally binding for all Annex I countries.
The Kyoto Protocol was officially adopted on the December 11 th 1997 and enforced as
of February 16th 2005 (UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, 2007). Figure 2 is a map representing
the countries which have signed the Kyoto Protocol as of June 2009. The countries
16

coloured green have committed to the protocol, the grey countries are undecided, and
the red countries do not indend to sign the treaty. (UNFCCC, An Introduction to the
Kyoto
Protocol
Compliance
Mechanism,
2010)

Figure 2 Kyoto protocol participation (UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, 2007).

The Kyoto Protocol affects the mining industry in that, like all industries in Annex I
countries, it will have to reduce emissions over the five-year period in order to comply
with the established targets. Table 1 lists the countries/regions with the top 10 GHG
emissions.
Table 1 Ranking of the Worlds top ten emitters (MNP, 2007).

Rating

Country

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

China
U.S.A
E.U.
Indonesia
India
Russia
Brazil
Japan
Canada
Mexico

Global % of GHG
Emissions
17%
16%
11%
6%
5%
5%
4%
3%
2%
2%

Per-Capita Emissions (tonnes of GHG percapita)

5.8
21.1
10.6
12.9
2.1
14.9
10.0
10.6
23.2
6.4

As can be seen from the above table many of these countries represent nations with
major mining industries. The Kyoto Protocol will have an effect on all participating
nations. Ensuring industry in those nations will be committed to reducing their carbon
footprint. The mining industry is no exception to this.
17

1.4 Copenhagen Accord

The Copenhagen accord occurred on the 18th of December 2009 at the United Nations
framework convention on climate change and is the attempt at a successor for the
Kyoto protocol. However, unlike the Kyoto protocol, the Copenhagen accord is not a
legally binding document; rather the participating countries agreed to take note of the
recommendations laid out in the accord (Wynn, 2009). The convention had been
considered widely unsuccessful by media and many countries, in fact the conference
was found to have a larger carbon footprint than any climate change conference to date
(Graham-Harrison, 2009).
Countries signed the accord with the intentions to reduce emissions from anything
from 40% to 1.8% of their original 1990 emissions level (UN, Copenhagen Accord,
2009). The intention of the conference had been to start work on developing a
successor to the Kyoto protocol which ends in 2012. In this respect the conference is
considered to have been a failure. However the more generous reports state that the
accord was at least successful in increasing the awareness of climate change issues
and in taking illuminating the need for further work in this area (Black, 2010). Although
the Kyoto Protocol will certainly affect the Carbon footprint and greenhouse gas
emissions best practices of the mining industry; it is unlikely that the overall impact of
the Copenhagen Accord will be very significant at this time on the mining industry; given
the uncommitted nature of the accord.

1.5 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

A life cycle assessment (LCA), also known as a cradle to grave approach is an ISO
14000 recommended tool used to assess the environmental and social impact of a
product throughout its useful life; from its start as a raw material to disposal (ISO,
International Organisation for Standardization: 14000, 2010). Mining is the first phase in
the lifecycle of a material, and as such it is extremely important; it can often set a
material on the path to be used responsibly throughout its lifecycle. In its efforts towards
sustainability, the mining industry has used several environmental and economic
indicators to assess its performance. In recent years, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has
proved to be one of the most attractive approaches for this task. As such, it is an
excellent tool that can be used to evaluate environmental performance and support
decision-making in the mining industry (Durucan et al., 2004).
The mining industry first began experimenting with the LCA approach in the mid 1990s;
originally utilising Life Cycle Inventories (LCIs) in metal production processes to help
customers with design and choosing products (Durucan et al., 2004). Eventually LCAs
began to be used in project and process selection with a strong focus on the processes
occurring during concentration and refining. LCAs have been used with less frequency
in the extraction phase of an operation (Stewart, 2001). The following is a list of
examples where LCA applications are utilised within the mining industry:

18

Copper production from primary and secondary sources, and copper alloy
fabrication to semi-finished and final products ;
Smelting of sulphide ores ;
Gold, coal, base metals, platinum group metals, ferroalloys and beach sands
production ;
Aluminium ore extraction, smelting, transportation and energy use ;
Mining, production, packing and shipping of boron products ;
Various processing routes for nickel and copper production with emphasis on
greenhouse and acid rain gas emissions ;
Base metal refining and producing primary nickel; iron and steel processes ;
Lead and zinc smelting;
Uranium ore production;
Aluminium and steel industry products. (Durucan, Korre, and Munoz-Melendez,
2004).

Figure 3 shows a graphical representation of the different mining and refining processes
that can be managed using LCA to minimise environmental and social impacts.

Figure 3 Mining LCA assessment system and model boundaries (Durucan, Korre and Munoz-Melendez,
2004).

19

Measuring the carbon footprint and CO2 emissions is an important aspect of this
process and is represented on the figure above by the smoke stack icon over the areas
they apply. LCA helps a company to divide the lifecycle of the material at the mine into
a set of processes. These processes can then be broken down and analysed; working
to develop the most environmentally and socially friendly method of completing the
process. In the case of carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions, analysis of the
processes can reveal inadequacies and inefficiencies, allowing the relevant processes
to be adjusted to maximise efficiency and interact in a way that minimises the projects
carbon footprint (Mudd, 2009).

1.6 Best Available Techniques (BATs)

Best available techniques, or BATs, are a concept defined as the most effective and
advanced stage in the development of an activity and its methods of operation, which
indicate the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing, in principle, the
basis for emission limit values designed to prevent or eliminate or, where that is not
practicable, generally to reduce an emission and its impact on the environment as a
whole (EPA, Best Available Techniques Guidance Notes, 2010). This definition has
been broken down further in Table 2.
Table 2 BATs breakdown (EPA, 2010).

best in relation to techniques, means

the most effective in achieving a high
general level of protection of the
environment as a whole
available techniques means those
techniques developed on a scale which
allows implementation in the relevant
class of activity under economically the
technically viable conditions, taking into
consideration the costs and advantages,
whether or not the techniques are used
or produced within the State, as long as
they are reasonably accessible to the
person carrying out the activity
techniques includes
both
the
technology used and the way in which
the installation is designed, built ,
managed, maintained, operated and
decommissioned.

The concepts of BATs was created by the European Integrated Pollution Prevention
Control Bureau (IPPC) as part of their Directive on Industrial Emissions. The directive
has been in place for over ten years, with the most recent version adopted on the 21 st of
December 2007 and coded as Directive 2008/1/EC of the European Parliament (IPPC,
20

2008). The purpose of this directive is to advise and encourage the exchange of
information member states on standards and best practices regarding environmental
management. This is accomplished through the use of BAT reference documents
(BREFs) which are used to relay detailed information to members states regarding the
BATs for specific industrial/agricultural sector(s) in the EU... (EIPPCB, 2010). The
stated objectives of the BREFs are to:

Accomplish a comprehensive exchange of information and views and through

the publication of reference documents to help to redress any technological
imbalances in the European Community;
Promote the worldwide dissemination of limit values and techniques used in the
Community;
Assist Member States in the efficient implementation of this Directive. (EPA, Best
Available Techniques Guidance Notes, 2010).

An example of some of the BREFs relevant to the mining industry include: BREF on
Non Ferrous Metals Processes; BREF for Mineral Oil and Gas Refineries; BREF for
Surface Treatment of Metals and Plastics, and BREF for Management of Tailings and
Waste-Rock in Mining activities (EIPPCB, 2010). Each of these documents contains
recommendations and best practice strategies detailing how each process can be
undertaken with a minimum environmental impact. This will include strategies on
reducing carbon footprint and greenhouse gas output. In this manner the EU has
employed BATs as a means of instituting standards and best practice guidelines
throughout its member states.

1.7 The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM)

The international council on mining and metals (ICMM) was established in 2001 to act
as a catalyst for performance improvement (ICMM, 2010). It now consists of 19 mining
and metal companies along with 30 mining associations working together to address
the core sustainable development challenges faced by the (mining industry (ICMM,
2010). Encompassed within this is a commitment to reducing the environmental impact
of the mining industry; including carbon footprint. The ICMM strives to work with
member companies within the mining industry to set standards and to strengthen our
(the mining industry capacity to improve environmental performance (ICMM, 2010).
ICMM aims to align the goals of mining companies with governments and local
communities to work together to ensure mining is a mutually beneficial enterprise with
limited negative impacts. Essentially ICMM works to create a framework, supported by
some of the biggest mining companies, committed to carrying out exploration and
mining activities in a sustainable and responsible manner. It also acts as a way of
disseminating information within the industry and propagating and improving best
practices. From outside of the industry, it acts as a catalyst of increasing awareness
about the mining industry.

21

1.8 Discussion and Conclusions

It is clear that whilst there is no definitive set of best practice guidelines or standards
relating to carbon footprint in the mining industry; there are an array of options and
resources available to organisations to help control and manage their carbon footprint.
While some provide emission limits and regulations, such as the Kyoto Protocol; others
provide the guidelines and structure to create an internationally recognised
environmental management system tailored to the needs of the organisation and
demands of the stakeholders; such as ISO 14000 and BATs. As it stands the closest
option to an international standard for best practices is the ISO 14000. This provides
an organisation with a framework to create an internationally certified EMS and a
comprehensive set of best practice guidelines for its operations. In addition to this ISO
14000 is recognised and employed throughout numerous and varying industries and
organisations; not simply the mining industry. The next step in the process is
international legislation and best practices concerning carbon emission, and
greenhouse gases with regard to the mining industry. Whilst it is unlikely that
governments or the international community, such as the UN, will produce mining
specific CO2 regulations on a global scale, it is possible that trade organisations, such
as the International Council on Mining and Metals may help to defin standards. Through
organisations like the ICMM standards and best practices can obtain widespread
acceptance and permeate throughout the industry. It is also essential for the major
international senior mining companies (e.g. Barrick, BHP, Anglo American, Rio Tinto) to
uphold these standards both in the countries with strict environmental standards and
CO2 emission regulations (Canada, Australia, the EU) and countries currently lacking
the necessary infrastructure (DRC, Eastern Europe, South America). Only in this
manner will carbon footprint reduction best practices develop and propagate in the
mining industry and gain international acceptance and implementation.

22

Chapter 2 Promising minerals in Europe

2.1 General Market
The market for minerals across the European Union requires careful assessment in
order for the Member States to be best prepared for the future extraction and usage of
its mineral resources. Owing to the move towards a more sustainable energy economy,
this assessment must be balanced and challenge the traditional approach to resource
issues. A 2010 report by the Commission sought to identify the importance and risks of
41 minerals and metals (European Commission, 2011a). Fourteen raw materials were
considered critical for the EU, including: antimony, beryllium, cobalt, fluorspar, gallium,
germanium, graphite, indium, magnesium, niobium, platinum group metals, rare earths,
tantalum, and tungsten.
The trend away from heavy extraction in the industrialised nations towards the Global
South has garnered the much attention lately. Key industries in the EU economy,
including aerospace, automotive, chemicals, construction, information technology, and
telecommunications, are all heavily dependent upon raw materials being readily
available and thus maintaining a secure and sustainable supply is essential for
economic stability and/or growth.
Current consumption of minerals necessitates EU states to reach outside their borders
and import minerals or finished products to fulfil industry and consumer needs. As of
February 2011, the EC adopted a new strategy, which acknowledges and emphasizes
promoting sustainability, increasing efficiency, and recycling (European Commission,
2011b).
Depending on whether one is focusing upon just the European Union or more broadly,
including the European continent, current estimates of mineral availability differ
dramatically. For example, Russia holds vast resource wealth and the inclusion of the
state along with other countries on the EUs periphery must be considered when
calculating the European situation.
Owing to inequalities in geological resources, the competition for specific minerals and
ores in particular, requires a clear approach and strategy to maintain the EUs
development. Unfortunately, the amount of imports coming into the EU are much
greater than the exports in this sector, illustrating the EUs dependency upon global
markets, especially for metallic minerals.
The presence of mining companies on the London Stock Exchange is both visible and
more significant than any other international exchange, illustrating the strength of
European industry in the financial sector. Still, many raw materials which are traded
globally are not present on stock exchanges at all, or there are other issues related to
transparency of the markets. These issues hinder the ability to accurately forecast
where potential shortages may emerge.

23

With changes in supply and demand, price variation may dramatically affect
consumption and availability. Long-term forecasts should consider wide variability
between past tendencies and possible precarious futures.

2.2 Availability of Specific Minerals

With respect to construction minerals, EU Member States generally have adequate
supplies of aggregate minerals, such as raw materials for concrete, fill, and sand
(Hetherington et al., 2008). Reports on these minerals are relatively transparent, but as
we look at the supplies of other minerals, there are often discrepancies with reporting
and this weakness needs to be addressed. As for non-construction industrial minerals,
the distribution of supplies is more uneven across the Union. Statistics about these
minerals are harder to find and potentially less accurate than for metals. Energy
minerals are well-reported and wide scale analysis has been undertaken to forecast
their future supply. The scope of energy is far too broad to address in this document,
but the obvious push towards renewable energy illustrates the desire for the EU to be
less dependent upon importing energy supplies.
The EU is most dependent on imported metals. The EU consumes more than a quarter
of the worlds metals and this trend looks set to continue despite the dependency and
increasing prices (Hetherington et al., 2008).

2.3 Environmental Issues

Two major environmental concerns are directly associated with the extractive industries.
First, the extraction of minerals, which are non-renewable, impinges on future
generations. Their use also can have a negative impact upon the environment itself.
Monitoring the full life-cycle of extraction activities is essential to accurately understand
the potential long-term damage from mining. Second, the waste from such activities
must be dealt with in an appropriate manner. To ensure the most efficient use of
resources, as well as to limit the pollution output, the EU Mining Waste Directive
legislates on the management of waste products.

Variation across the EU in environmental

standards also requires consideration. The
difference between some of the New
Member States and older ones requires
new approaches to reach harmonisation
and compliance. Better planning for
addressing land use, waste discharge, and
environmental standards can move the
extractive
industry
towards
more
sustainable practice.

24

Another issue revolves around the usage of certain minerals for environmental
protection. The environmental impact of mining may be negative in some cases, but it
also provides the tools to improve the current state of the EUs environment.

2.4 Socio-Economic Factors

Trends in society will greatly affect the extractive industries, along with economic and
political developments. The growing world population will definitely place pressures
upon the worlds resources. Inequalities in supplies will be reflected in markets and
distribution, possibly greatly altering consumption patterns. But while worldwide
population is expected to grow, primarily in developing countries, Europe is aging. This
possible population decrease and new age profile, unless countered by migration
patterns, will lead to new consumption styles. Additionally, the movement towards and
into urban environments may require new minerals or demand different materials.
These developments will alter and must influence the political decisions of EU leaders.
Current consumption is not related to production and extraction of minerals from within
the EU market. The unsustainable patterns must be reconsidered to match the supply of
European resources, or at the bare minimum, come closer to sustainable levels. GDP
may decrease in areas short of resource supplies or without much to trade; this
possibility is more than a political one, but could have tangible affects upon the qualityof-life for many Europeans.
Introducing new technologies into the European extractive industry is bound to enhance
and improve the field, but also greater incorporation of SMEs into activities may be
more beneficial in the long run than supporting potential large scale activities. Mining is
an important employer, with many communities heavily dependent upon the industry to
support them. Enhancing local extraction activities could boost regions, increase hightech work, and wean the EU off imports.

25

Chapter 3 Mining technologies

3.1 Renewable Energy
This chapter will review renewable energy technologies as a means of GHG emissions
reduction. Renewable energy, energy which is derived from naturally replenished
resources, accounts for one quarter of global power capacity from all sources and
delivered 18 percent of global electricity supply in 2009 (REN21, 2010). The mining
industry, like many sectors, has begun to embrace a variety of renewable energies on a
global scale. Renewables are utilised as a means to reduce energy costs, greenhouse
gas emissions, and negative environmental impacts; they are capable of providing
significant sources of energy with minimal negative impact. This section will discuss
various renewable energies currently available to the mining industry along with some
innovative technologies with the potential to reduce the carbon footprint of mining in the
future.
Wind Power
Wind power is one of the most successful, popular, and fastest growing forms of
renewable energy available today. In 2009, wind power was estimated to produce 157.9
GW of energy per annum worldwide; that figure having grown by 31% from 2008
(GWEC, 2010). There can be no doubt that wind farms are a significant and growing
energy source. The mining industry, like many other sectors, governments,
organisations and individuals, has begun to embrace the benefits of wind farm
technology. The drawback of wind power is that conditions must be appropriate for it to
be a viable and reliable source of energy. A high average wind speed alone does not
guarantee the feasibility of a wind farm. A wind turbine performs best under consistent
wind speeds; normally around 10 to 15 metres per second. At low speeds a windturbine
does not produce as much energy to be profitable and under very high speeds the
windturbine may have to be turned off owing to dangerous high frequency rotations. It
has been found that windturbines often produce a large portion of their energy output in
relatively short periods of high wind speed. The New Mexico Wind Resource
Assessment case study, completed by the Sandia National Laboratories at their
facilities at the Lee Ranch testing centre in 2002 found that 50 % of the energy was
produced in bursts of wind over 15% of the windmills operating time (SNL, 2002).
Because of the inconsistent nature of wind, and thus the inconsistent energy production
of windmills they are best used in conjunction with another, more reliable, power source.
Research shows windturbines are more effective behaving as a fuel conserver then as
a primary power supply (Czisch, 2008). Figure 4 provides a graphical representation
between the hours a windmill is used at a given wind speed and its energy output found
at the Lee Ranch in New Mexico.

26

Figure 4 Lee Ranch wind speed / energy correlation (SNL, 2002).

As many mining and processing operations occur in remote locations, where access to
grid power supply is unavailable or cost prohibitive, operations are often reliant on
diesel electric generators. A popular emerging alternative to diesel only, is to use
combination wind/diesel generators; which are optimised at 40% wind generated energy
and 60% diesel power (Neilson, 2007). An average mine site diesel generator reduces
CO2 emissions by 1.8 lbs per kWh when used in conjunction with wind power. A one
mega watt wind farm responsible for 35% of the power supply will generate an average
of 3,066,000 kWh of electricity per annum; thereby reducing C0 2 emissions by up to
2,759 tonnes per year (Neilson, 2007). In addition to this wind power typically costs
$0.06-$0.08 USD per kWh which is lower than the average diesel power generator
which costs between $0.09-$0.19 USD per kWh under typical conditions (Neilson,
2007).
An example of a mining company employing the benefits of Wind Power is Barrick Gold,
the worlds largest gold company. In 2007, they received approval to build a US$70
million wind farm in the Coquimbo region of Chile (Barrick, Beyond Borders: A Barrick
Gold Report on Responsible Mining, 2010). They have constructed ten wind turbines
that provide 36 MW of power to the Chilean grid each year. This is currently the largest
wind farm in Chile and an excellent example of a mining company not only reducing
their own carbon footprint but working to reduce the carbon footprint of the region they
operate in. Unfortunately more information is regarding as to how the turbines will
interact with the mines energy requirements are unavailable. It does appear though that
the turbines will feed directly into the Punta Colorada regional grid (Barrick, Building
Pascua-Lama, 2009).
An associate of the mining industry who currently works at an undisclosed metal mine
was contacted for telephone interview as part of this study. They explained that their
mine currently leases a 30 MW wind turbine which supplies electricty directly to the
27

national grid. It is thought that the mine in question is participiating in a Feed-in tariffs
(FIT) policy, whereby fixed rates are paid by national government to the mine and
indeed other such producers of electricity for feeding it into the national grid. The
Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) implemented in Germany is an excellent
example where FIT has actively encouraged the production and selling of renewable
energies such as wind and solar power to the national grid, offering financial incentives
in retun for facilitating government to achieve its set national targets of carbon footprint
reductions.
Discussion
Whilst wind power may offer mining companies (in the right locations) an excellent
opportunity to capitalise on renewable energy there are some drawbacks. The most
obvious being the significant upfront costs of wind turbines. As mentioned previously
Barrick Gold spent upwards of US $70 million on a single wind farm. Despite the fact
that wind farms are a proven energy source the power they provide is quite small given
the significant costs of construction and maintenance. In this case, costing nearly US $2
million per MW produced, it is also important to note that wind farms are unlikely to be
running 24 hours a day due to weather variations. This compares with Barricks natural
gas power plant in Nevada which cost $100 million to build and produces 115 MW, or
US $869,000 per MW, 24 hours a day 365 days a year. Although there are numerous
wind farms worldwide today most are heavily subsidised by governments. In recent
years in Spain the government has made a drive towards green energy significantly
subsidizing the costs of wind power; as a result electricity costs have risen by up to
60%. It was said that this initiative created 50,000 jobs in the green energy sector but
each job was subsidised by the Spanish government at an average of 571,000 Euros
(Gorham, 2010).
Despite this, wind farms are a proven form of energy and are known to work very well in
conjunction with conventional power sources. As a carbon reducing initiative they are an
excellent form of energy and they produce virtually no carbon after they have been
constructed. While they may never be an economic solution to a companys power
needs they are certainly a viable means of a projects GHG emissions.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is a form of power that utilizes sunlight to generate electricity. In 2008
solar energy accounted for 0.02% of global energy consumption (Solarbuzz, 2009) and
just 0.08% in the USA (Hutchinson, 2008). In recent years solar power has come to play
a growing role in the mining industry. With mining companies building solar power
systems ranging in size from small projects acting in combination with other energy
supplies to large facilities powering nearby communities and homes. Solar power is
typically produced in one of two ways:
Photovoltaics (PV)
Photovoltaics is a type of solar power which converts solar radiation directly to
electricity. This is done by utilising a system of solar panels made up of silicon cells
28

consisting of thin layers of semiconductors carrying opposing charges (+ and -). The
electron imbalance caused by sunlight striking the charged panels cause electrical flow,
aka electricity (Strathclyde, 2005). Thus is represented in Figure 5.

Figure 5 PV solar panel diagram (Strathclyde, 2005).

PV solar panels are typically used for small-scale applications such as satellites, private
homes or consumer products (such as calculators or watches). Figure 6 shows a chart
of the breakdown of PV use worldwide.

Figure 6 Worldwide PV breakdown (Oliver and Jackson, 1999).

29

Despite this PV solar panels represent a growing solar industry as they are continually
increasing in efficiency and versatility. World solar photovoltaic (PV) market
installations reached a record high of 5.95 gigawatts (GW) in 2008, representing growth
of 110% over the previous year (Solarbuzz, 2009). Although PV panels would be poorly
suited for large scale power generation at a mine site or even working in tandem with a
alternative energy source (ex. Diesel) there is potential for application in small scale
activities. Solar panels of this nature are already widely in use by Barrick Gold, the
worlds largest gold mining company, on their mine sites as power sources for monitors
and other small scale equipment (Josich, 2007); Namdeb, diamond producer in
Namibia, uses solar panels to power their security cameras and Cliff Resources iron ore
mine at Koolyannobbin, Western Australia use solar panels for geotechnical monitoring
equipment (F. Wall, pers comm.). In addition to positive environmental effects it is likely
that after initial installation costs the addition of PV panels could have financial benefits
as well. They will enable organisation to forgo maintaining expensive power lines to
remote locations where only small amounts of electricity are needed. Further research
needs to be completed into panels payback period; but it is reasonable to suspect
financial benefits as well as carbon emissions reduction.
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
The second type of solar energy is concentrating solar power, a form of indirect solar
energy. This type of solar energy is produced by utilising either mirrors or lenses to
concentrate sunlight into a small area and then projecting this energy onto a
photovoltaic surface or to heat a working fluid.
When solar energy is used to produce heat for the purpose of generating electricity it is
referred to as concentrating solar thermal (CST). This is normally done by using the
heat produced from the concentrated suns rays directly or heating a working fluid such
as molten salt or oil (Nenter and Netshilaphala, 2006). The heated fluid or the
concentrated sunlight is then used in a conventional power plant (or engine) to produce
electricity. This is normally done by heating water to produce steam, which in turn spins
a turbine (Hutchinson, 2008). CSP systems can produce heat up to 788 o C and obtain
energy conversion efficiencies up to 31.25%. CSP systems vary in design from long
parabolic troughs that all work together to power central turbine (one of which exists in
Boulder City Nevada that produces 64 MW; with 13 more on the way) to solar dishes
that can be used to power individual motors (40 of which can produce up to 1 MW)(e.g.
Figure 7).

30

Figure 7 Parabolic trough and solar dish CSP (Hutchinson, 2008).

Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) on the other hand function by utilising the lenses or
mirrors to focus the suns rays on photovoltaic surfaces and producing electrical power
directly; without the steam. This works in a similar manner to PV solar power except that
the suns rays have been concentrated on a small PV area. The PV surface is typically
constructed from silicon but can also be cadmium telluride; a much more economic
alternative (Hutchinson, 2008).
Discussion
Solar power represents numerous opportunities to the mining industry. With its range of
options and versatility in application it can be harnessed to provide power solutions to
both small and large scale issues. An excellent example of this would be the use of PV
panels. Although as previously mentioned they are in use in small scale applications
(ex. monitoring, road signs etc.) it is the opinion of this author that it would be worth
while investigating the application of PV panels to open pit haul trucks, conveyor belts
or mobile crushing units. This would clearly be dependent on climate and weather
conditions but it is reasonable to assume that PV panels used in conjunction with diesel
generators or other conventional power supplies could significantly reduce fuel
consumption, thereby lowering energy costs and harmful greenhouse gas and CO2
emissions; thus reducing the operations carbon footprint in a small way. It is unlikely at
this time, given current technology, that this would reduce costs but with advances
techniques it is certainly an opportunity to examine in the future. Perhaps a more
economic alternative to this would be utilising solar panels with a trolley assist system
(explained in section 3.2) this would reduce the possibility of damaged equipment (as it
wouldnt be moving) and increase the area available. Both of these options require
significantly more research before true costs can be known.
Concentrated solar power currently represents the greatest opportunity for the mining
industry. Its ability to work on large scale and in conjunction with conventional power
plants makes it an ideal power supply in the right climates. Although it will act primarily
as a fuel conserving measure for diesel and coal plants it could represent significant
savings for companies. Several companies have already begun to implement the use of
31

solar power plants. An example of this is Barrick Gold who recently spent US $ 10
million on a 7,404 panel solar power plant in northern Nevada capable of producing 1
Mw of power, or enough to power as much as 300 homes. This solar farm will work in
tandem with a $100 million 115 MW natural gas power station already built by Barrick
(Seelmeyer, 2008). In 2004 Rio Tinto one of the worlds biggest mining companies built
a 31 kW PV solar power system in Western Australia; which at the time was the largest
system of its kind in the area. This system run as a solar-diesel hybrid consists of 260
solar panels and is estimated to ...contribute 130kWh per day to help meet the nations
power needs (RioTinto, Social, Safety and Environment Report 2004, 2004). BHP and
Rio Tinto are also working together to create the worlds largest CST plant, in Australia,
at an estimated US $ 1 billion; at an estimated start date of 2011 (Mine giants Rio and
BHP bet on solar power, 2008).
While solar power is a proven method of utilising renewable energy, there are some
pitfalls. Solar power is an extremely expensive power source both in terms of upfront
costs and maintenance. It has been estimated that PV solar panels can take roughly
100 years to pay back installation costs (note: the maximum life of a PV panel is 30
years) (Hickman, 2008). Even concentrated solar power plants require highly skilled
experts to build and run, and in general are heavily subsidised, being afforded funding
and tax breaks not available to regular power sources. In addition to this the power
output of a solar farm is almost negligible to the energy requirements of most mining
operations. As previously mentioned, Barricks 1 MW 7,404 panel power plant in
northern Nevada was built next to their 115 MW natural gas power plant, the solar plant
being built largely to satisfy state legislation. Given the solar plant cost 10% of the cost
of the gas plant and produces 1% of the energy, these numbers bring into question the
long term sustainability of solar energy as practical and self sustaining technology. That
being said, solar power technology is constantly improving and with the help of
subsidies today and legislation encouraging solar energy they may be a cost effective
and economic option in the future.
Biofuel
Biofuel is a term which encompasses a wide variety of fuels derived from biomass or
bio waste. These fuels can be used for any purposes, but the main use for which is in
the transportation sector (Biofuel, 2010). Biofuels offer an excellent opportunity to
reduce the CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions of almost all fossil fuel burning mining
equipment, from haul trucks, to jumbos, to dozers. Biofuels have been used both
underground and on surface to a wide degree of success; and are on their way to
becoming a major part in the mining industry (Blades, 2010).
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel created from vegetable oil or animal fat. The general
description given of biodiesel by the national biodiesel board in the United States is:
Biodiesel is a domestic, renewable fuel for diesel engines derived from natural oils like
soybean oil, and which meets the specifications of ASTM D 6751 (NBB, 2010).
Biodiesel can be used in any regular diesel burning engine without modifications; it can
32

be used either on its own or in a mixture with regular petrodiesel, referred to as a

biodiesel blend (NBB, 2010). Biodiesel can be made from a variety of products and is
typically made from the soya beans and rapeseed in the USA. But biodiesel is also
made from mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, coconut and hemp throughout the world
(NBB, 2010). Table 3 Biodiesel emissions (NBB, 2010). Table 3 summarises the
difference in emissions produced by biodiesel and those produced by petrodiesel.
Where B100 refers to 100% biodiesel and B20 refers to a mixture of 20% biodiesel and
80% petrodiesel.
Table 3 Biodiesel emissions (NBB, 2010).

As can be seen from the above figure, biodiesel burns significantly cleaner than its petro
alternative, and operations all over the world have taken to incorporating a biodiesel
blend in their machinery. Biodiesel is particularly useful in underground workings
because it burns much cleaner creating a safer/healthier work environment and taking
strain off of the ventilation system. Figure 8 shows data taken from two underground
mines examining the level elemental carbon in air. The introduction of biodiesel to the
operations shows a clear reduction in elemental carbon levels (Biodiesel, 2009).

33

Figure 8 Elemental carbon emissions of biodiesel and diesel particulate matter (Biodiesel, 2008).

Biogasoline
Biogasoline (ethanol or butanol) is a substitute for standard fossil fuel gasoline. Both are
alcohols that can be produced from biomass. Ethanol is the most common and the
average automobile engine can run with up to 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline, without
requiring modification. Butanol is similar to ethanol though chemically closer to gasoline.
It can run most engines without any modifications but does not have as high an octane
rating as ethanol; thus produces slightly higher CO2 emissions. Alcohol based fuels do
not have the same energy efficiency as gasoline and thus require more volume and a
higher flow rate of fuel to do the same amount of work. Biogasoline is much more
expensive than conventional fuels. On top of this given the high carbon costs of
producing biofuels: heat intensive processing, farming crops, fertilising crops, pesticide
production and application, transport of materials and product etc. the actual reduction
in carbon footprint is very small (Biofuel, 2010). Despite this some companies are
beginning to use biogas and biogas blends in their operations.
Discussion
Many mining companies are whole-heartedly embracing the advantages of biofuels in
their operations. Given their low upfront costs (they work in unaltered engines) their
versatility (they work a blends or in pure form) and their ease of use and implementation
biofuels are one of the most effective and low risk (if they are ineffective companies can
stop using them at little or no loss) renewable forms of energy available. The most
important biofuel to the mining industry today is biodiesel. Just as the most important
petroleum fuel is diesel, this stems from the fact that most mining equipment runs on a
diesel engine, including: haul trucks, jumbos, in pit crushers, dozers, and graders to
name a few. Although biogas is an important biofuel it plays a smaller role in the mining
industry purely do to the limited number of gasoline engines requiring fuel. One prime
example of the importance of biodiesel can be seen by again looking at Barrick Gold.
Barrick has been using biodiesel in their underground operations in North America, and
in their compressor controls and fuel management programmes for the last couple of
years (Barrick, Environment: The Opportunities Around Us, 2010). In 2008 alone it is
34

estimated that the use of a biodiesel blend in Barricks underground North American
mines offset 4,800 tonnes of GHGs, which would have been produced with conventional
petrodiesel (Barrick, Biodiesel use in North America, 2008). In 2009 Barrick burned
6,960 cubic metres of biodiesel (Barrick, Environment: the opportunity around us, 2010).
Rio Tinto has also adopted the use of biofuels and in 2009 reported the consumption of
1.3 million tonnes of biodiesel and 16,000 tonnes of renewable waste fuels (Anglo,
2010). In 2009 Vale invested US $305 million to construct a biodiesel plant and
purchase 41% of a raw palm oil production company. The plant is expected to produce
160,000 tonnes per year of biodiesel. The Biodiesel will be turned into a B20 blend and
used in Vales locomotives and equipment at the Carajas mines in Brazil
(miningmagazine, 2010).
The largest draw back to the use of biodiesel in mining applications is the cost
implications involved. Studies have found that cost is prohibitive when prices are over
US $3.00 per gallon of biodiesel. When costs fall to US $1.50 per gallon, neat biodiesel
was found to economic for light-duty equipment. At costs over US $ 1.50 per gallon
filters tend to be a more popular option (Fruin and Tiffany, 1998). Despite these cost
implications, filters are effective at filtering out particulate matter (PM) but have little
effect on greenhouse gas emissions; leaving biodiesel as the most effective means of
CO2 (and PM) reduction for diesel mining equipment. As mentioned previously, this is
particularly effective in underground mining where the decrease in PM and emissions
takes some of the strain off of the ventilation system thereby saving electricity
consumption.
Despite some benefits, biogasoline is not commonly used or seen frequently on mine
sites. So much so that it has been nearly impossible to find specific example of use in
the literature. This is likely to be due to the fact that gasoline requirements are
significantly less then diesel requirements at most operations, in turn making the
reduction of CO2 emissions from biogas less important. That said, Russell Blades of
Barrick gold commented in an interview that Barrick was beginning to use Biogas at
some of their North American operations (Blades, 2010). This refers generally to
support vehicles (ex. pickup trucks) and personnel carriers (Blades, 2010). This may
imply that even though it is not publicly stated many companies may indeed be utilising
biogas at their mines sites. Despite cost restrictions biofuel remains one of the most
accessible and effective renewable energies available to the mining industry. As
manufacturing processes become more cost effective and conventional fuel prices rise
it is reasonable to expect biofuels to become an ever more popular option available to
the mining industry.
Hydropower
Hydropower is electricity generated by the movement of water. It is a form of renewable
energy and produces no greenhouse gas emissions (apart from those resulting from the
manufacture of the equipment required). This is often accomplished with the help of
strongly moving rivers, waterfalls, and tides and waves. When water is not already
flowing hydroelectric dams can be used to induce motion to generate electricity.
Turbines are the most common means of converting the energy in the water to
35

electricity. Hydropower is responsible for 19% of the Worlds electricity supply; with
China, Canada, Brazil, and the United States representing the largest consumers (EIA,
2009) (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Global hydroelectric power consumption (EIA, 2009).

Hydropower provides unique opportunities for the mining industry. Although it is rare for
a mine to be located in a position where hydropower is readily available, it is not
uncommon for mining companies to build hydroelectric plants elsewhere in the region
and to power their operations and surrounding communities. An excellent example of
this is BHP Billitons 2,500 MW hydropower plant near the Inga Falls on the River
Congo in the DRC; which should begin construction in 2014. The plant will provide
power to BHPs projects in the area as well as the surrounding area (BHP, 2010).
Mining operations can also utilize small scale hydroelectric power to operate mining
equipment such as drills. This is common in the deep level South African gold
operations where a standing column of water (~2km deep) is used to hydraulically
power the drills. This water column negates the use of compressors, known for their
significant losses from pipe leakage and compressor inefficiencies (Penswick, 2010).
Efficiency from hydro power is estimated to be at 28%, while efficiency from
compressed air sits somewhere in the region of 2% (Cloete, 2008).
Barrick Gold has gone a step further and has begun utilising end-of-pipe hydroelectric
power generation. The Zaldivar mine in northern Chile is capable of producing a 100 kW
from a turbine being powered by the flow of tailings through a pipe on their way from the
processing plant to the storage facility. This power is then redirected back into the
processing plant (Blades, 2010). Unfortunately it was impossible to find more
information on this process as Mr. Blades was unable to provide more detail in the
interview and was not available for further questioning.
Discussion
Hydropower provides a plethora of opportunities for mining companies to produce clean
electricity, free of GHG emissions. They range from the standard (such as the use of
hydroelectric dams), to the innovative use of existing processes. The largest drawback
of hydroelectricity is simply availability. Whilst hydro power is a cost effective, reliable,
36

and proven renewable power source it needs a consistent water supply. While in
Canada and the United Sates this is a viable option in Australia and much of Africa
hydro power would be impossible. Another drawback is often the sheer scale of many
hydroelectric projects. Costing up to hundreds of millions of dollars and remaining long
after the life of the mine. The advantage to this is that they often provide enough power
to provide for the local community and can provide an industry after the mine has closed
(BHP, 2010). The next step is to combine small scale hydropower options on mine sites,
that when working in unison will create significant energy savings, and CO2 reductions.

3.2 GHG Reducing Technologies

Section 3.2 discusses existing and emerging technologies that may be used to reduce
the GHG emissions of a mining operation. They range in effectiveness, cost and
availability but all offer potential solutions to the problem of GHG emissions.
Natural Gas (LNG)
Natural gas is a form of fossil fuel comprised primarily of methane gas. Natural gas is
used worldwide as a major source of electricity generation; in the United States alone
...energy from natural gas accounts for 24% of total energy consumed
(NaturalGas.org, 2010). Gas provides one of the lowest carbon footprints of any fossil
fuel. It burns much cleaner then either coal or petroleum; producing 45% less CO 2 than
coal and 30% less than petroleum (NaturalGas.org, 2010). Table 4 shows a comparison
of emission levels of natural gas to other fossil fuels.
Table 4 Fossil fuel emission levels comparison (NaturalGas.org, 2010).

Fossil Fuel Emission Levels

- Pounds per Billion Btu of Energy Input
Pollutant

Natural Gas

Oil

Coal

117,000

164,000

208,000

Carbon Monoxide

40

33

208

Nitrogen Oxides

92

448

457

Sulfur Dioxide

1,122

2,591

Particulates

84

2,744

0.000

0.007

0.016

Carbon Dioxide

Mercury

Because of natural gases ability to burn cleanly mining companies are starting to take
notice and utilise natural gas to power their operations. Barrick gold is currently involved
in optimization studies to utilize natural gas at their Donlin Creek project in Alaska,
which are expected to be completed in mid 2011. The use of natural gas is expected to
reduce overall operating costs of the project (Barrick, Donlin Creek, 2010). Barrick also
owns and operates a 115 MW natural gas generating station in western Nevada
(BarrickGold, 2007). In 2008 Rio Tinto invested US $400 million in a natural gas power
plant to supply energy to its iron-ore operations in Western Australia. It is estimated that
the new natural gas plant will generated 25% less CO2 emissions then the two steam
37

power stations currently meeting the regions power needs, which accounts for an
estimated savings of 200,000 tonnes per annum of GHGs (Merwe, 2008).
Natural gas is also being used in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG). LNG is simply
natural gas that has been liquefied to ensure ease of transport and storage. It is then
possible to use the LNG to fuel mining equipment, most commonly haul trucks. One of
the most popular LNG burning haul trucks is produced by the Canadian company
Westport Innovation Inc. with their LNG system for heavy duty trucks
(WestportInnovations, 2010). Westport estimate that their LNG systems reduce GHGs
by 20-25% from conventional diesel engine emissions (Siuru, 2007). Serious testing of
the use of LNG as a means of fuelling haul trucks for mining applications began in the
early 2000s by Westport at a Newmont mine in Nevada (CMJ, 2002). Barrick Gold has
started utilising LNG at many of their operations as an alternative to diesel in their haul
trucks. They are currently operating fleets of haul trucks of up to 2,500 horse power
(Blades, 2010). A new US $138 million LNG plant was recently built in Western
Australia specifically to provide LNG to heavy duty vehicles, providing up to 157 tonnes
a day of LNG (GasToday, 2007). Drawbacks of LNG is the fact that the process of
converting natural gas from gaseous to liquid form is energy intensive and produces
significant CO2 emissions. It is estimated that burning LNG produces 20-40% more CO2
then domestic natural gas (LNGpollutes, 2010).
Despite these gains in GHG emissions, Natural Gas and LNG represent a valuable
opportunity for mining companies to reduce emissions. Even with added carbon costs,
LNG is still much cleaner then its diesel alternative. The use of LNG in haul trucks is
still relatively new technology and efficiency improvements and technological gains are
being made all the time. Mining companies all over the world are utilising this
technology, providing significant savings in GHG emissions (Blades, 2010).
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
The organic rankine cycle (ORC) is a thermodynamic process which is used to recover
and recycle waste heat generated by low temperature sources such as conventional
power plants or diesel engines (Quoilin and Lemort, 2010). To understand the organic
rankine cycle we must first understand the rankine cycle. The rankine cycle is the
process by which external heat is applied to a closed loop where water (usually) is
heated until a phase change occurs and steam is produced the ...superheated steam is
generated in a boiler and then expanded in a steam turbines (Cogeneration, 2010)
which in turn drive a generator. The generator then produces electricity. The organic
rankine process utilizes a high molecular chemical (such as Freon, butane, propane,
and ammonia) in the place of water. The chemical is capable of recovering heat from
low heat sources such as a diesel engine and then converting this heat into useful
energy, such as electricity. Figure 10 shows a typical schematic diagram of the ORC.

38

Figure 10 Organic Rankine Cycle Technology (Powerverde, 2010).

Because of the ORCs ability to be used in conjunction with various heat sources and its
ability to generate local and small scale power the ORC provides an excellent
opportunity for the mining industry to conserve energy and reduce GHG emissions on
many fronts; thereby lowering an operations carbon footprint as well as saving money in
energy costs (Quoilin and Lemort, 2010).
The ORCs ability to convert excess low temperature heat to energy means it is an ideal
process for capturing and utilising the heat produced by internal combustion engines. In
the mining industry this means: haul trucks, loaders, drills, dozers, and a host of other
equipment. For example in a typical 1.4 litre Spark Ignition ICE, with a thermal
efficiency ranging from 15 to 32%, 1.7 to 45 kW are released through the radiator (at a
temperature close to 80 - 100C) and 4.6 to 120 kW through the exhaust gas (400 900C) (El Chammas and Clodic, 2005). This accounts for up to 165kW of wasted
energy and unnecessary GHG emissions. In the 1970s prototypes involving a 288
horse power haul truck incorporating ORC technology were found to create a 12.5%
increase in fuel efficiency (Quoilin and Lemort, 2010). Current prototypes have been
able to increase engine thermal efficiency by up to 28.9-32.7% (Endo, 2007). This
represents huge gains in fuel efficiency and GHG reduction. If implemented on a fleet of
250 tonne haul trucks it could also represent enormous financial savings each year.
Although this technology is still in the experimental/prototype stage, mining companies
are investigating the potential of incorporating ORC technology with diesel haul trucks
says Russell Blades sustainability manager at Barrick Golds Toronto based head office
(Blades, 2010). In 2009, BMW found that the use of an ORC system can increase
power output by 10% on a four cylinder engine. Honda, for example, has found that by
39

incorporating ORC technology into their hybrid cars they are able to improve thermal
efficiency of their engines by 3.8%. On top of this, researchers at Loughborough
University and the University of Sussex have found increases of 6.3% to 31.7% in fuel
efficiency when using ORC systems in light-duty vehicles (GCC, 2009). This technology
contains enormous potential for mining companies, with the thousands of litres of fuel
being consumed each year by mine support vehicles (pickup trucks, personnel carriers
etc.). Add to this the fact that the typical 200+ tonne diesel mining haul truck gives off
significantly more heat than a standard vehicle, the economic benefits, as well as the
potential reduction in GHG emissions, could be substantial. Further research is required
to fully understand how this technology can be adapted to operate in the demanding
conditions of a mining environment, however, the potential for both energy conservation
and carbon footprint reduction is prolific using this type of technology. With companies
like Barrick leading these changes it is very possible we will see the technology adapted
to the rigors of the mining industry in the near future.
In addition to its ability to optimise the performance of combustion engines the Organic
Rankine Cycle technology has potential for large scale applications. As ORC can be
utilised with almost any heat generating process this opens up a wide range of potential
opportunities at any given mining operation. ORC has been used successfully in
conjunction with conventional power plants such as coal and gas, as well as renewable
power sources such as solar farms. ORC also represents a significant opportunity to
increase the energy efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint of mineral processing
plants, given the energy intensive process of mineral liberation.
In recent decades the ORC has gained increasing popularity as a means of energy
conservation within conventional power plants. ORC has been employed on plants
ranging in size from 300 kW to 130 MW. One such example is the 6.5 MW Gold Creek
power plant in Alberta Canada. The plant was built in 1999 and utilises ORC
technology. As a result C02 emissions are reduced by 25,000 tons per year. Clearly it is
not a stretch of the imagination to conclude that this technology could be successfully
applied to many of the diesel, natural gas or coal power plants currently being used to
power mining projects around the globe. Another example of successful large scale
application of ORC technology being the 1.5 MW Heidelberger Zement AG Plant in
Lengurt, Germany. The ORC technology in this cement plant reduces CO2 emissions by
7,000 tons a year (Bronicki, 2009). ORC technology has been employed to recover heat
lost throughout the plant both by means of power production and other stages in the
cement making process. This makes an excellent comparison to the mineral liberation
processes. With the access heat produced via crushing, grinding, and heap leaching,
etc there is ample opportunity to employ ORC technology within mineral processing
plants.
In addition to its popularity in conventional power plants, ORC technology has become a
popular component in renewable energies such as geothermal energy, and biogas
generation plants (Schuster et al., 2007). As both of these forms of power are becoming
more and more important to the mining industry, by reducing their energy needs the
carbon footprint of the mining industry is in turn being reduced. The Neustadt-Glewe
40

geothermal plant in Germany uses the ORC process to convert geothermal heated
waters of 980 C to 210 kW of electricity (Schuster et al., 2007). It is estimated that there
are approximately 600 MW of geothermal power plants using this (ORC technology
have been installed in 18 countries. ORC modules ranging in power from 1 to 30 MW
have been installed in over 40 geothermal power plants, such as a 125 MW geothermal
power plant in the Philippines (Bronicki, 2009). ORC also has significant potential of
being utilised within biogas plants. Due to the substantial amount of waste heat
generated in the biodiesel production processes ORC technology offers an opportunity
to help improve the feasibility of biogas as a potential alternative fuel source. The
incorporation of the ORC could save significant amounts of energy and help ensure that
heavily subsidised biogas plants as economically sustainable. Thus benefiting the
mining industry, and reducing carbon footprint (Schuster et al., 2007).

3.3 Optimization
In any mining project, the company has a range of choices to make from mining
method, open pit or underground, shaft or ramp, and a variety of other choices. Each
choice will impact on recovery, costs, timeline, and the environment.
3.3.1 Haul Ramp vs. Shaft (underground)
The pros and cons of haul ramps vs. shafts in underground mining is a heavily debated
subject within the mining industry. Both have benefits and draw backs in terms of costs,
efficiency, safety and environmental impact. Whilst shafts appear to be more prevalent
in North America, haul ramps dominant underground mining in Australia. Whilst
numerous studies have been completed which take into account depth, grade, deposit
type, gradient, and fuel costs versus electricity costs the main focus tends to be
economic benefits of the design. Whilst safety issues play a part, there seems to be little
consideration of the environmental effect of the decision, in particular the carbon
footprint. This could be because it is yet to be considered an important issue in the
decision or alternatively because it seems quite obvious. The shaft appear the ideal
choice (in terms of CO2 output) as an electric hoist would emit considerably less CO 2
than a fleet of diesel engine haul trucks; it would also place significantly less pressure
on the ventilation system. That said if the mine is in a country like South Africa, or
Romania, that is heavily reliant on coal fuelled power plants to produce electricity the
overall reduction in carbon footprint could less then imagined. In addition to this it may
be found that the haul trucks are able to deliver the material far more efficiently and in
less time and few loads meaning the mine will spend shorter time in production;
drastically lowering carbon footprint. While generalities do exist (ex. Shafts produce less
carbon emissions) it is necessary to explore the merits of both systems on a case-bycase basis. Currently no literature exists on the issue and in-the-field research into this
problem is beyond the scope of this study. It is the authors recommendation that further
research need be accomplished in this area before conclusive statements regarding the
carbon footprint optimization of the ramp vs. shaft comparison can be made.

41

3.3.2 Truck vs. Conveyor

The comparison of the carbon emissions of haul trucks to mine conveyor systems is
similar to that of ramps to shafts. A conveyor system is clearly a significantly cleaner
transport method in terms or emissions. This again comes down to the fact that
conveyors are typically powered by electricity as opposed to the diesel of haul trucks. In
addition to this, conveyors will significantly decrease the distance the ore has to travel,
owing to the fact that conveyors take the ore in a relatively straight line as opposed the
switchback roads the trucks are forced to follow. In South Africas Palabora mine the
implementation of an in pit crusher with a conveyor was able to reduce hauling distance
by 4km (one way) (Penswick, 2010). Needless to say, this represents an enormous
reduction of diesel consumption, replaced instead with electrical power. It must be noted
again, however, that this occurred in South Africa in the 1990s where electricity is
generated via burning coal, thus producing significant amounts of GHG emissions.
Figure 11 demonstrates the power consumption of a 5.2 km conveyor located in
Germany, designed by Conveyor Dynamics Inc, based on throughput in tonnes per
hour.

Figure 11 Conveyor power consumption (Nordell, 2010).

In order to deliver 1200 tonnes per hour of ore this would take nearly 6 haul trucks
travelling the 5.2 km at 14 km/h to do the same work as the conveyor has. In reality, it
would take longer than this as these simple calculations do not take into account such
aspects as: slower travel on grade, longer distances of travel (due to switch backs),
trucks not always carrying full loads, inexperienced drivers, bad weather conditions,
refuelling and maintenance delays, delays due to shift changes and loading/dumping
times. Assuming the truck is burning 100 gallons per hour when fully loaded on grade
(Hutnyak, 2004) (and this accounts for 70% of the travel time) and 50 gallons per hour
on the return journey than nearly 446 gallons of diesel will be consumed per hour of
42

operation. This would result in a total of 5.47 tonnes of CO2 emitted per hour. The
conveyor belt on the other hand will consume just over 500 kW to deliver 1200 tonnes
per hour. This would result in just 425 kg of CO2 emission for a coal power plant, 295 kg
for an oil power plant, and 185 kg for a natural gas plant. Assuming: Existing coal-fired
power stations emit around 850kg of CO2/MWh; oil-fired stations emit 590kg/MWh and
gas stations give out 370kg/MWh (Jha and Macalister, 2008).
As can be seen from the example above, the use of a conveyor system represents a
significant savings in energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Not only are hauling
distances shorter with the use of a conveyor system, the speed with which a conveyor
can deliver the ore (tested at up to 1200 tonnes per hour) would require a significant
fleet of haul trucks working around the clock. The millions of gallons of diesel saved per
year represent a significant reduction in CO2 emissions. However, there are many other
factors to be considered when deciding to use a conveyor system of haul trucks.
Conveyors represent at significant upfront investment for any operations and are usually
only justifiable in large scale projects. There are a host of maintenance and
technological costs associated with a conveyor. And unlike haul trucks if the conveyor
malfunctions it can shut down the entire operation for a significant period of time.
Conveyors are also only really favourable in warm dry climates. Excessive cold or
precipitation makes it difficult or impossible to employ a conveyor system (ex. Canada,
Romania, Scandinavia, etc.). Whilst a conveyor system can offer an operation a
significant reduction in carbon footprint, this is only one of many factors that must be
considered and unfortunately usually one of the less urgent.
3.4 In-Pit Crushing and Conveying
3.4.1 Introduction
This section is the study on applying the in-pit crushing and conveying system (IPCC)
into a mine as the reduction strategy for reducing CO2 emissions. The background of
the system will be introduced together with the advantages and disadvantages.
Material transportation significantly affects the capital and operating costs. A
conventional truck haulage system is the most common in open-pit mining due to its
reliability and flexibility. The haulage cost can be up to 50% of total mining costs
(International Mining, 2011). The cost depends on fuel, tyre, labour and maintenance
expenditures. With the rising fuel prices and environmental responsibilities being
highlighted, in-pit crushing and conveying are considered to have great advantages in
terms of fuel savings and CO2 (CO2) emissions (Parker, 2008).
How it works
An in-pit crushing and conveying system consists of the crusher near the mine face in
the pit, accompanied by belt conveyors that transport the crushed materials to their
destination out of the pit. The crushing unit can be jaw gyratory, gyratory, hammer,
impact, roll, and jaw crushers. The systems are classified by their mobility capabilities
that range from fully mobile crushers to fixed crushers. The fixed crushers have low
mobility while the fully mobile crushers are mounted on a frame base, allowing the unit
43

to be moved by a transporter, such as a crawler system or a walking mechanism. The

units rest on the bearings and mechanics so maintenance cost is the highest of the
other in-pit crushers and the lowest in availability (Parker, 2008). Lastly, semi-mobile
crushers stand on the ground closer to the mine face. The relocation takes a few days,
in which the operation is completely stopped. This makes them a popular choice in
terms of the cost-benefit ratio (Parker, 2008).
The in-pit crushers are fed by typical excavator-truck fleet with the short haulage
distance that gradually increases from the mining face. The moveable crushers, with
their ability to move the crusher along the mining face, can be fed directly by the
excavator. A crawler-mounted lifting device is used, to move the components to a new
position in the pit. (Table 5)
Table 5 Comparison of in-pit crusher systems (Tutton and Streck, 2009)

Feature
Capacity

Fixed
High

Semi-fixed
High

Relocatable
Medium

Typical
crusher

Gyratory /
Jaw

Gyratory / Jaw

Twin roll crushers

or sizes

Relocating

Rarely
relocated

Every 3-5 year

Every 6-18 months

Common
feature

Associated
with transport
tunnel

Associated with
transport tunnel
or wide truck
ramp

Multiple crushing
stations with
conveyor ramps
and conveyor
distribution point

Moveable
Medium-low
Twin roll
crushers or
sizes
Often relocate
to follow the
shovel
Feed onto
bench conveyor
or conveyor
bridge

During the design phase, a number of factors are to be considered to install the in-pit
crushing system, including the rigidity of the conveyors, the layout of the infrastructure
and electricity, energy required, the width of the haul road and traffic management and
the mine layout. Relocation of the system also needs some considerations, such as the
relocation of the ramp, bridge, ground compaction and power lines that need moving.
Advantages disadvantages
The advantages of truck haulage system are that they are flexible and manoeuvrable
(Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002). They have moderate gradeability and can handle
coarse or blocky rock. On the other hand, trucks require good haul roads, high
operating cost and they are slowed by bad weather. The advantages of belt conveyor
systems are that they can deliver high and continuous output with very good
gradeability and low operating cost. This study also noted that the belt conveyor
systems help reducing the labour requirement have better operational system safety
and more environmentally friendly than trucks. However, they require a high investment
cost. Furthermore the conveyors are inflexible and limited only to carrying small or
crushed rock. Crushing is required to limit the maximum lump size for conveyor
44

transportation of hard rock even if it is not needed later, (for example, waste material)
and this could increase crushing costs and CO2 emissions.
The rule of thumb by McIntosh Engineering states that the belt operation is more
economical than truck haulage if the conveying distance is further than 1 km. While
beyond 1 km distance, CEMA handbook states that the weight-distance cost of
transportation by belt conveyor may be as low as one tenth of cost by haul truck. Trucks
also tend to be empty on the return journey (Yardley and Stace, 2008). Furthermore
only 40% of the energy consumed is expended hauling material. The remainder is
employed hauling the truck itself while the conveyors consume some 80% of the energy
delivering the payload. In addition, energy consumption for truck is 3 times greater than
for conveyors on the level and up to 8 times greater lifting the payload out of the pit.

Table 6 Comparison of truck haulage and in-pit crushing units

Truck haulage
Flexibility
Size
Gradeability
Operating and
maintenance cost
Initial investment cost
Power

Flexible
Possible for coarse
rock
Moderate
gradeability

In-pit crushing and

conveyor
Inflexible
Limited size to crushed rock
Ability to operate over a
range of grades

Higher

Lower

Lower in most cases

Mostly fuel

High
Mostly electricity

Environmental benefits also include reducing of pollution because the conveyor can be
housed in enclosures retaining dust and noise. Since fewer trucks are required, the belt
conveyors use less fuel and most importantly, produce lower CO2 emissions (Table 6).
However, a study that evaluated belt conveyor and truck haulage systems in an open pit
mine using life cycle assessment showed an unexpected result in terms of
environmental impact. The study was conducted using a hypothetical hard rock gold
mine in Canada with the transport distance of waste and ore of 4 and 15 km
respectively. The results show that, for 4,000 tph, the conveyor has 2,820 kg CO 2e per
functional unit, compared to 648 kg for the truck option. It is to be noted that the study
included the production and transportation of oil and electricity (coal-fired power plant)
in addition to the operation of the mine site (Awuah-Offei et al., 2009).
3.4.2 Recent projects
IPCC are widely used in the continuous loading such as bucket wheel excavator as well
as in the lateral and unconsolidated deposits with wide benches such as coal and oil
sand and most of projects that can be found are in the coal mines. Schrder (2003)
suggests that it is not profitable to dig homogenous material with discontinuously
45

working excavators, and that type of material is best dug by continuously working
excavators.
This study focuses on the IPCC in the gold mine case studies. The section will
represent the projects related to IPCC in open-pit mines that develop vertically. This is
known as the case of large open pit mines which can be found, for instance, in iron ore,
copper and gold mines. The main challenges for consideration are hard rock, deep pit,
phase or push back development, narrow bench width, impact of blasting and flexibility
where waste and ore deposit in the same bench and the materials go the a number of
destinations. Furthermore, it is also necessary to consider the fully mobile unit or the
semi mobile unit. In hard rock and stone mining, there is little possibility of hauling by
conveyor without preliminary sizing. Therefore the UK hard rock quarries employ
blasting and out-of-pit primary stage crushing, off-highway trucks with a degree of
flexibility far in excess of fixed position belt conveyors, truck still predominate(Yardley
and Stace, 2008). However there is a successful example in a hard rock mine at
Midland Quarry Products Cliffe Hill granite quarries in Leicestershire, UK. The quarries
conveyed its rock 1.44 km from the semi-mobile primary crusher at the old site through
a 713 m long tunnel to the new plant at up to 2500 tonne per hour (Yardley and Stace,
2008). This example points out that material has to be crushed before transported by
belt conveyor which means waste rocks also needs to be crushed using this system. In
the gold mines, for example, where the stripping ratio is relatively high, this factor needs
to be considered.
In a recent project, CITIC Pacific Mining, a large iron project has installed four in-pit
crushers from ThyssenKrupp, each with the capacity of 4,250 tonnes of magnetite iron
ore per hour. The systems are powered electrically and moved by crawler units (CITIC
Pacific Mining, 2010). There is also information that in China, conveyor belt systems in
opencast iron ore mines are becoming popular especially in large open pits of more
than 100 m deep (SBM, 2011).

Figure 12 Example of IPCC in large open-pit mines. a and b (Tutton and Streck, 2009), are from Chuquicamata
mine in Chile with a steep conveyor. C is Escondida mine, Chile (Schrder, 2003) and d is Highland Valley
Copper in Canada.

46

Some open pit copper mines use IPCC (Figure 12). However, these crushers were in
fixed locations with relocation on a project basis. This can be regarded as the vertical inpit conveyor and also Chuquicamata mine is the example for the waste crusher in hard
rock open pit mines (Tutton and Streck, 2009).
A case study of a semi-mobile crusher in copper mine from ThyssenKrupp shows that
the system has 8,000 tph capacity (40 million tpa) and a short truck haul. With an
average distance of 0.75 km and a depth up to 600 m, CO2 reduction compared with a
truck system would be 150,000 tpa (Tutton and Streck, 2009).
For a fully mobile system, Tutton and Willibald (Tutton and Streck, 2009), stated that the
relocatable systems are not common in deep hard rock mines as well as to date (2009),
no fully mobile systems in large scale, hard rock mines yet. The comments from Dave
Tutton can also be found in the International Mining magazine, May 2011 (International
Mining, 2011), that the IPCC for large open pit copper and gold mines will require more
flexible systems and the ability to accommodate them within the mine plan without
significantly impacting the metal and waste schedules. The systems are currently still
being examined.
The study of replacing trucks by fully mobile crusher and conveyors in Carajas, the
largest open pit iron ore mine in Brazil claimed to be the first metalliferous, deep open
pit operation in the world to consider a fully mobile system. The system was designed to
have two fully mobile crushing plants with a capacity of 3,900 tons/hour each for waste.
The result was feasible and the system would replace 15 haul trucks. For the ore, three
units of fully mobile crushers at 2,000 tons per hour each would be applied. The system
would replace four trucks. CO2 reduction accounts for up to 133,000 tons per year
(Lcio et al., 2009).
There are some general statements for the IPCC system listed by Sandvik for basic
overview of the system feasibility before the detail study (International Mining, 2009):
-

Mine life: at least 4 years to pay back capital and more than 10 years is ideal
Tonnage: at least 10 Mtpa per stage and 25 Mtpa is preferred
Energy cost: electricity costs per kWh less than 25% of diesel price per litre
Space for operation: at least 100 m is needed
Rock strengths: up to 150 MPa
Gravity: conveyors can generate power on downhill runs
Truck cycle times: IPCC may not work well below 25 minutes cycle times

47

3.5 Load and haul fleets efficiency

Mining heavy equipment, especially haulage fleets, consume large volume of fuel as
presented in chapter 3. Only slightly saving results in significant volume of fuel used.
Energy efficiency plays a vital role in fuel saving and CO2 emissions.
In Australia, mining operations have to conduct the energy mass balance (EMB) to meet
the requirements of the Energy Efficiency Opportunities (EEO) program, as detailed in
the EEO legislation. The aim of the EMB is to improve understanding of the overall
energy system and to provide insights into potential energy efficiency opportunities.
The key requirements include the data collection process, the energy analysis process
and a comparison of performance to theoretical and actual energy use. For electricity
and gas consumption, the scope for error margins should be within 5% from billing
data and larger for some energy and mass flows that cannot be accurately measured
(The Energy Efficiency Opportunities, 2010).
In this study, energy efficiency of haulage fleet is conducted to identify potential
opportunities on saving fuel resulting in CO2 emissions. Comparisons of performance of
theoretical and actual fuel use are estimated in some cases.
Cycle time analysis
Cycle time consists of the time to complete one cycle of operation including loading,
hauling, dumping and returning to the operation area. The cycle time changes depends
on the changing of working face, distance, material, haul road conditions and
excavating conditions. The optimum matching fleet can be estimated from the points
that truck capacity should be approximately four times of excavator bucket capacity at
minimum and it should not exceed 6-8 times at maximum (Ekka, 1989).
Loading and hauling account for a large proportion of total fuel consumption in open pit
mine as presented in chapter 3. Idling trucks lower production and waste fuel so match
time of equipment is important. A way to reduce emissions from fuel usage is to improve
the mining fleet efficiency. This can be done using cycle time analysis. In this section,
actual cycle time from field observed was used. Potential production can be calculated
from truck and excavator time.
Haul road condition
An important measure of haul road surface conditions is the rolling resistance. Rolling
resistance is the force needed to maintain the forward movement of a truck or the
energy lost from tyre penetration. Rolling resistance affects wear and tear on the truck,
reduces fleet productivity, and increases fuel consumption (Tannant and Regensburg,
2001) (Figure 13).

48

Figure 13 Rolling Resistance versus performance (Tannant and Regensburg, 2001).

A study on CAT 777 operating on a 7.3 km 7% incline, decreased rolling resistance

from 8% to 4% would reduce capital cost by 29% and operating cost by 23% for 5
million tons per annum rate (Thompson and Visser, 2003). Another analysis on rolling
resistance highlights that for CAT793, if rolling resistance increased from 6% to 15%,
the truck has to change from 5th gear at 35 km/hr to 4th gear at 20km/hr or lower. This
means the truck will consume more fuel to travel the same distance (Tannant and
Regensburg, 2001). In this section, the study on effect of Rolling Resistance on CO 2
emissions was conducted. This section used the data from Truck handbook cycle time
comparison section (Case A, CAT777) and different Total Resistances were applied.
This analysis was conducted on 3.6 million tonnes at 46.2 l/h fuel burn rate. Given 2,883
m one-way haul distance on surface ground, assuming grade resistance equal to zero
(flat surface), and 7.4 minutes of loading, dumping and waiting time. Rolling Resistance
from 4% (good road) to 10% (poor road) was applied. Total truck travel time ranges
from 8.3 to 19.2 minutes (Table 7).
Table 7 Effect of total Resistance on fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.

Total Resistance
Truck cycle time
Potential production
Potential hour
Fuel used
CO2 produced
CO2 produced

4%
15.6
345
10,518
485,921
1,237
0%

6%
18.7
288
12,602
582,235
1,483
20%

49

8%
22.4
241
15,057
695,637
1,772
43%

10%
26.6
203
17,882
826,127
2,104
70%

mins
tph
hour
litre
t CO2

Figure 14 Effect of Total Resistance on CO2 emissions and truck cycle time

Increased Total Resistance results in increased cycle time and has a negative effect on
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions (Figure 14). If Rolling Resistance increased from
4% to 10%, CO2 emissions, at the same rate as truck cycle time, increases by 70%.
Engine load
Another factor that control fuel consumption is engine load factor which determines the
portion of full power required to operate the machine. Low engine load also means low
fuel burn rate. To simplify, loaded journey uses more power than empty journey and
travelling uphill needs more power than downhill. Estimation of engine load factor and
fuel consumption can be found in the performance handbook. Load factor guide from
Caterpillar are as listed (Table 8).
Table 8 Load factor guide (Caterpillar, 2007)

Engine load factor

Low
(20%-30%)
Medium
(30%-40%)
High
(40%-50%)

Operation at gross
weight
An average gross weight
less than recommended.
An average gross weight
approaching
recommended.
At or above maximum
recommended gross
weight

Haul
roads

Overloading

Load
factor
Low

Excellent

No
overloading

Good

Minimal
overloading

Moderate

Poor

Overloading

High

According to Runge (1998), fuel consumption can be determined from the following
equation (Kecojevic and Komljenovic, 2011):
Fuel consumption (L/hr) = Engine power (kW) x 0.3 x Load Factor
Payload management
Gross weight of truck has large influence on fuel consumption. For example machine
weight and payload are needed to determine maximum speed attainable, gear range
and available rimpull using the Rimpull-Speed-Gradeability curve. The Australian
50

Energy Efficiency Opportunities guidance presented the effect of payload to fuel

consumption for CAT789C truck as seen albb (Figure 15).

Figure 15 Sensitivity analysis: Effect of velocity constraints on fuel intensity (The Energy Efficiency
Opportunities, 2010)

Fuel consumption per tonne is at its lowest when the truck is fully loaded and increases
as payload decreases. Reducing load to 80% of maximum can increase fuel
consumption rate by 20%.
Caterpillar also mentioned that for its 793F electric truck which is heavier than its
mechanical one consumes more fuel and has higher emissions (Jamasmie, 2010). At
Blair Athol, Rio Tinto; draglines electric motors were upgraded, and bucket and rigging
weights were decreased. This improvement saved 4,300 tonnes CO 2-e emissions per
year (Queensland Resources Council, 2010). Moreover, Thiess has identified potential
of CO2 reduction from improvement of payload management in several coal mines in
Queensland. It argued that this has the potential to reduce up to 8,200 tonnes CO2-e
emissions per year (Queensland Resources Council, 2010).
Operational practice
Equipment operating practices can sometimes provide greater fuel efficiency benefits
than improved engine technologies. For example, equipment operator training could
yield energy savings of about 10% (The Energy Efficiency Opportunities, 2010). Some
examples of fuel efficiency from operating behavior are listed as follows.
Driving behaviour
A recent study recorded fuel consumption and engine speed during the dumping cycle
of seventy two 240-ton haul trucks and found thatt fluctuation in fuel consumption was
explained by the observation that the operator pushed the accelerator pedal while
dumping (Modular Mining Systems, 2010). This raised the engine speed from 1500 rpm
to the excess of 1900 rpm. However the dumping time was not affected by the engine
speed and this behaviour consumed 80% more fuel. Theoretical fuel savings estimation
associated with solving excessive engine speed was conducted across a range of 30 to
100% of total loads. Fuel savings were 83,000 275,000 litres per year or up to 736 t
CO2 (Modular Mining Systems, 2010).
Excavator operating
51

Proper excavator operating position provides efficient digging. Suggested positions from
the machine handbook should be considered. Ideal operating positions for Caterpillar
series 300 are provided for a clear idea, as listed (Caterpillar, 2007).
1. Bench height and truck distance should equal to stick length for consolidated
materials and less for unconsolidated material. And the truck body rail is below
the boom stick hinge pin.
2. Figure 16 Recommended excavator and truck operating position
3. , a)
4. Optimum work zone and swing angle should be limited to 15 either side of
machine center or about equal to undercarriage width. Trucks should be
positioned as close as possible to machine centreline. (
5. Figure 16 Recommended excavator and truck operating position
6. , b)
7. Distance from the edge, for the best breakout force and time saving, should be
that the stick is vertical when the bucket reaches full load. And the operator
should begin boom-up when the bucket is 75% of the way through the curl cycle,
as the stick nears the vertical position. (
8. Figure 16 Recommended excavator and truck operating position
9. , c)
10.

Figure 16 Recommended excavator and truck operating position

Sammut, Komatsu Germany, argues that the correct position with the excavator on the
higher level with the bucket raking up the face and a low swing angle (20 to 30) can
result in cycle time as low as 20-23 seconds. While if the truck is on higher level the
efficient drops as the shovel operator has to load the bucket and swing and lift to load
the truck. Moreover, double-side loading proved to be a more productive because the
excavator does not have to wait for trucks (Fiscor, 2010) (Figure 17).

52

Figure 17 Double side loading of excavator and trucks

Operators training is important to operational efficiency of the equipment. Ahrenkiel,

manager of technical applications, Terex Mining, mentioned that a gain in cycle time is
possible but if the operators are not trained properly then all the effort is wasted(Fiscor,
2010). Downer EDI Mining has implemented improved use of haul trucks, operator
training and improved fuel-use efficiency. It presented that this reduced fuel use 3.9%
per annum. It also argued that, the use of mining-equipment operator-training simulators
to teach techniques for maximising fuel efficiency will reduce 940 tonnes of GHG per
year across sites the company operates in 2009 (Queensland Resources Council,
2010). In 2010 operator training in equipment simulators saved 5,728 GJ (Queensland
Resources Council, 2011) or about 400 tonnes CO2-e emissions. Using fuel
consumption data gathered from operator training using Caterpillars Electronic
Technician software, it was shown that this training can reduce fuel consumption by 5%9% and thus save 15 26 t CO2 per year (Antunovic, 2009).
Trolley Assist
Trolley assist is a technology used in conjunction with diesel electric haul trucks
providing an alternative power source for diesel-fueled haul trucks. Trolley assisted
hauling or a trolley truck is a method of incorporating a diesel electric mine haul truck
with an electric overhead wire system to assist in the trucks power supply. It was
developed during the energy crisis in 1980s to minimise diesel fuel consumption
(Koellner, 2008). The system consists of electricaloverhead lines connected to the haul
trucks in order to power them along the designated route, usuallyy anuphill ramp. The
diesel engine will be temporarily idled. The power available for the traction motors is
greatly increased and so is the speed (Koellner et al., 2004). The speed of the trucks,
on grade, is limited by the quantity of electricity which the truck's diesel engine can
generate. Trucks with trolley assist collect electricity from overhead conductors, so the
speed of the truck on grade is limited by the electrical drive system and size of the
motors and not by the size of the trucks engine (Hutnyak, 2004). In other words, this
electric power gives an additional boost to the haul truck allowing it to increase speeds
and carry more tonnage, in turn increasing the overall efficiency of the truck (Penswick,
2010). One clear example of the increase in efficiency is the significant reduction in
cycle time. If the cycle time is reduced by 20%, 32 trucks on trolley produce the same
as 40 trucks on diesel (Siemens, 2010). This system can provide a more efficient
operation with a reduced carbon footprint. Siemens (2010) report that their trolley-assist
technology can reduce fuel burn during haulage by as much as 80%. In addition to this,
53

trolley assisted hauling can be economically beneficial expensive diesel fuel is being
substituted for cheaper electricity (Hutnyak, 2004). Siemens and Komastsu are the only
manufacturers of mining trolley-assist trucks however Liebherr, Caterpillar and Hitatchi
are undertaking research into trolley-assist technologies with plans to manufacture
trolley-assist trucks in 2012.
There are numerous factors to consider before a trolley assist system can be integrated
into a mining environment. The mine is most likely to be open pit and is usually a very
large-scale operation. Trolley assist can either be used as a high voltage direct trolley,
where the truck is almost entirely powdered by the electric lines, or it can be used as a
low voltage diesel boost operation where the electric power works with the diesel engine
(Siemens, 2010). Trolley assist is most useful on steep uphill grades where it is
estimated that 70-80% of total fuel consumption (Siemens, 2010) and the greatest
speed reduction occurs. An increase in electric power (and therefore speed) will
improve the overall efficiency of the operation. Because of the significant upfront costs
of the trolley system, the project must be of sufficient tonnage and have substantial
hauling costs (fuel, maintenance, etc) to warrant the technology. Under favourable
circumstances trolley assisted hauling is expected to increase energy savings, extend
component life, decrease maintenance requirements, reduce fuel costs and increase
operational productivity (Hutnyak, 2004).
An excellent case study for the use of the trolley assist system is Barrick Golds
Goldstrike property in Northern Nevada, which at the time was North Americas largest
gold mining operation; with gold production exceeding two million ounces per year
(1996) at an estimated rate of 410,000 tonnes of ore per day. Gold Strike implemented
a trolley assist system, with great success between the years 1994 to 2001. At its
height, the Barrick trolley system consisted of seventy five 190 tonne haul trucks and
4.5 miles of trolley lines. The lines were implemented primarily in steeply graded areas
where they could provide the greatest benefit. In areas of 8% gradient the trolley
assisted trucks were running 80% faster than they were with conventional diesel electric
engines. This allowed Barrick to design the mine with steeper and fewer ramps, as well
as fewer trucks than would have been required without the trolley system. In addition to
this, when the trucks were using the trolley system fuel consumption was cut from 100
gallons per hour down to 7.5 gallons per hour, this represented a 50% reduction in
mines fuel consumption, saving Barrick millions of tons of diesel fuel each year. In
addition to the enormous economic benefits of the system the reduction in carbon
footprint of the Goldstrike project was immense (Hutnyak, 2004).
In addition to the Goldstrike project trolley assist systems have been successfully
installed all around the globe. One of the most well known uses of the trolley system is
at the Palabora mine in South Africa (upon which the Goldstrike design was based).
The Palabora trolley system ran successfully between 1980-2001 and accommodated
up to 26 vehicles incorporating haul trucks (170 tonnes), water trucks, and fuel trucks.
Similar savings were found at Palabora as Goldstrike (Hutnyak, 2004). It is important to
note that in order to employ trolley assisted hauling economically, certain conditions
must be present The electricity consumption of the Trolley Assist will also account for
54

carbon output. In the case of Palabora, all South African electricity is generated via
burning coal (Penswick, 2010), the carbon output of a coal furnace will be significantly
higher (~45%) than Barricks natural gas and solar power plants currently supplying its
operations in Northern Nevada (Barrick, Environment: The Opportunities Around Us,
2010).
Electric drive trucks
The electric drive transmission includes a diesel engine connected to an electrical
generator which creates electricity to power electric traction motors. The system
eliminates the complex mechanical transmission system hence reduces the wear rate
and maintenance brakes. However the electrically driven wheels still power by diesel.
Electric drive trucks are claimed to have advantages over the mechanical drive trucks
on higher speed and gradeability, higher availability and better safety (Koellner et al.,
2004). However, Caterpillar states that with its the 793F electric unit is heavier than the
mechanical unit. Although its speed is 5 km/h faster than the mechanical one,
Caterpillar believes that this does not compensate for the extra weight. The mechanical
drive offers the best efficiency and less power is required at the same speed. Thus fuel
consumption and emissions are lower (Jamasmie, 2010). The most important
advantage is that the electric drive truck can be used in trolley assist application
(Koellner et al., 2004). Both AC and DC drive trucks can be utilised with trolley assist.
However, the advantage of AC drive truck over DC one is that the ac inverters decouple
the traction motor voltage and speed from the dc line voltage. The AC drive truck can
take the trolley line and move on the line at any speed while the DC drive truck at the
low speed cannot take the line the fixed voltage - speed relationship.
The AC drives have 6-7% higher efficiency over DC drives of comparable size (Hitachi
Construction Machinery 2008). The AC drives also provide more rimpull and better
retarding capability. The system allows faster speed and also reduces diesel
consumption. Komatsu indicate that AC has an 18% downhill speed advantage to an
equivalent DC drive truck (Coastal News, 2007). In addition, according to the technical
specification, Terex MT 3300 AC has a speed 40 mph over the DC one at 33 mph as
well as the AC one provide higher power.
Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantages of trolley assist haulage are cost saving through reduced fuel
consumption (Mudd, 1992). Normally, 70 to 80% of mine haulage fuel is consumed on
grade (Koellner, 2008); idling the diesel engine on the uphill journey, fuel consumption
can be reduced up to 50% (Alvarado, 2009). Adding to that, overhaul intervals and
components life can be extended, as a result maintenance and operating costs can be
reduced. Additionally, with this system, grade can be up to 12% which impact greatly on
mine design and strip ratio.
The speed of driving haul truck uphill is limited by the engine horsepower. The power
drive from Trolley Assist can provide more horse power than the diesel engine whilst the
truck speed increases. According to Ford, the power line can supply 90% more horse
power than diesel engine (Ford, 2006, Hitachi, 2010). Euclid-Hitachi truck, EH4500,
55

operating in Grootegeluk Coal Mine; the truck speed increased from 14.1 km per hour in
diesel to 26.1 km per hour in trolley(Alvarado, 2009). The cycle time is shorter with a
corresponding increase in productivity by 10 to 20% (Koellner, 2008). Concerning
environmental impact, noise will be reduced because the engines idle. Emissions can
be reduced significantly from a great reduction of fuel consumption. The Trolley Assist
system is flexible as the speed is independent of the line voltage means that the driver
can run at any speed. Connection to the trolley line is possible at all speeds with quick
and smooth system transition to any trolley line.
Trolley Assist is practical in deep open pit mines where the main haul roads do not
move so frequently because of the installed power lines. In addition to this, the smallest
capacity is 136 t such as Terex Unit Rig MT 3300 AC and GE 150 AC. The system
should be considered at the design stage. Ramp grade, width, lanes and area for the
trolleys are to be taken into account as well as the engine needed to be modified.
Although it is then less flexible than normal truck operations, considering reduction in
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions, the system is reasonable to consider especially in
the deep mines. Additionally, the capital cost and payback period is claimed by Siemens
of 1 to 3 years (Koellner, 2008).
Existing projects
Some mines in South Africa and North America operate with the Trolley Assist system,
examples are, Barrick Goldstrike Mines, Palabora Mining, Sishen Iron Ore, Grootegeluk
Coal Mine and Rossing Uranium; the latter three have still been operating in 2006
(Ford, 2006). Recently, the Lumwana copper mine in Zambia has implemented a trolley
system in 2008 (International Mining, 2007). Rssing Uranium in Namibia report that the
truck speed increases by 5kph on a ten% gradient. Fuel consumption with a payload of
182 tonnes reduces from 350 to 25 litres an hour (Rio Tinto, 2011). Thorum (2011)
studied the feasibility of trolley assist in 184,000 tons per day open pit gold mine. The
AC trucks used are 17 of 186 t Komatsu Haulpak 730E and 12 of 280 t Hitachi Euclid
EH4500 over the 2 km ramp. The results for grid based electrical generation shows that,
with trolley, 186 t Komatsu reduced 37,715 tons CO2 and 280 t Euclid reduced 27,877
tons CO2. These are equal to around 50% less CO2 emissions. For the on-site diesel
electrical generation CO2 emissions reduction for 730E and EH4500 are 23% and 13%.
Lastly, the on-site natural gas electrical generation made 33% and 26% CO 2 reductions
respectively (Thorum, 2011).
Another case study on the advantage of trolley assist was conducted for the open pit
black coal mine, Grivice, in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Overall material movement was 385
million Bm3. Using 254 t Hitachi Euclid EH4500 AC drive trucks, fuel consumption
reduced as high as 80% for the haul ramp and 50% for the entire haulage system. The
authors point out that a trolley system should be seriously considered where the depth
is deeper than 150 m (Nuri et al., 2009). Using a Bosnia-Herzegovina specific
emissions factor of 0.77 t CO2/ MWh (U.S. EIA, 2010), CO2 reductions for this analysis
are 20%-23%.

56

3.6 Conclusions
There are numerous means available to the mining industry to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. These range from the simple and relatively inexpensive method of planting
trees to offset CO2 emissions, to proper planning and optimization and, to solar power
plants and wind farms costing tens of millions of dollars. All of these play a role in
reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions, helping the mining industry of the
21st century in the fight against climate change. The goal now is to achieve a
sustainable form of GHG reduction, one that balances the needs of all stakeholders,
including: the environment, communities, and companies involved. There is no one
answer to fighting climate change or reducing greenhouse gases. In order to be truly
effective and maintainable GHG reduction must be achieved slowly through numerous,
ever improving, innovative and economically sustainable solutions. It is simply not
enough to throw money at the problem of global warming, heavy subsidization and
economic benefits are not a maintainable strategy, whist they are important to help low
carbon and renewable technologies develop they are not a long term solution. In order
for green technology to be sustainable it must also be economic. Whilst solar power
plants, hydro electricity, and wind turbines are proven forms of energy with little to no
GHG emissions the multi-million dollar investment makes them outside the range of all
but the largest companies. In addition to this the building of large renewable energy
power plants seems to occur more as a means of appeasing environmentally friendly
legislation, like Barricks solar power plant in Nevada (Barrick, Beyond Borders: A
Barrick Gold Report on Responsible Mining, 2010). Alternatively, they could be used as
a bargaining chip to receive funding from organisation like the World Bank or improve
their corporate image. Examples of this include the World Banks investment of US
$500 million in South Africa for renewable energy (Focus, 2009), or Indonesians US

57

$400 World Bank funding for geothermal development (Lxrichter, 2010); both are
countries with a rich mining industry.
In order for GHG reducing technology to really take hold in the mining industry it must
pay its own way. While subsidies and grants are essential in developing and improving
technology they will not last forever and if these technologies are going to remain a part
of industry they must be affordable. It is essential to begin with small scale applications
and technologies with limited risk. Good examples of this include the organic rankine
cycle and biofuels both significantly curtail diesel consumption and CO 2 emissions.
They are both effective technologies and are affordable to midsized operations. In
addition to this if either of these technologies proves to be unsustainable or too costly
they can be discontinued with minimal effects to the operation or budget. Innovative
small-scale technologies such as Barricks end-of-pipe hydroelectric power generation
at their Zaldivar mine in northern Chile represents the benefits of small-scale
innovations throughout the operation which have the potential to add up to large CO 2
emissions savings.
While large-scale projects have their role in setting an example, funding technological
improvements, and providing low emission energy, it is not the belief of this author that
they are the key solution to carbon reduction in the mining industry. The only way to
truly reduce emissions is to reduce the energy consumed, and provide energy in a clean
and economically viable manner. A culmination of small scale savings, more efficient
processes, proper planning and optimization and innovative techniques could be a more
suitable alternative. Although there is still much to learn, improvements are being made;
the mining industry continues to lead research, improve techniques, and reduce its
carbon footprint, albeit incrementally, yet this is a step towards carbon reduction,
meeting progressive targets and still producing significant benefits to companies,
regions, communities and markets.
Company Comparison
During the course of this research, many methods for reducing carbon footprint were
investigated. To provide a better understanding of the degree to which renewable
energy and GHG reducing technologies have infiltrated the mining industry ten of the
most proactive in reducing their carbon footprint have been compiled. All are ICMM
member companies, and leaders within the mining industry, in terms of financial
success as well as GHG emissions reduction. Table 9 lists these ten companies along
with some of the most popular carbon footprint reducing technologies and techniques
they use.
Table 9 GHG reduction methods in the mining industry (Keech, 2010).

58

Company
Barrick
Anglo
BHP
RioTinto
Goldcorp
Teck
Newmont
Xstrata
Gold Fields
Vale

Wind

Solar

Hydro

Biofuel

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

Geothermal Natural Trolley

gas
Assist
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Reforestation
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

As can been seen from the above table, all of the ICMM member companies compared
employ wide range of reduction methods and are taking a proactive approach to carbon
footprint management. Whilst some technologies are more widely used then others and
in varying stages of development all play an important role in emissions reduction. The
economic feasibility of each technology can be estimated by is popularity. Biofuels and
reforestation are used by nearly every company. This is likely in large to be due to the
fact that they are relatively inexpensive methods of CO2 emissions management. On
the other hand, wind power is less popular likely due to the fact that it requires a large
upfront investment as well as a suitable location. Technologies such as Trolley assist
and geothermal energy, which also require specific conditions to be viable, are also less
popular. This table further supports the conclusion that the most effective way to reduce
the carbon footprint of the mining industry is through the slow accumulation of small to
medium scale economically viable techniques and practices. While large scale projects
(ex. Wind farms) may work for specific projects of mayor companies to make a
significant difference in the carbon footprint of the mining industry as a whole it is
important to develop, encourage, and implement technologies within the price range
and technical expertise of small to medium sized mining companies as well. In this
manner the greatest and most sustainable reduction in carbon footprint can be
achieved.
Mitigation measures
Impacts on CO2 emissions reduction from each mitigation option and potential to
implement have been ranked based on the authors evaluation and experience. Some
impacts of mitigation options are not in a common measurement unit because of the
limited availability of data. A summary of the mitigation options and mitigation
assessment matrix are presented in Table 10 and Table 11.
Table 10 Comparison of all mitigation options (please note: the scores are based on the authors opinion.)

Case

Mitigation
strategies

Performance, potential effect

score

CO2
59

Potential implementation
possibility
score

B20

reduction
Alternative
fuel: Biodiesel

B100

% reduction = % 3
biodiesel blend
(score is based on
B20)

+ More mines
are considering
- Engine
efficiency and
modification

B100 biodiesel

+ 0% emissions
- high fuel price,
low availability
- Engine
efficiency and
modification
+ may require
by permits, EIA
- takes long
time and/or
large areas (to
uptake high
emissions)
+ low fuel and
operating cost
- high
investment, less
flexible
+ low op cost
- high
investment
- limited to large
capacity, deep
pit

Forestation

Reforestation

Teak: 60 t CO2 per 3

year

IPCC

In-Pit
Crushing
and
Conveying

IPCC < truck (30% 1

CO2)
(score is based on
open pit gold mine)

Trolley

Trolley Assist

20% - 50% CO2

20%-29%

Load
and
haul
efficiency
Cycle time
Cycle
time 3
analysis

actual time
Cycle time Influence
of 3
(manual)
cycle time to
fuel
consumption
and
CO2
emissions
Haul
road 5
condition

Excavator:
3
11% less time = 48%
less CO2
Truck:
22% less time = 31%
less CO2
6% higher RR= 70% 5
higher CO2
60

Depends on
operators
experience,
machine
condition, fleet
matching, work
condition, road

usually
concerned

Engine
factor

load 4

20% increase = 50% 3

higher CO2

Related to haul
road condition
and payload
management
Payload
3
80% load of max - 4
Usually
management
increase 20% CO2
maximise
Operational
2
Various
3
+ usually
practice
concerned
- easily neglect
Colour codes; red, yellow and green mean high, medium and low priority to consider,
respectively. Options are divided into reduction strategies as the whole system and fuel
efficiency.

Table 11 Mitigation option assessment matrix

Remark: Bold and underline represents whole system reduction strategies while italic represents fuel
efficiency option.

Potential effect of CO2 emissions reduction / Performance

Insignificant Low
(0-14%)
(15-29%)

Medium
(30- 49%)
3

High
(5069%)
4

Significant
(>70%)

Implementation
1
probability
Already
5
common
practice
Commonly
4
practiced

Moderately
commonly
practiced
Sometimes
practiced

Operational B20,
Engine Forestation
practice
Cycle time load
(handbook)

Rarely
practiced

Haul road
condition
Cycle time,
payload

2
IPCC,
Trolley

B100

Considering both potential carbon footprint reduction and the possibility to implement
the various measures, haul road condition should be prioritized, followed by efficiency in
engine load. This is because fuel efficiency improvement affects greatly the CO 2
emissions and is easy to apply in almost all operations. For the whole process reduction
strategy, forestation should be considered. Cycle time, payload management and
biodiesel B20 and B100 are to be considered as medium priority. Operational practice is
61

can also produce useful savings. The first two can be considered at most operations
right away, while B20 should be considered if the supply and technology is available.
B100 considerably reduces carbon footprint but is rarely used owing to its price and
availability. IPCC and Trolley Assist are used less because they are suitable for fewer
mines sites, however, if the mine is suitable (steep slopes, large trucks), these options
can be give a significant reduction in carbon footprint.
In theory, forestation and B100 can mitigate all CO2 emissions from a mine so that the
mine can be a zero carbon metal producer. In practice both methods can be difficult to
implement, owing to restricted supply of B100 and available land for forestation.
Howoever, offsetting by forestation can be carried out away from the mine site

62

Chapter 4 Carbon offsetting and carbon trading. Case study: Roia

Montan (Romania)
4.1. Introduction
Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement which attempts to implement the
objectives and principles agreed within the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) treaty from 1992. According to the 2nd Article of Kyoto
Protocol, the main objective is the stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system (Grubb et al., 1999; Kyoto Protocol: Status of Ratification, 2009). The
Protocol was initially adopted on the 11th December 1997 in Kyoto (Japan) and entered
into force on 16 February 2005. It was signed and ratified by 191 states by July 2010
(Kyoto Protocol: Status of Ratification 2009, Oberthur and Ott, 1999).
Under the Protocol, 37 countries (see Annex I countries) have committed to reduce the
emissions of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
sulfur hexafluoride) and two other groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and
perfluorocarbons). The main target of this commitment was a mean reduction of 5.2% of
GHG emissions (from 1990 levels) by the year 2012 (Kyoto Protocol to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1998). According to Kyoto Protocol
in 2012, the Annex I countries must have fulfilled their obligations of reducing the
greenhouse gases emissions, established for the first commitment period (20082012)
(see Annex B of the Protocol) (Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, 1998). The Protocol expires at the end of 2012 (Kyoto
Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1998).
In Annex B of the Protocol, the caps or quotas for the greenhouse gases emissions
are listed and assigned to each developed Annex 1 country. These quotas are known
as assigned amounts units (AAUs) and represent the allowance to emit one metric
tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) (Grubb et al., 1999; Kyoto Protocol: Status of
Ratification, 2009). In turn, these countries set quotas on the emissions of installations
run by the local business and by other organizations, generically named operators.
The operators, that have not used up their quotas, can sell their unused allowances as
carbon credits, while the operators, that are about to exceed their quotas, can buy the
extra allowances as credits either privately or on the open market.

4.2. The "flexible mechanisms" of Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Protocol provides three mechanisms that enable countries or operators in the
developed countries to achieve their emission targets. These mechanisms support
parties in achieving their emission reductions or removing carbon from the atmosphere
by a cost-effective way
The three flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol refer to:

63

 Joint Implementation (JI). According to the 6th Article of the Protocol, any Annex I
country can invest in emission reduction projects (referred to as "Joint
Implementation Projects") in any other Annex I country as an alternative for the
reducing of domestically emissions. In this way countries can lower the costs of
complying with their Kyoto targets by investing in greenhouse gas reductions in
an Annex I country where reductions are cheaper, and then by applying the
credit for those reductions towards their commitment goal (Grubb et al., 1999;
Kyoto Protocol: Status of Ratification, 2009; Harris, 2007).
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). CMD is defined by the 12th Article of the
protocol, and it is intended to meet two objectives: (1) to assist countries not
included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to
the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC, which is to prevent dangerous climate
change; and (2) to assist countries included in Annex I in achieving compliance
with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments (greenhouse
gas emission caps). CDM states that a developed country can sponsor a
greenhouse gas reduction project in a developing country where the cost of
greenhouse gas reduction project activities is usually much lower, but the
atmospheric effect is globally equivalent. The developed country would be given
credits for meeting its emission reduction targets, while the developing country
would receive the capital investment and clean technology or beneficial change
in land use (Grubb et al., 1999; Kyoto Protocol: Status of Ratification, 2009).
International Emissions Trading (IET) (also known as cap and trade). According
to the 17th Article of Kyoto Protocol, countries can trade their emissions
(assigned amount units (AAUs), or allowed emissions units) in the international
carbon credit market. A central authority (usually a governmental body) sets a
limit or a cap regarding the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted. This cap is
allocated or sold to firms in the form of emissions permits or carbon credits,
which represent the right to emit, or to discharge one ton of carbon or carbon
dioxide equivalent (CO2e) (Stavins, 2001; Cozijnsen, 2011). Firms that need to
increase their emission permits must buy carbon credits from those who require
fewer permits (Stavins, 2001). The transfer of carbon credits represents a trade
through which the buyer is paying a charge for polluting, while the seller is
rewarded for having reduced the emissions.

4.3 Romanias commitments according to Kyoto Protocol

Romania signed the UNFCCC in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit and ratified the
UNFCCC by the Law no. 24/1994. Romania was the first country, included in the Annex
I of the UNFCCC, which ratified Kyoto Protocol, by the Law no. 3/2001. In accordance
with the Kyoto Protocol, Romania has committed to reduce the GHG emissions by 8%,
between 2008 and 2012, compared to 1989 (Romanias Initial Report under the Kyoto
Protocol, 2007). Romania is using 1989 as a base year, instead of 1990, taking into
consideration the flexibility provided by the Article 4.6 of the UNFCCC, Decision 9/CP.2,
and based on the Article 3.5 of the Kyoto Protocol.
Romania has also committed to establish, no later than 2007, a national system for the
estimation of greenhouse gas emissions and also to set up a National Registry of
64

greenhouse gas emissions before the start of the first commitment period and to draft
and implement policies with a view to promote sustainable development (Romanias
Initial Report under the Kyoto Protocol, 2007).

4.4 The implementation stage of Romanian commitments

By approving the National Strategy on Climate Change (NSCC) (G.D. no. 645/2005)
and the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) (G.D. no. 1877/2005), the
Romanian Government has taken important steps to meet the UNFCCC and Kyoto
Protocol commitments. As shown in Figure 18, the total GHG emissions decreased
significantly between 1990 and 1999, because of the transition process to a market
economy. The decrease in energy-related emissions was a consequence of the decline
of economic activities and energy consumption. The GHG emissions increased between
1999 and 2004, stabilising out between 2005 and 2009.

Figure 18 Trends in the total emissions and removals of greenhouse gases in Romania (EEA, 2010).

In order to achieve the greenhouse gases limitation target, Romania is using two of the
three flexible mechanisms provided by the Kyoto Protocol, namely: the Joint
Implementation (JI) and the International Emissions Trading (IET).
4.4.1. Romania versus the International Emissions Trading (IET) mechanism
As was mentioned before, Romania committed to reduce its GHG emissions by 8%
between 2008 and 2012 from the levels of emissions recorded in 1989. This means that
Romania has the right to emit 1 279 billion tonnes of CO2e, between 2008 and 2012
(Romanias Initial Report under the Kyoto Protocol, 2007; Yuan, 2010). In 2009,
65

Romanian industries emitted 40% less CO2 than its AAUs of CO2 emission. This surplus
of carbon allowances can then be traded for money (Yuan, 2010).
In the case of Romania, the national carbon emissions cap for 2008 - 2012 period,
represents a combined total of 379,721,760 certificates or 75 944 352 certificates
annually (http://carboncreditromania.wordpress.com). As shown in Figure 19 the energy
sector received most of these certificates. According to the trading scheme from the
G.D. no. 60.2008 (see Annex 1), more than half of the national certificates of GHG
emissions will be allocated to eight companies, which represents the biggest sources of
pollutants in Romania (Table 12).

Figure 19 The national carbon emissions cap allocated for different sectors
(http://carboncreditromania.wordpress.com).

Table 12 The top of the allocated greenhouse gases emissions national certificates during 2008 and 2012 (GD
No 60/2008).

Name of the company

Mittal Steel Galati
SC Energetic Complex Turceni
SC Energetic Complex Rovinari
SC Deva Electrical Plant
Energetic Complex Craiova Isalnita
RAAN Romag Termo
Lafarge Cement (Romania) Medgidia
Petrom SA Arpechim Pitesti

66

Number of the national

certificates allocated
71 millions
34 millions
28 millions
20 millions
17 millions
14 millions
12.3 millions
9.6 millions

According to the Kyoto Protocol, the certificates record is held by a standardised system
of national registries in each EU member country. For Romania, this task belongs to the
National Register for Emissions. Companies who are large polluters have internal
departments for trading carbon credits, and those who do not have such a department
work with the banks. There are also profile companies or foreign brokers who are
members at one of the mentioned stock exchanges, who are intermediaries in the
trading of certificates allocated to the Romanian companies.
Since 2009, Romania has been part of the EUs scheme for carbon trading, where the
12 000 industrial and energy polluters can trade CO2 emissions. Since the beginning of
2009, Romanian companies have traded around 40 millions of carbon credits. The
business, potentially worth billions of Euro in transaction volumes, represents a big
interest for big name brokers (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/romnc3.pdf). The
money gained from carbon credits must be used for: the development of the green
energy sector which is necessary for the reduction of carbon emissions; the
rehabilitation of the coal based power plants; or for the implementation of the wind
energy projects. If Romania doesnt sell its carbon credit surplus, these allowances will
automatically expire by 2012 (Yuan, 2010).
4.4.2. Romania versus the Joint Implementation (JI) mechanism
Romania has signed several JI programmes with different countries like: Netherlands,
Norway, Denmark, Austria, Sweden and the World Bank's Prototype Carbon Fund. Due
to the investments made by some of these countries, a total of 11 JI projects have
started
or
they
have
already
been
finished
in
Romania
(http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/romnc3.pdf). The approved JI projects include:

5 projects designated for the energy efficiency, with respect to:

The district heating: Swiss Thermal Energy Project in Buzu and Pacani
(Switzerland); Development of the Municipal Utilities-Heating System in Fgra
(Norway); Municipal Cogeneration Trgovite (Netherlands); Rehabilitation of
Bucharest District Heating System (Switzerland)
The industrial technology improvement (cement plants): Refurbishing of the Cement
Factories Aled and Cmpulung (Netherlands)
4 projects designated for renewable energy projects, like:
Hydropower: Modernization of 3 Hydro Units at Porile de Fier I Hydropower Plant
(Netherlands); Modernization of 4 Hydro Units at Porile de Fier II Hydropower
Plant (Netherlands)
Biomass (sawdust): Sawdust 2000 Project (Denmark)
Geothermal: Geothermal Energy Use in Oradea-Area II and Beiu District Heating
Systems (Denmark)
1 projects designated for landfill gas recovery: Landfill Gas Recovery in 4
Major Cities: Baia Mare, Satu Mare, Oradea, and Sf. Gheorghe (Netherlands)

67

 1 project designated for the afforestation phenomenon: Afforestation of

7000 ha Degraded Agricultural Land Host Country Agreement (host country
agreement)
It was estimated that these JI projects would generate over 7.5 mil. tonnes of CO2e in
the first commitment period (2008-2012), corresponding to a value of approximately 40
million Euros (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/romnc3.pdf).

4.5 CO2 reduction strategies in the case of Roia Montan mining project
The goal stated by Roia Montan Gold Corporation is for the project to be Carbon
Neutral by the end of the mine life. RMGC has explored three strategies in order to
achieve this goal: (1) purchase green credits from emissions market (Carbon Trading);
(2) invest in cleaner technology and green energy (wind, solar, hydro, etc.); and (3)
develop a carbon sink reforestation programme in the project area. Possible sites
include the Apuseni Mountains. Of the three options, the third one appears to be the
most feasible given the context of the site location and logistics of the three options.
4.5.1 Carbon Trading
Romania has been a part of the EUs scheme for carbon trading since 2009. Romanian
companies have been traded around 40 million carbon credits, although the business is
potentially worth billions of Euros in transaction volume. At present there is still a weak
carbon trading market within Romania. As a consequence this option is not feasible at
this time for the Roia Montan project.
4.5.2 Invest in cleaner technology and green energy
There is little potential at the present to invest in green energy (wind, solar, hydro, etc.)
in Roia Montan area. In order to reduce the CO2 emissions, RMGC propose they will
invest in cleaner technology by using the best available techniques (BAT). Some of the
possible options in this case could be (RMGC, 2008):
-The use of GHG reducing technologies:
- The use of electrical equipments/vehicles instead of diesel equipments/vehicles
- The electricity generation from other raw materials than coal
- The use of liquefied petroleum gas as fuel for high efficiency boilers used for heat
production, in order to reduce fuel consumption
- The purchase of vehicles/mobile equipment with low fuel consumption engines
- The mention of certain specifications, like fuel efficiency or low sulphur content, at
the purchase of new equipment/vehicles
- The use of wet scrubbers to reduce emissions from the electrolysis cells, from the
furnaces used to reactivate the active carbon, from the melting furnace, etc.
- The construction of chimney-dispersion at the processing plant, in order to improve
the pollutants dispersion

68

-For technology optimisation:

- The use of electricity generating systems equipped with non-selective catalytic
reduction of emissions
- The use of vehicles/mobile equipment equipped with engines with pollutant
emissions below the legal limit
- For the optimisation of the existent infrastructure:
- Planning procedures for regular maintenance of vehicles/equipments
- Strategic planning of delivery routes, in order to avoid the heavy traffic
- Enforcement of speed limits
4.5.3 Reforestation
The Apuseni Mountains area is heavily affected by the forestry industry, where
approximately 600 ha of forest are lost a year. As a consequence, reforestation
represents the best option for CO2 emission reduction. For the reforestation carbon
sink scenarios, the estimated CO2 absorption rate was the same for both young and
mature forest, although it is known that the maturity and health level of the forest
influences the CO2 absorption rates. In order to create several scenarios regarding the
carbon sink for Roia Montan mine project, it was assumed that each cubic metres of
indigenous forest can absorb an average value of 0.5 t CO 2 a year. Based on local
forestry data, it was estimated that one hectare of indigenous forest contains 140 m 3 of
wood and after year 5, the forest is growing at a rate of 7.6 m 3 per ha a year (Bobar,
2009). Based on this assumption it is possible to predict the area of forest which must
be planted in order to absorb sufficient carbon for the project to become carbon neutral
by the end of the mine life (currently proposed as being in year 17). Taking into account
the Romanian energy blend, which produces CO2 emissions at a rate of 0.737 kg per
kWh (Bobar, 2009), a total of 8 000 ha of carbon sink indigenous forest must be
planted for the project to become carbon neutral by year 17. The estimated cost for this
operation is of 5 million USD. The estimated cost includes only the cost of the
forestation programme and it assumes that the costs for the recovery of the degraded
land or damaged protected forest will be provided by local or central forestry authorities.
Figure 20 shows the carbon sink scenario in the case of reforestation with 8 000 ha of
indigenous forest. The red bars represent CO2 emissions caused by the mine activity,
while the blue bars represent the CO2 absorption of the trees. The yellow line
represents the balance between the CO2 production and absorption and marks the point
at which the project becomes carbon neutral (year 15). The red dotted line represents
the end of Roia Montan mine project (year 17).
On the other hand, if the Romanian energy sector is able to align with the EU energy
standards, in order to generate 0.375 kg CO2 emission per kWh the project will require
only 5 000 ha of new indigenous forest at a total cost of 3 million USD. Figure 21 shows
the carbon sink scenario in the case of reforestation with 5 000 ha of indigenous forest.
Unfortunately at this time the reforestation of 8 000 ha is not feasible. RMGC has been
committed to reforestation of 1 000 ha of land. The reforestation surface (1 000 ha)
69

respects the Romanian legislation (Low No.46/2008 or the Forest Code from
19/03/2008 last modified on 04/06/2009, Art.37/alin.3) namely: that cut forest land must
be reforested with a surface which has five times the value of permanently removed
forest and cannot be less than three times the removed forest area.Considering the
Romanian power blend (0.737 kg CO2/kWh), this will result in a period of 50 years until
carbon neutrality is achieved (Figure 22). If Romania aligns to EU emissions
requirements (0.375 kg CO2/kWh), the time range will be shorter - 39 years.

Figure 20 Cumulative carbon footprint assuming 8000 ha reforestation, Romanian energy blend (Bobar,
2009).

70

Figure 21 Cumulative carbon footprint assuming 5000 ha reforestation, EU energy blend (Bobar, 2009).

Figure 22 Cumulative carbon footprint assuming 1000 ha reforestation, Romanian energy blend (Bobar,
2009).

71

4.6 Conclusions
Romania was the first country included in the Annex I of the UNFCCC, which ratified the
Kyoto Protocol Law no. 3/2001. In accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, Romania has
committed to reduce the GHG emissions by 8%, between 2008 and 2012, compared to
levels emitted in 1989. In order to achieve the greenhouse gases limitation target,
Romania is using two of the three flexible mechanisms provided by the Kyoto Protocol,
namely: the Joint Implementation (JI) and the International Emissions Trading (IET).
At present, there is a weak carbon trading market within Romania. As a consequence,
this option is not feasible at this time for Roia Montan project. At the moment, there is
little potential to invest in green energy (wind, solar, hydro, etc.) in the Roia Montan
area. In order to reduce the CO2 emissions, RMGC will invest in cleaner technology by
using the best available techniques (BAT). At present with the Roia Montan mining
project, reforestation represents the most feasible option for the reduction of CO 2
emissions.
The main goal of RMGC is for the project to become carbon neutral by the end of the
mine life (year 17). In order to become carbon neutral by the end of the mine life, the
required surface for carbon sink forestation programme is 5 000 ha of indigenous trees
based on EU guidance, or 8 000 hectares if the Romanian energy sector is not be
aligned to EU standards. The estimated cost for this operation is over 5 million USD.
Unfortunately at this time the reforestation of 8 000 ha is not feasible. RMGC has been
committed to reforestation of 1 000 ha. Considering the Romanian power blend (0.737
kg CO2/kWh) this will result in a period of 50 years until carbon neutrality is achieved. If
Romania aligns to EU emissions requirements (0.375 kg CO2/kWh) the time range will
be shorter ~ 39 years.

72

Chapter 5 Case Study of setting up a new mine: Roia MontanRomania

5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 is the case study of Roia Montan Gabriel Resources (RMGR) project in
Transylvania, Romania. The Roia Montan project is owned by Roia Montan Gold
Company (RMGC), which is owned by Gabriel Resources - a Toronto based Canadian
company (80 %), by the Romanian government (19.31 %), and by other investors (0.69
%) (http://www.gabrielresources.com/i/pdf/EIA/01/C1.pdf). The project is located in a
historic mining region in Romania. The Roia Montan project is set to become one of
the largest gold operations in Europe. It will consist of three open pits, a tailings facility,
several waste rock dumps and a processing plant. Roia Montan Resources comprise
350 Mt, with an average grade of 1.3 g Au/t and 6 g Ag/t (Table 13) (RMGC, 2006). The
total content of gold is of 14.6 Moz while the silver total content is of 64.9 Moz. In
addition the inferred resources are of 30 Mt at a grade of 1.2 g Au/tonne and 3 g
Ag/tonne. Mean annual production rates will be13.4 Mt, producing 626 000 oz of gold
per year during its first 5 years of operation and 500 000 oz per year from the mines
entire duration. The estimated cost is of 272 USD per ounce (for the first 5 years), and
335 USD per ounce (during the anticipated 16 years of mine life) (Sahy and Schtte,
2006). Table 13 summarises the estimated grade and tonnage of the deposit.

Table 13 Roia Montan Gold Project categorized grade tonnage.

Measured

Indicated

Measured
and
indicated
Inferred

Gold
cutoff
grade
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

Mt

171.51
139.83
113.11
90.70
341.22
210.52
137.65
94.40
512.73
350.35
250.76
185.10
44.81
30.29
22.20
17.53

Au (g/t)

1.3
1.5
1.7
1.0
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.0
1.0
1.3
1.5
1.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.5

73

Ag (g/t)

8
8
9
10
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
3
3
3
3

Contained Contained
gold (Moz) silver
(Moz)
7.3
43.2
6.7
38.1
6.1
32.8
5.5
27.8
9.9
38.0
7.8
26.8
6.2
19.5
5.0
14.6
17.1
81.1
14.6
64.9
12.3
52.3
10.5
42.4
1.4
4.1
1.2
3.0
1.0
2.1
0.9
1.6

5.2 History of mining activity in Roia Montan

Roia Montan has a long history of mining activity since the Roman occupation of
Dacia. Exploitation peaked for the first time during Roman times (106-237 AD), when
the settlement was known as Alburnus Maior. This is certified by the wax tablets found
in the area dating back to the 6th of February 131 AD (Tth et al., 2006). These tablets
written in Latin or Greek consist of details of mining contracts, real estate transactions,
and other commercial activity during the early Roman Empire. Mining has attracted
immigrants to the region from Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Austria, who formed a
significant fraction of the population. Historical mining activity peaked during the AustroHungarian period in the 1800s (Figure 23), when the area was known as Verespatak,
meaning Red River. High production levels were attained during the time of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire (the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th
century) and before World War II, with exploitation carried out by means of underground
mining techniques. This mining activity focused predominantly on high grades zones
and veins (Tth et al., 2006).

th

Figure 23(a, b) Gold underground exploitation method used in the 18 century. Engraving placed inside the
Museum of SM Certej. Ancient photography of miners from Roia Montan (Toth et al., 2006).

After 1948 (the Communist period), when all the private holdings were nationalized, the
extraction of precious metals continued in the State-owned mine. The late 1970s
marked the introduction of open-pit mining, a method that continued until April 2006. In
1970 an open pit operation was initiated on Cetate deposit. In 1975 the underground
development of Cetate deposit was closed and the bulk mining of the disseminated low
grade gold commenced (Tth et al., 2006). During the Communist regime and after
1989, the State mine from Roia Montan incurred many losses, with overall expenses
estimated at being almost three times higher than the benefits. The old technology, the
74

lack of investments and lack of a clear development plan resulted in the closing of the
mine in 2006 (Tth et al., 2006). Roia Montan Gold Corporation (RMGC) acquired the
mining license for the area in 1995, and has been conducting several feasibility studies
in the area in order to set up a state-of-the art open-pit mining operation in the near
future in joint venture with the Romanian State and other Romanian share-holders
(Manske et al. 2006).

5.3 Location of Roia Montan mine and geological settings of the area
Roia Montan is a commune of Alba County, located in the Apuseni Mountains western Transylvania, Romania. It has 3 872 inhabitants. Roia Montan is located in a
historical gold mining region known as the Golden Quadrilateral (Tth et al., 2006).
The Golden Quadrilateral covers an area of approximately 500 km 2 within the Metaliferi
Mountains (South Apuseni Mountains) (Tth et al., 2006). The Golden Quadrilateral
includes gold and silver deposits which, without doubt, constitute the most productive
gold area of the Eastern Europe (Figure 24) (Tth et al., 2006).

Figure 24 The Golden Quadrilateral (Metaliferi Mountains): a) the location of the Golden Quadrilateral
within the Eastern European cold anomaly map (Mrton et al., 2006); b) major historical mining districts
(Manske et al., 2006).

Roia
Montan
property
lies
on
a
23.8
km2
concession
(http://www.datametallogenica.com/pages/minidisc/html/rosiamontanamapsect/page.html). Roia Montan Project will consist of three open pits, a tailings
facility, several waste rock dumps and a processing plant (Figure 25).
75

Figure 25 Roia Montan mine site layout (http://data,etallogenica.com/pages/minidisc/html/rosiamontanamapsect/page.html).

Deposits at Roia Montan are located within a maar-diatreme complex emplaced

within a pile of Cretaceous sedimentary rocks assigned to the flysch facies overlaying
the Paleozoic basement (Sahy and Schtte, 2006). Formed by multiple phreatomagmatic eruptions due to the interaction of hot, dacitic magma and the groundwater,
the major Roia Montan diatreme lithology is locally referred to as vent breccia. The
vent breccia hosts the Carnic and Cetate massifs, believed to be either two separate
dacitic bodies that intruded vertically through the complex, or a single dacitic intrusion
that was later split by a NE trending strike-slip fault (Sahy and Schtte, 2006). Another
sub-vertical breccia body termed Black (Glamm) Breccia crops out adjacent to the
dacitic bodies and consists mainly of clasts of Cretaceous black shales, and altered
dacite (Sahy and Schtte, 2006). Small, well-mineralized, intrusive, polymictic breccia
bodies were mapped between Tarina and Jig; they are interpreted as been formed due
to deep-seated phreato-magmatic eruptions (Manske et al., 2006). To the northeast, the
diatreme complex is concealed below thin to moderately thick andesitic extrusive rocks
with pyroclastic block and ash flows forming the lower part of the sequence, overlain by
andesitic lava flows (Leary et al., 2004). Figure 26 provides an overview of the geology
76

of Roia Montan deposit; a cross-section through Carnic and Cetate intrusive bodies is
presented in Figure 27.

Figure 26 Geological overview of Roia Montan Au-Ag deposit, Apuseni Mountains, Romania (Leary et al.,
2004; Sahy and Sctte, 2006).

Figure 27 Geological cross-section through Carnic and Cetate Dacitic intrusions of Roia Montan Au-Ag
deposit, Spuseni Mountains, Romania (OConnor et al., 2003; Sahy and Schtte, 2006).

77

5.4 Carbon footprint

5.4.1 Introduction
Romania has harmonised its mining legislation according to the European Union
requirements for environmental protection. The Mining Law no. 85/18.03.2003, adopted
by the Romanian Parliament, obliges mining companies working in Romania to meet a
high standard of environmental best practices. Regarding the greenhouse gas
emissions, the Order of the Ministry of Environment and Water Administration no.
1175/2006 for the approval of the Guidelines regarding the monitoring and reporting of
greenhouse gas emissions, stipulates that operators have an obligation to monitor and
report the greenhouse gas emissions generated by the sources belonging to their
operations. One of the activities stipulated by Annex no.1 of GD no. 780/2006 is
performed and the greenhouse gas emissions in relation with the respective activities,
with the exception of the emissions generated by the internal burning engines in the
transport sector (Deva Gold, 2011). The methodology regarding the calculation of
burning emissions and process emissions for the specific activities is stipulated in the
annexes of this order (Deva Gold, 2011).
In 2006, mining ceased in Roia Montan, so there are no current carbon emissions
caused by any mining activity. Considering that the Roia Montan project is set to
become one of the largest gold operations in Europe, a careful carbon footprint project
is essential. The CO2 emissions were estimated based on the planned equipment
selection, the production schedule (Roia Montan Project. Feasibility study final) and
using the industry norms (Table 14) (Bobar, 2009).
Table 14 Assumptions made in order to estimate CO2 emissions (Bobar, 2009).

Emission source
Electrical power
Fuel
Energy
Type

Emission type
50 MWh
diesel
gasoline
Blend Electricity EU

Volume/units

Electricity RO
Concrete*

Deforestation**

concrete use for initial construction period

concrete use for sustaining construction
period
concrete use for closure construction
period
deforestation in yr 0
deforestation in yr 7
deforestation in yr 14
deforestation in yr 16
3

2.7 kg CO2/L
2.3 kg CO2/L
0.375 kg
CO2/kWh
0.737 kg
CO2/kWh
36 795 m3
1 665 m3
640 m3
50 ha
135.3 ha
47.9 ha
18.8 ha

the ratio of cement is 300 kg per 1m of concrete and 0.6 t CO2 are emitted per tonne of cement
3
3
1 ha of forest consist in 140 m of wood and 0.5 t CO2 are lost per m of wood

**

78

5.4.2 Estimated CO2 emissions

It is estimated that the Roia Montan project will produce 241 856 t of CO2 emissions a
year (Bobar, 2009). These emissions were calculated by combining together all the
carbon emitting activities including: the mining cycle (drill, blast, load, haul), processing
cycle (crushing, grinding stages, onsite smelting) and transport and delivery of materials
and goods; they do not include transport of the product (gold) once it leaves the mine
site. The estimated CO2 emissions are summarised in Table 15 and Figure 28:
Table 15 The CO2 emissions during the mining and processing of 13,400 000 tonnes of ore per year (Bobar,
2009).

Resources

Mining
Gasoline
Diesel Fuel
Deforestation
Total
Processing
Gasoline
LPG*
Electricity
Reagent
Transport
Total

Annual avg.
quantity

CO2
emissions
(t/year)

820 000 L
16 458 000 L
250 ha

1 886
44 437
17 637
63 960

500 L
5 214 t
410 000 MW
25 truck/day

1.15
9 906
163 374
4 615
177 896.15

LPG - liquefied petroleum gas

Figure 28 CO2 emissions from different sources (Bobar, 2009).

5.4.2.1 CO2 emissions from mining activities

It was estimated that during Roia Montan project, the mining activities will produce
63 960 t of CO2 a year, which represents 26.4% of the projects total carbon footprint.
The two major contributors, regarding CO2 emissions caused by the mining activities,
79

are the fossil fuel consumption (19.15%) by the heavy equipment (haul trucks, drill rigs,
loaders and other) required for open pit operations, and the deforestation (7.25%).
Fossil Fuel Consumption
The burning of one litre of gasoline produces 2.3 kg of CO2, while one litre of diesel
produces 2.7 kg CO2 (Bobar, 2009). It was estimated that the mining activities will
require an average fossil fuel consumption of 17 278 000 L/year (820 000 L/year for
gasoline and 16 458 000 L/year for diesel). As such the fossil fuel burning will release
46 323 t of CO2 per year, which represents 19.15% (0.78% for gasoline and 18.37% for
diesel) of the projects total carbon footprint (Bobar, 2009; RMGC Staff, 2009). Both the
lead up construction period and the actual mining operations will require heavy mobile
equipments and vehicles which require fossil fuel. The initial construction period is
expected to last two years prior to operations. The mobile equipments and vehicles
required during the construction phase are listed in Table 16 (Bobar, 2009; RMGC Staff,
2009).
Table 16 Mobile equipment and vehicles for construction phase (RMGC Staff, 2009).

Type of equipment/vehicle
IR 270 MP auger bit
Hydraulic Shovel
CAT 992 G Loader
CAT 758 C Tipping lorry
CAT D9R Bull Dozer
CAT 834G Loading Bull Dozer
CAT 16H Moto Grader
CAT 777D Water Tanker
CAT 988 Loader
CAT 773D Haul Truck
IR ECM 590 Drill
325 BL Hydraulic Shovel

Units
2
2
1
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1

The mining process will require a much broader range of equipment, which can be
broken into five basic steps: drilling, blasting, crushing, handling, and transport. Proper
grading of the landscape and dust control is also essential. Each activity will require
various pieces of direct equipment as well as support equipment to complete the task at
hand. The estimated mobile equipment required, their respective quantities and
capacities are summarized in Table 17.
Table 17 Mobile equipment and vehicles for operation phase (RMGC Staff, 2009).

Type of Equipment

Units

Primary Equipment
Drills
Hydraulic Shovel

3
3

Class/Capacity
(preliminary data, subject to
change)
9-11 inch diameters
19.5 m3
80

Wheel Loader
Haul Truck
Track Dozer
Wheel Dozer
Motor Graders
Water Truck
Wheel Loader
Rock Drill
Excavator
Support Equipment
Fuel Truck
Lube Truck
ANFO Explosives Truck
Tire Handler
Welding/Mechanics Truck
Mobile Crane
All Terrain Crane
Boom Truck
Rough Terrain Forklift
Equipment Trailer/Tractor
Flatbed Truck
Pickup
Semi-Mobile Crushing Plant
Portable Light Tower

1
29
3
2
2
2
1
1
1

22 t
150 t
354 kW/474 HP
392 kW/525 HP
198 kW/265 HP
70,000 L capacity
350-400 KW, 6-7m3 bucket
107kW/144 HP
140kW/188 HP

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14
1
6

10 t
10 t

~ 80 t
~30 t
12 18 t

4 x 4 twin cab

The haul trucks necessary will not be acquired all at once, it will follow the acquisition
schedule from Figure 29.

Figure 29 Haul truck acquisition schedule (Bobar, 2009).

Each piece of equipment has a known rate of CO 2 emission. In order to calculate CO2
emissions caused by the activity of the 25 delivery trucks, it was assumed that the
trucks travel a distance of 100 km/day, during 5 days/week, 52 weeks/year, generating
7.1 kg CO2/km (formula 1). As such, the activity of 25 delivery trucks cause 4 614 t of
CO2 emissions a year (Bobar, 2009; RMGC Staff, 2009). It should be noted that carbon
emissions related to workers transport are relatively negligible compared to other
81

emissions (Bobar, 2009). As most workers are likely to live in the surrounding area and
buses/personnel vehicles burn relatively small amounts of diesel, these emissions have
not been accounted.

25trucks 100 km

day

7.1kgCO2

5days
km

52 weeks
week

year

4615tCO2

(1)
year

Mine Site Deforestation

In order to recover the ore, it is necessary to clear-cut a significant surface of forest.
This will affect the amount of CO2 that will be absorbed each year by the forest,
increasing carbon footprint of the operation. It is estimated that approximately 250 ha of
indigenous forest will be deforested during the project life (17 years) (Bobar, 2009).
From 61 500 m3 of investigated forest, approximately 35 000 m 3 will be gradually
deforested in 4 steps: 50 ha (in yr 0), 135.3 ha (in yr 7), 47.9 ha (in yr 14) and 18.8 ha
(in yr 16). This will decrease the carbon absorption with: 3 500 t CO 2/year in the first 7
years, 12 970 t CO2/year between year 7 and 14, 16 320 t CO 2/year between year 14
and 16, and 17 630 t CO2/year in year 16. Carbon sink was estimated considering that
each hectare of indigenous forest contains 140 m3 of wood and each cubic meters of
forest can sink 0.5 t of CO2. The new planted forest area is growing with 7.6 m 3/ha/year
after year 5, based on the information obtained from forestry planning documents
(Bobar, 2009).
5.4.2.2 CO2 emissions from ore processing
For the Roia Montan project, the ore processing cycle will represent the important
source of CO2 emissions (73.6%) (Bobar, 2009; Keech, 2010). It is estimated that a
quantity of 13.4 Mt of ore will be processed each year, resulting in 177 896.15 t of CO2
emissions a year. The ore processing CO2 emissions are related to the electricity
consumption, gasoline and LPG consumption, and reagent transport.
Electricity consumption
It was estimated that the ore processing requires a total electricity consumption of
410 000 MW each year. This will produce 163 374 t of CO 2 emissions a year, which
represents 64% of the projects total carbon footprint. The entire processing plant and
administrative buildings will be run by electricity, except a small part which requires
LPG. In Romania, the majority of the countrys power supply is provided by burning
coal, and each KWh produced from different sources (blends) releases an average of
0.737 kg CO2 into the atmosphere (Bobar, 2009; Keech, 2010). This is nearly double
compared to the EU average value of 0.375 kg CO2 per KWh. In this case, RMGC is
required to purchase energy which produces CO2 emissions at nearly double the EU
average (Bobar, 2009). The only way for RMGC to reduce the carbon footprint of its
electricity consumption will be through emission reduction strategies.
Gasoline consumption
Gasoline consumption during the ore processing, produces a relatively small carbon
footprint. The gasoline consume is estimated at 500 L/year, which will produce 1.15 t of
82

CO2 emissions a year (0.0004% of the projects CO2 emissions) (Bobar, 2009). The
gasoline consumption is mainly due to the equipment and vehicles involved in the
processing operation. Since all the equipment and vehicles use the best available
techniques (BAT), gasoline consumption is not a priority in this case.
LPG consumption
5 214 t of LPG will be consumed by the processing plant each year, producing 9 906 t
of CO2 each year. The LPG will be used predominantly in the cyanide leaching process.
LPG will be used in the heating and ventilation system of the onsite administrative
building (Bobar, 2009).
Reagent transport
The mine site and processing plant do not have direct access to any ports or rail lines.
As such, all the required reagents and major consumables must be transported to the
mine site via trucks. It is anticipated that in order to meet these demands the processing
plant will require 25 truckloads of supplies a day, 5 days a week. Assuming an average
100 km travel distance producing 7.1 kg of CO2 per kilometers operating 52 weeks per
year; this results in 4 615 t of CO2 output per year (formula 1). This accounts for 1.9% of
the projects total carbon footprint (Bobar, 2009; Keech, 2010). .
Considering all these aspects it was estimated that The Roia Montan project will
produce 16.15 kg CO2 per tonne of processed ore (Bobar, 2009; Keech, 2010). By
comparing the CO2 emissions from Roia Montan with other international mining
projects (which consists of similar gold deposits and size), it proves that CO2 predictions
were realistic and are relatively low (Figure 30). RMGC plans to minimise their carbon
footprint to a level as low as it is reasonably practicable; with the stated aim of reaching
carbon neutral by the end of the mine life (year 17).

Figure 30 The emissions of CO2 per tone of processed ore in several mining projects comparable (size and
type) with Roia Montan (Bobar, 2009; Keech, 2010).

83

5.5 Mitigation measures and CO2 reduction strategies

Some of the possible CO2 reducing strategies for The Roia Montan mining project
were detailed in this chapter. As it was mentioned in this chapter, the stated goal of
RMGC is for the project to be Carbon Neutral by the end of the mine life (year 17).
RMGC has explored three strategies in order to achieve this goal: (1) purchase green
credits from emissions market (Carbon Trading); (2) invest in cleaner technology and
green energy (wind, solar, hydro, etc.); and (3) develop a carbon sink reforestation
programme in the project area (Bobar, 2009). Possible sites include the Apuseni
Mountains.
At present, there is a weak carbon trading market within Romania. As a consequence
this option is not feasible at this time for Roia Montan project. At the moment, there
are no opportunities to invest in green energy (wind, solar, hydro, etc.) in the Roia
Montan area. In order to reduce the CO2 emissions, RMGC will invest in cleaner
technology by using the best available techniques (BAT). On the other hand, the
Apuseni Mountains area is heavily affected by the forestry industry, approximately 600
ha of forest are lost a year. As a consequence under the present circumstance
surrounding The Roia Montan mining project, reforestation represents the most
feasible option for the reduction of CO2 emission.
Different reforestation carbon sink scenarios for The Roia Montan mining project
were presented in Chapter 4. It was estimated that a total of 8 000 ha of carbon sink
indigenous forest must be planted for the project to become carbon neutral by year 17.
The estimated cost for this operation is of 5 million USD. Unfortunately at this time the
reforestation of 8 000 ha is not feasible. On the other hand if the Romanian energy
sector is able to align with the EU energy standards, in order to generate 0.375 kg CO 2
emission per kWh, the project will require only 5 000 ha of new indigenous forest; at a
total cost of 3 million USD. RMGC has been committed to reforestation of 1 000 ha of
land. Considering the Romanian power blend this will result in a period of 50 years until
carbon neutrality is achieved. If Romania aligns to EU emissions requirements (0.375
kg CO2/kWh) the time range will be shorter ~ 39 years (Bobar, 2009).

5.6 Impacts of Roia Montan mining project implementation

5.6.1 The actual economical and social status of Roia Montan
Apart from forestry, subsistence-level agriculture and tourism, mining is the main source
of employment in Roia Montan area. 57% of people in employment used to work in
the extractive and processing industry (Richards, 2005). Incomes are generally low,
even by Romanian standards, with average annual household monetary incomes of 1
805 USD, or 653 USD per capita (EGS International, 2003). Roia Montan mine closed
in 2006 leading to the loss of significant numbers of employees. The population is in a
significant state of poverty and lack of financial capability to enable people to start
businesses. The financial capability of the local public administration is low.

84

The community includes 39% of the active population (people who contribute to the
registered economy) and 61% who are classed as inactive (people who are not
contributing directly to the registered economy, who are not registered as unemployed,
who do not have official employment, who do not pay tax, who do not receive
unemployment benefits, who may receive pensions or sickness-benefits, and who may
be involved in unregistered economic activity). The population in the area is aged and
has a high proportion of women compared to men (EGS International, 2003). There is
tendency for a decrease in the overall population, a fact noticed at regional level as well.
In terms of the cultural and historical heritage, the economic decline of the area, that
started a while back, got worse in the last years and it reached a peak once the mining
activities were closed in 2006 and it had an evident impact on the status of this heritage.
As mentioned before, the historical monuments at Roia Montan are in various
degradation stages, from minor cracks to pre-collapse stage. Under Law No. 422/2001,
the responsibility to suitably maintain, consolidate, restore and use the historical
monuments
lies
with
the
owner
(http://www.kvvm.hu/cimg/documents/Kornyezeti_jelentes_angol_nyelven_a_verespata
ki_iparfejlesztesi_ovezet_modositott_ovezeti_telepules.pdf). Some of the heritage
structures are abandoned and in most of the situations, the owners do not have the
financial resources required to restore them.
5.6.2 Socio-economic impacts of RMGC Project implementation
The mining project proposed by RMGC is not in contradiction with other economic
development projects in the area - on the contrary, it may act as a catalyst for any such
projects. The direct socio-economical impact of the project is felt notably in the
communes of Roia Montan and Bucium, as well as in the town of Abrud. These
localities have a long-lasting mining tradition, and they are strongly affected by the
current situation. In fact, the mining disappeared with the closure of the two state
exploitations: RosiaMin and CupruMin, leaving over 1 200 people unemployed. As a
result of the acute lack of jobs, people - especially the young ones are leaving the
area for developed urban areas in the country or abroad. Consequently, the area is
going through a continuous depopulation and demographic ageing process.
The business plan of the mining project provides for total benefits of approximately 4
billion USD for the Romanian economy. Out of this amount, 1.8 billion USD will go
directly to the State budget (http://en.rmgc.ro/rosia-montana-project/economy.html).
These funds include the dividends obtained by the Romanian State, which holds 20% of
the RMGCs assets, royalties paid by RMGC, as well as other taxes and duties paid
directly to the local, regional and national State budget. The remaining 2.2 billion USD
will be spent in Romania for human resources, construction, electricity, materials,
reagents transport, spare parts and others (http://en.rmgc.ro/rosia-montanaproject/economy.html). These amounts are a direct investment in the Romanian
economy and will reach the workforce, the entrepreneurs and the Romanian companies
which will provide products and services for RMGC, during the construction and the
operation phases (http://en.rmgc.ro/rosia-montana-project/economy.html).
85

At the community level, The Roia Montan Project will generate the following benefits
http://en.rmgc.ro/rosia-montana-project/economy.html; http://en.rmgc.ro/rosia-montanaproject/community.html; http://en.rmgc.ro/rosia-montana-project/patrimony.html):

The mining project will create over 2300 direct jobs during the mine construction
phase, 800 direct jobs during the exploitation and 3000 jobs in total during
operation.
The revenues to be earned by the employees will be twice as high as the
average salary earnings at the level of the national economy.
New jobs will be created by the development of businesses in the area as a
result of the acquisition policy pursued by RMGC, the outsourcing of services
and the increased buying power of the population.
Granting of substantial dollar compensations much above the previous market
value for the properties acquired by the Company. With the obtained money,
people can not only rebuild their households, but also start up their own
businesses.
Major contributions to the local and state budgets, which will help develop public
utility investments in the area. The total amount of the taxes, duties and
dividends to be paid during the project exploitation period exceeds 1.8 billion
dollars.
Development of a modern infrastructure, which can also be utilized after the end
of the project. The logistic facilities necessary for the project, respectively roads,
infrastructure, houses, schools, public utility services, are built by the investor
and belong to the community.
Micro-crediting facilities and proper training programmes meant to foster
entrepreneurship in the area.
In supporting the local investors, RMGC has also created Roia Montan
MicroCredit, a micro-financing institution aimed to support entrepreneurship at
the local level. However, due to the present stage of Roia Montan Project, the
MicroCredit activity has been temporarily suspended but will be resumed when
the time is right.
Conservation of the historical and cultural heritage as a result of the
archaeological research programmes financed by the Company.

The cultural patrimony in Roia Montan can bring numerous visitors in the area, as
long as it is well preserved, restored and displayed. Nowadays, the Roman galleries are
unsafe and difficult to access, whilst the historical buildings badly need repairing. In the
future, with massive investments in infrastructure and patrimony rehabilitation, financed
by the mining project, Roia Montan will be able to finally take pride in its cultural
heritage (Figure 31).

86

Historical centre protected area

Carpeni - protected area (Roman building)

Figure 31 Important protected patrimony area in Roia Montan (http;//en.rmgc.ro/rosiamontanaproject/patrimony.html).

87

5.6.3 Environmental rehabilitation

An important aspect of RMGC project is the environmental protection, for both past and
future mining activities. Currently, the Roia Montan area is quite severely
contaminated by acid mine drainage flowing from approximately 150 km of underground
workings, waste rock piles, and tailings. Abandonment of the Rosiamin mining operation
would likely exacerbate this problem, because workings would be allowed to flood and
waste impoundments, which are already of dubious stability, might not be maintained
(Richards, 2005). The RMGC mine plan includes provision for management of site
water, including historically contaminated run-off and seepage in Roia Montan Valley
by development of a water catchment dam and then pumping of the water to a
treatment plant, for treatment and discharge (Richards, 2005). Mine tailings will be
impounded in a specially designed facility in the Corna Valley (250 Mt capacity), and
waste rock will be piled close to the mine workings. Waste rock piles will be
progressively rehabilitated during mining, and tailings will be stabilized and remediated
upon mine closure. The costs related to the rehabilitation and closure of the mine from
Roia Montan will be fully incurred by Roia Montan Gold Corporation (RMGC). At
the beginning of each year of mining operation, RMGC will deposit the entire amount
estimated for environmental rehabilitation and long-term monitoring in a specially
established account Financial Guarantee for Environmental Rehabilitation (FGER), so
even before the mining operations begin, environmental rehabilitation is guaranteed.
This account can only be accessed by the competent governmental authorities and with
the purpose of environmental rehabilitation. In addition, in response to specific concerns
about the use of cyanide in processing, the mine plan has recently been revised to
include cyanide-detoxification in the waste water circuit (http://en.rmgc.ro/rosiamontana-project/environment/closing-and-rehabilitation.html).
During the mining project, the best available techniques (BAT) in all the operations and
activities it will be used in order to enhance environmental protection (including low
carbon footprinting) in all the operating phases of mine and make sure there are
sufficient financial resources to fulfil all of environmental obligations and commitments,
including re-integration of the exploited areas in the natural circuit. RMGC project will try
to maintain, to the extent possible, the continuous landform features and minimise
topographic changes, landslide-stop, will improve the hydro regime in the area
(irrigation, drainage, measures against erosion). It will arrange green spaces and
buildings to achieve continuity of the natural landscape and create aesthetic structures.

5.7 Conclusions
Since 2006, Roia Montan mine is closed, so there are no current carbon emissions
caused by the mine activity. Considering that Roia Montan project is set to become
one of the largest gold operations in Europe, a careful carbon footprint project is
essential.
The activities that generate significant CO2 emissions during the construction, operation
and closure of Roia Montan project include: the electrical power demand for ore
processing, the fuel consumption for the heavy equipment used for operation,
88

deforestation of 250 ha in order to make space for the industrial project, the supplies
transport for construction and operation stages, the use of concrete, mainly during the
construction of the project (Bobar, 2009). It was estimated that the carbon footprint
caused by the mining and mineral processing operations as well as supply transport,
will be 241 856 t of CO2 emissions a year, that is 16.15 kg of CO2 per tonne of
processed ore. Processing and transport account for 73.6% of total CO 2 emissions,
while mining activities account for 26.4%. The indirect emissions, due to purchased
energy, accounts for 64% of total CO2 emissions (Bobar, 2009).
At present, CO2 emissions produced per kWh in Romania (0.737 kg CO2) are nearly
double that of the European Union average (0.375 kg CO2). The main goal of the
RMGC is for the project to become carbon neutral by the end of the mine life (year 17).
The company has investigated three means of achieving this goal: (1) purchase green
credits from emissions market (eg. Carbon Trading), (2) invest in cleaner technology
and green energy (wind, solar, hydro) and (3) develop a carbon sink reforestation
programme in the project area (Bobar, 2009).
RMGC has been committed to reforestation of 1 000 ha. Considering the Romanian
power blend (0.737 kg CO2/kWh) this will result in a period of 50 years until carbon
neutrality is achieved. If Romania aligns to EU emissions requirements (0.375 kg
CO2/kWh) the time range will be shorter - 39 years (Bobar, 2009).
RMGC project represents the first major mining investment in Romania in 30 years. The
mining project has the potential to generate significant wealth for the region and
country, both directly through royalty, tax, and salary payments, and indirectly through
the generation of secondary businesses and investment. An important aspect of RMGC
project is the environmental protection, for both past and future mining activities.

89

Chapter 6 Conclusions
Whilst all mines are similar in premise: valuable material is removed from the ground,
processed and sold; each mine is unique. Unlike other industries, where factories and
plants are designed and built to a certain specification, we have to mine minerals in the
conditions they are foundem. This may be the far north of Canada, where materials can
only be brought in and out for a few months of the year and temperatures dip below
500C, or Western Australia where access to water is limited for much of the year and
temperatures soar above 400C. This means that the carbon footprint of each operation
is unique to that operation and mitigation measures will also have to vary. Every case
must be considered individually;, there is no broad stroke solution to mining GHG
emissions, and no one size fits all answer. Rather each case must be carefully analysed
and then the most effective solutions applied.
For operations to deal successfully with the issue of GHG emissions the first step is the
development of effective carbon footprint management policy and best practice
guidelines. Multinational mining companies have operations all over the world differing
in everything from: geographical location, deposit type, mining method, material being
mined, and geopolitical climate. Each mine will probably have to meet different
standards, answer to different regulatory bodies, and comply with different legislation. In
addition to this, each site will be most amenable to different techniques and renewable
energies. Just as a conveyor system wont work in northern Canada, a haul ramp would
be inappropriate in a 3 km deep South African gold mine. For any organisation to
succeed in reducing its carbon footprint, its plan of action must be able to adapt
effectively to individual projects. As mentioned in chapter 1 while there is no definitive
set of standards or best practice guidelines regarding carbon footprint management, ,
one of the most effective tools is ISO14000. This allows companies to develop a
practical and effective environmental management system, which is flexible enough to
adapt to the regulatory expectations of a given project; be it in Zambia or Sweden.
ISO14000 stresses high standards and constant re-evaluation and improvement. It
allows an environmental management system to adapt to changing regulations and
expectations as well as changing technological advances.
Despite actions like the Kyoto protocol, it is in unlikely that in the near future there will
be an international set of guidelines or expectations enforced by governments outlining
the best practices of carbon footprint management. Expectations and standards must
therefore be industry lead. Only major corporations and leaders in the industry (such as
the members of ICMM) can commit to responsible carbon footprint reduction both in
countries that demand it and those that do not. As more companies begin to employ
low emission technologies, costs will decrease and the availability will increase,
encouraging smaller and less influential companies and organisations to meet higher
expectations of GHG reduction.
The Roia Montan project provides an excellent case study to examine the carbon
footprint of a proposed mining operation. Roia Montan is a world class gold deposit in
a historic mining area that is currently in the predevelopment stage. It provides an
90

excellent example of a company that has fully examined the extent of its potential
carbon footprint and investigated potential mitigating factors. As mentioned in chapter 5,
the Roia Montan project is expected to produce 241,856 tonnes of CO 2 per annum,
which equates to 16.15 kg of CO2 emission per tonne of processed ore. Roia Montan
is in Romania, an EU member nation that must comply with EU standards and
regulations, but also a nation only recently out of the communist regime and still
attempting to catch-up in a democratic society. It provides the unique opportunity of
examining a, until recently, developing nation reaching to meet developed world
standards. An example of this is the fact that the project must still purchase all electricity
from government owned coal plants which produce CO2 emissions at nearly double the
EU standard. This in turn accounts for 64% of the projects CO2 emissions, providing
unique challenges to reduction strategy. One of the few GHG reduction options
available to RMGC is reforestation. Other options such as green energy and carbon
trading are not available in Romania at this time. RMGC has committed to planting a
1000 Ha of trees in attempts to offset carbon emissions; this means that it will take the
mine 50 years to become carbon neutral. The Roia Montan project is an excellent
example of a company willing to take measures to reduce their carbon footprint but
restrained by outside forces. That said Roia Montan is yet to begin production
meaning that if the RMGC continue a proactive approach to CO2 emissions reduction
and develops an effective environmental management system there is reason to believe
significant improvement can be achieved.
GHG reduction technologies range from the expensive and complex (e.g. Solar power
and the organic rankine cycle), to the simplistic and inexpensive (e.g. planting trees). It
is essential that the needs of the individual project be fully understood and that the most
appropriate measures be taken to manage GHG emission correctly. As no two projects
are the same, each will require its own unique combination of reduction strategies.
Whilst large scale solutions such as wind turbines produce largereductions and receive
much publicity, their sheer size and the investment required makes them unattainable
for all but the largest companies. In the future we are likely to see a combination of
small-scale cost effective GHG reduction methods working in unison to reduce the
carbon footprint of a project. These small but effective methods are within the means of
all but the smallest operations and have the ability to significantly reduce GHG
emissions. As more companies make GHG reduction a priority, and as governments
tighten regulation, emission-reducing technologies will improve and prices will fall.
Given a proactive approach and innovative thinking the mining industry has all of the
resources available to significantly reduce GHG emission on a global scale and control
carbon footprints.

6.1 Recommendations for Further Research

This report has provided a broad overview of carbon footprint in the mining industry and
raises various questions. An area with particular room for growth is that of GHG
reducing technologies. Whilst renewable energy and emissions reducing technology
have been widely studied and written about, there is still limited information available
concerning the application of these technologies to the mining industry. Further
research could be completed on any one of the technologies discussed in chapter 3.
91

Areas of particular interest would be how that particular emissions reducing method
performs over the long term and a full cost benefit analysis. Another interesting study
would be to compare how the GHG emission reduction strategy for the Roia Montan
project performs and changes after production begins. This would provide information
on how to improve GHG emissions projections and plans when projects are being
designed.

92

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