1 2

1+ =1+
+
+
1!
2!

PRINCIPLES IN

M A T H E M A T I C S

Polyhedrons
Polyhedrons are solids whose faces are plane polygons.

Regular polyhedrons are those which have

identical faces. There are only five known
regular polyhedrons, namely tetrahedron,
hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron,
and icosahedron. These solids are known as
Platonic solids.

Let
m = number of
polygons meeting
at a vertex,
n = number of
vertices of each
polygon,

f =number of faces
of the polyhedron,
e =number of edges
of the polyhedron,
and
v =number of
vertices of the
polyhedron.
a = length of the
edge

For any polyhedron

Solids for which Volume = (Area of base) x (Altitude)

Solids in which V = Ab h
This is a group of solids in which the
volume is equal to the product of
the area of the base and the
altitude. Two types of solids belong
to this group namely, prisms and
cylinders
A solid is said to be prismatic or cylindrical if every cutting plane parallel
to base are the same in both shape and size. If the base is a closed
polygon the solid is a prism, whereas, the solid is a cylinder if the base is a
closed loop of a curve line. The name of the prism and cylinder is
according to the shape of its base. A prism with a pentagon base is
called a pentagonal prism and a cylinder of circular base is called
circular cylinder. The volume of these two solids is given by the formula

=
where V = volume, Ab = area of the base, and h = altitude.

prism
Prisms are polyhedron whose bases
are equal polygons in parallel
planes and whose sides are
parallelograms.
Prisms are classified according to
their bases. Thus, a hexagonal prism
is one -whose base is a hexagon,
and a regular hexagonal prism has a
base of a regular hexagon.
The axis of a prism is the line joining
the centroids of the bases. A right
prism is one whose axis is
perpendicular to the base. The
altitude "h" of a prism is the distance
between the bases.

, = =
, =
Ar = Area of right section
L = Lateral edge
Ab = Area of base
Pr = Perimeter of right section

Cylinder
A cylinder is the surface
generated by a straight line
intersecting and moving along
a
closed plane curve, the
directrix,
while
remaining
parallel to a fixed straight line
(called the axis) that is not on or
parallel to the plane of the
directrix.

Like
prisms,
cylinders
classified according to
bases.

are
their

, = =
, =

Ar = Area of right section

L = Lateral edge
Ab = Area of base
Pr = Perimeter of right section

Right Circular
Cylinder

, = h = 2
, = 2

1
3

Solids for which Volume = (Area of base) x (Altitude)

This is a group of solids in which the
volume is equal to one-third of the
product of base area and altitude.
There are two solids that belong to this
group; the pyramid and the cone.

Like cylinder and prism, the name of pyramid and cone is according to the
shape of the base. If the base is pentagon, the pyramid is called
pentagonal pyramid, and if the base is circle, the cone is called circular
cone. The formula for the volume of these solids is

1
=
3
Where Ab = area of the base, and h = altitude.

cone
The surface generated by a moving
straight line (generator) which
always passes through a fixed point
(vertex) and always intersects a
fixed plane curve (directrix) is called
conical surface. Cone is a solid
bounded by a conical surface
whose directrix is a closed curve,
and a plane which cuts all the
elements. The conical surface is the
lateral area of the cone and the
plane which cuts all the elements is
the base of the cone.

1
=
3

Where Ab = area of the base, and h = altitude.

The Right Circular Cone

Any cone with circular right section is a
circular cone. Right circular cone is a circular
cone whose axis is perpendicular to its base.
Properties of Right Circular Cone
The slant height of a right circular cone is the
length of an element. Both the slant height and
the element are denoted by L.
The altitude of a right circular is the
perpendicular drop from vertex to the center of
the base. It coincides with the axis of the right
circular cone and it is denoted by h.
If a right triangle is being revolved about one of
its legs (taking one leg as the axis of revolution),
the solid thus formed is a right circular cone. The
surface generated by the hypotenuse of the
triangle is the lateral area of the right circular
cone and the area of the base of the cone is the
surface generated by the leg which is not the
axis of rotation.
All elements of a right circular cone are equal.
Any section parallel to the base is a circle whose
center is on the axis of the cone.
A section of a right circular cone which contains
the vertex and two points of the base is an
isosceles triangle.

1 2
, =
3
, =

Slant height, L = 2 + 2

pyramids
A pyramid is a polyhedron with a If two pyramids have equal base area and
equal altitude, any section made by a cutting
polygon base of any shape, and all other
plane parallel to the base are equal. From the
faces are triangles which have common
figure, if = then =
vertex.
Properties of a Pyramid
The lateral faces are all triangles meeting at
the vertex of the pyramid
The altitude of the pyramid is shortest
distance between the vertex and the base.
It is the drop distance from the vertex
perpendicular to the base.
If a cutting plane parallel to the base will
pass through the pyramid, the smaller
pyramid thus formed is similar to the original
pyramid. By similar solids

2
=
2

The pyramid is said to be a right pyramid if the

vertex is directly above the centroid of the
base, otherwise it is an oblique pyramid

Regular pyramids
A regular pyramid is one whose base is a
regular polygon whose center coincides
with the foot of the perpendicular dropped
from the vertex to the base
PROPERTIES OF A REGULAR PYRAMID
The edges of a regular pyramid are equal; it is
denoted by e.
The lateral faces of a regular pyramid are
congruent isosceles triangles (see figure).
The altitudes of the lateral faces of a regular
pyramid are equal. It is the slant height of the
regular pyramid and is denoted by L.
The altitude of the regular pyramid is
perpendicular to the base. It is equal to length
of the axis and is denoted by h.
The vertex of regular pyramid is directly above
the center of its base when the pyramid is
oriented as shown in the figure.
If a cutting plane is passed parallel to the
base of regular pyramid, the pyramid cut off is
a regular pyramid similar to the original
pyramid.

Formula for Regular pyramids

Area of one lateral face

1
=
2

Lateral Area, AL

= 1

=
2

=
2

Length of lateral edge, e

Slant height, L

2 + 2

= 2 + 2
= 2 + /2

Volume, V

2
= = =
3
6
6

Where
Ab = area of the base (regular polygon)
A1 = area of one lateral face
AL = lateral area
AT = total area
x = length of side of the base
h = altitude of pyramid (this is the length
of axis of the pyramid)
L = slant height of pyramid (this is the
altitude of triangular face)
P = perimeter of the base
e = length of lateral edge
For x, R, r, n, and , see The Regular
Polygon

Truncated Prism
the part of a prism between the base
and a nonparallel plane that cuts the
prism.

, =

1 + 2 + 1 +
, =

Where:
AR = area of the right section
n = number of sides.

frustum
Frustum of a pyramid (cone) is a portion of pyramid (cone) included
between the base and the section parallel to the base not passing through
the vertex
Formula for Volume of a Frustum
The volume of a frustum is equal to onethird the product of the altitude and the
sum of the upper base, the lower base,
and the mean proportional between the
bases. In

1
1 + 2 + 1 2
3

Lateral Area, AL (Right Frustum)

The lateral area of frustum of regular pyramid
is equal to one-half the sum of the perimeters
of the bases multiplied by the slant height.

1
= 1 + 2
2

The Sphere

Sphere is a solid bounded by closed surface every point of

which is equidistant from a fixed point called the center.

Properties of a Sphere
Every section in the sphere made by a cutting plane is a circle. If
the cutting plane passes through the center of the sphere, the
section made is a great circle; otherwise the section is a small
circle.
For a particular circle of a sphere, the axis is the diameter of the
sphere perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
The ends of the axis of the circle of a sphere are called poles.
The nearer the circle to the center of the sphere, the greater is its
area.
The largest circle in the sphere is the great circle.
The radius (diameter) of the great circle is the radius (diameter)
of the sphere.
All great circles of a sphere are equal.
Every great circle divides the sphere into two equal parts called
hemispheres.
The intersection of two spherical surfaces is a circle whose plane
is perpendicular to the line joining the centers of the spheres and
whose center is on that line. (See figure to the right.)
A plane perpendicular to a radius at its extremity is tangent to
the sphere.

FORMULAS FOR A SPHERE

Surface Area, A
The surface area of a sphere is equal to
the area of four great circles.

= 42
= 2

Volume, V

4 3

3
1
= 3
6
=

Spherical Zone
A zone is that portion of the surface of
the sphere included between two
parallel planes.

Area of the Zone

The area of any zone (one base

or two bases) is equal to the
product of its altitude h and the
circumference of the great
circle of the sphere.
A = circumference of the great circle x altitude

= 2
Properties of Spherical Zone
The bases of the zone are the
circumference of the sections made
by the two parallel planes.
The altitude of the zone is the
perpendicular distance between
these two parallel planes.
If one of the bounding parallel planes
is tangent to the sphere, the surface
bounded is a zone of one base.

Note that when h = 2R, the area of

the zone will equal to the total
surface area of the sphere which is
4R2.

Spherical Sector
A spherical sector is a solid generated by
revolving a sector of a circle about an axis
which passes through the center of the circle
but which contains no point inside the sector. If
the axis of revolution is one of the radial sides,
the sector thus formed is spherical cone;
otherwise, it is open spherical sector.

Formulas for Spherical Sector

Total surface area, A
The total surface area of a spherical sector is
equal to the area of the zone plus the sum
of the lateral areas of the bounding cones.

= 2 + +
= (2 + + )
Note that for spherical cone, b = 0 and the
equation will reduce to

= (2 + )

Properties of Spherical Sector

Spherical sector is bounded by a zone and
one or two conical surfaces.
The spherical sector having only one conical
surface is called a spherical cone, otherwise
it is called open spherical sector.
The base of spherical sector is its zone.

The volume of spherical sector, either open

spherical sector or spherical cone, is equal
to one-third of the product of the area of
the zone and the radius of the sphere. This is
similar to the volume of a cone which is
Vcone = 1/3 Abh. In spherical sector,
replace Ab with Azone and h with R.

2 2

3

Spherical Segment
Spherical segment is a solid bounded by
two parallel planes through a sphere. In
terms of spherical zone, spherical segment
is a solid bounded by a zone and the
planes of a zone's bases.

Properties of Spherical Segment

The bases of a spherical segment are the
sections made by the parallel planes. The radii
of the lower and upper sections are denoted
by a and b, respectively. If either a or b is zero,
the segment is of one base. If both a and b are
zero, the solid is the whole sphere.
If one of the parallel planes is tangent to the
sphere, the solid thus formed is a spherical
segment of one base.
The spherical segment of one base is also
called spherical cap and the two bases is also
called spherical frustum.
The altitude of the spherical segment is the
perpendicular distance between the bases. It
is denoted by h.

Spherical Segment
formulas
Total Area, A
The total area of segment of a sphere
is equal to area of the zone plus the
sum of the areas of the bases.

= 2 + 2 + 2
= (2 + 2 + 2 )
Volume, V
The volume of spherical segment of two
bases is given by

1
(32 + 32 + 2 )
6

The volume of spherical segment of

one base is given by

1 2
= (3 )
3

Spherical Wedge and Spherical Lune

A spherical wedge is a solid formed
by revolving a semi-circle about its
diameter by less than 360. Spherical
Lune is the curve surface of the
wedge, it is a surface formed by
revolving a semi-circular arc about
its diameter by less than 360.

Volume of wedge, Vwedge

Volume of wedge / central angle = Volume of sphere / 1 revolution

4
3
3
3600

3
270

Area of Lune,Alune
Area of Lune / central angle = Area of sphere / 1 revolution

4 2
3600

2
900

Similar Figures
Two surfaces or solids are similar if any
two corresponding sides or planes
are proportional.

The areas of similar surfaces A1

and A2 have the same ratio as the
squares of any two corresponding
lines x1 and x2

1
1
=
2
2

The volumes of similar solids V1

and V2 have the same ratio as the
cube of any two corresponding
lines x1 and x2
In similar figures of any kind, pairs
of corresponding line segments
such as 1 , 2 and 1 , 2 have the
same ratio.

1 1
=
2 2

1
1
=
2
2

3
3