PROCESS OF THE

THEINTERNATIONALIZATION
FIRM-A MODELOF KNOWLEDGEDEVELOPMENT
AND INCREASINGFOREIGNMARKET
COMMITMENTS
JAN JOHANSON*
Center of International Business Studies
University of Uppsala
JAN-ERIK VAHLNE*
Institute of International Business
Stockholm School of Economics
Abstract. On the basis of empirical research, a model of the internationalization
the firm is developed. The model focuses on the gradual acquisition, integration
knowledge about foreign markets and operations, and on the incrementally
commitments to foreign markets. In particular, attention is concentrated on the
involvement in the individual foreign country.

process of
and use of
increasing
increasing

* Several studies of international business have indicated that internationalizationof the firms is a
process in which the firms gradually increase their international involvement. Itseems reasonable
to assume that, within the frame of economic and business factors, the characteristics of this
process influence the pattern and pace of internationalization of firms. In this paper we develop a
model of the internationalization process of the firm that focuses on the development of the
individual firm, and particularly on its gradual acquisition, integration, and use of knowledge about
foreign markets and operations, and on its successively increasing commitment to foreign markets. The basic assumptions of the model are that lack of such knowledge is an important obstacle
to the development of international operations and that the necessary knowledge can be acquired
mainly through operations abroad. This holds for the two directions of internationalization we
distinguish: increasing involvement of the firm in the individual foreign country, and successive
establishment of operations in new countries. In this paper we will, however, concentrate on the
extension of operations in individual markets.
We have incorporated in our model some results of previous empirical studies of the development
of international operations, seeking theoretical explanation through the behavioral theory of the firm
(Cyert and March, 1963). Specifically, we believe that internationalization is the product of a series
of incremental decisions. Our aim is to identify elements shared in common by the successive
decision situations and to develop thereby a model of the internationalization process which will
have explanatory value. Because we, for the time being, disregard the decision style of the
decision-maker himself, and, to a certain extent, the specific properties of the various decision
situations, our model has only limited predictive value. We believe, however, that all the decisions
to start exporting to a
that, taken together, constitute the internationalization process-decisions
country, to establish export channels, to start a selling subsidiary, and so forth-have some
common characteristics which are also very important to the subsequent internationalization. Our
model focuses on these common traits.
We hope that the model will contribute to conceptualization in the field of internationalizationof the
firmand thus increase understanding of the development of international operations as described
in the empirical studies. We hope, too, that it can serve as a frame of reference for future studies in
the problem area and may also be useful as a tool in the analysis of the effects of various factors on
the pattern and pace of internationalization of the firm.
* Jan Johansonis a memberof the facultyof the CenterforInternational
BusinessStudiesat the Universityof
Business, StockholmSchoolof
Uppsala,Sweden. Jan-ErikVahlneis on the facultyofthe Instituteof International
Economics,Stockholm,Sweden.
The authorsare indebted to their colleagues at the Centerfor InternatonalBusiness Studies, Departmentof
Business Administraton,
Universityof Uppsalaforvaluablecommentsand to DavidBakerforcarefulcriticismof
contentand language. Financialsupporthas been given by the SvenskaHandelsbankenFoundationforSocial
Science Research.

INTRODUCTION

23

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Inthe firstsection we described the empiricalbackgroundof ourstudy.Nextwe outlinethe model

of the internationalization
process, definingthe mainvariablesandthe interactionamongthem.We
then sum up by discussing some implicationsof the model and suggesting some problemsfor
futureresearch.

EMPIRICAL The model is based on empircalobservationsfromour studies in internationalbusiness at the

BACKGROUND Universityof Uppsala, thatshow thatSwedishfirmsoften develop theirinternational
operationsin
small steps, ratherthan by makinglarge foreignproductioninvestmentsat single points in time.
Typically,firmsstart exportingto a countryvia an agent, laterestablish a sales subsidiary,and
eventually,in some cases, begin productioninthe host country.
We have also observed a similarsuccessive establishmentof operations in new countries.Of
particularinterestinthe present contextis thatthe timeorderof such establishmentsseems to be
relatedto the psychic distance betweenthe homeand the import/hostcountries(Hornell,Vahlne&
Wiedersheim-Paul,1972, Johanson & Wiedersheim-Paul,1974). The psychic distance is defined
as the sum of factors preventingthe flowof informationfromand to the market.Examplesare
differences in language, education, business practices, culture,and industrialdevelopment.
Studies of the exportorganizationof the Swedish special steel firms(Johanson,1966) and of the
Swedish pulp and paper industry(Forsgren& Kinch, 1970) have shown that almost all sales
subsidiariesof Swedish steel companies and pulp and paper companies have been established
throughacquisitionof the formeragent orhave been organizedaroundsome personemployedby
the agent. Mostof the establishmentswere occasioned by variouskindsof economiccrises inthe
agent firms.Sales to a marketby the agent had preceded establishmentof a sales subsidiaryin
each of nine cases investigated by Hornelland Vahlne (1972). Furthercase studies of the
activitiesby Swedishfirmshaveallowedus to generalizeourobservadevelopmentof international
tions:sales subsidiariesare preceded in virtuallyallcases by selling via an agent;similarly,local
productionis generallypreceded by sales subsidiaries.
A summaryof the resultswe reached in two studies follows.They are by no means meantto be
statisticallyrepresentative,but the resultsare typical of studies we know.The firstexample is a
case study of the internationalization
process of the second largest Swedish pharmaceuticalfirm,
Pharmacia.At the time of the case study (1972) Pharmaciahad organizationsof its own in nine
countries, of which three were performingmanufacturingactivities.In eight of these cases the
development patternwas as follows.The firmreceived orders fromthe foreignmarketand after
some timemade an agreementwithan agent (orsold licenses regardingsome partsof the product
line).Aftera few years Pharmaciaestablishedsales subsidiariesinseven ofthose countries(andin
the eighth they bought a manufacturingcompany bearing the same name, Pharmacia,thathad
previously served as an agent). Two of the seven sales subsidiaries furtherincreased their
involvementby startingmanufacturingactivities.Itis interestingto note thateven this production
decision was incremental;the new productionunits began withthe least complicatedmanufacturing activitiesand latersuccessively added more complicated ones.
Inthe ninthcountryPharmaciastarteda sales subsidiaryalmost immediatelywhen demandfrom
the marketwas discovered. Butthe company did not totallylackexperience even inthiscase. The
decision-makerhad received parts of his education in.the countryin question, and before the
decision he had become acquainted withthe representativeof anotherpharmaceuticalfirmwho
was latermade the head of the subsidiary(Hornell,Vahlne,& Wiedersheim-Paul,1973).
Inanotherstudy we investigatedthe internationalization
of fourSwedish engineeringfirms.Below
we quote some of the conclusions of the study (Johanson & Wiedersheim-Paul,1975).

24

The establishmentchain-no regularexport,independentrepresentative(agent), sales subsidiary, production-seems to be a correct description of the order of the development
operationsof the firmsin individualcountries.Thisis illustratedinTableI.Ofsixty-threesales
subsidiariesfifty-sixwere preceded by agents; this patternholds forallthe firms.Withregard
to the productionestablishmentsthere is a diffe,ence between Sandvikand AtlasCopco on

Table I
Establishment Patterns for the Investigated Firms.
Sales
Production
Pattern
Firm
Sandvik
Atlas Copco
Facit
Volvo

subsidiary
n
a
4
I
s
s

n
I
p

subsidiary
a
s
i
i
p
p

2
3
0
2

18
14
14
10

0
0
0
0

2
3
2
2

13
9
3
3

56

28

"n" denotes no regular export activity

"a" denotes selling via agent
"s" denotes sales subsidiary
"p" denotes production subsidiary
an arrow denotes change from one state to another
one hand, where twenty-two out of twenty-seven establishments were preceded by sales
subsidiaries, and Facit and Volvo on the other, where five out of seven occurred without the
firm having any sales subsidiary in the country. However, in no case has a firm started
production in a country without having sold in the country via an agency or a sales subsidiary
before.
Regarding the first establishments of sales subsidiaries, they do not seem to have been a
step in a conscious and goal directed internationalization-at least not in Sandvik, Atlas
Copco, and Volvo. For various reasons they had to take over representatives or start subsidiaries. As they gradually have gained experience in starting and managing subsidiaries,
they have developed policies of marketing through subsidiaries in some of the firms. Itshould
be noted that the firm, Atlas Copco, which most consistently used subsidiaries for export
marketing did so when it acquired a new general manager, a former manager of a department
store.
The producing subsidiaries almost all produce for local or in some cases regional markets.
Their activity embraces finishing, assembly, or component works which could be called
marketing production. The only exception is Atlas Copco's factory in Belgium making stationary pneumatic equipment.
Generally the development of the firm seems to be in accordance with the incremental
internationalization view discussed.
This gradual internationalization is not exclusively a Swedish phenomenon, as the following
quotations demonstrate:
On its part exporting is a means also of reducing costs of market development. Even if
investment is necessary in the future, exporting helps to determine the nature and size of the
market. As the market develops, warehouse facilities are established: later sales branches
and subsidiaries (Singer, National Cash Register, United Show Machinery). The record of
company development indicates that the use of selling subsidiaries at an early stage reduced
the later risks of manufacturing abroad. These selling affiliates permitted the slow development of manufacturing from repairing, to packaging, to mixing, to finishing, to processing or
assembling operations, and finally to full manufacture (Behrman, 1969, p 3).
Within countries there is often a pattern of exports from the United States, followed by the
establishment of an assembly or packaging plant, followed by progressively more integrated
manufacturing activities (Vaupel, 1971, p 42).
Without reference to any specific empirical observations Gruber, Mehta, and Vernon (1967)
mention that "one way of looking at the overseas direct investments of U.S. producers of manufacturers is that they are the final step in a process which begins with the involvement of such
producers in export trade". Knickerbocker (1972) also refers to this process and explicitly distinguishes agents and sales subsidiaries as separate steps in the process. Lipsey and Weiss (1969;
1972) refer to a "market cycle" model with similar characteristics. However, in none of these cases
have the dynamics of this process been investigated. It has only been used as an argument in the
discussion of related problems

25

Specificaton of
the Problem

Ifinternationalization
indeed followsthe patterndescribed above, how can we explain it?We do
not believe thatitis the resultof a strategyforoptimumallocationof resourcestodifferentcountries
wherealternativeways of exploitingforeignmarketsare comparedand evaluated.Wesee itrather
as the consequence of a process of incrementaladjustmentsto changing conditionsof the firm
and its environment(cf. Aharoni,1966).
Changes inthe firmand itsenvironmentexpose new problemsand opportunities.Lackingroutines
forthe solutionof such sporadicproblems,the concern's management"searchesinthe areaofthe
problem"(Cyertand March,1963). Each new discontinuityis regarded as an essentiallyunprecedented and unparalleledcase; the problemsand opportunitiespresented are handledintheir
contexts. Thuscommitmentsto othermarketsare not explicitlytakenintoconsideration;resource
allocationsdo not compete witheach other.
Anotherconstrainton the problem solution is the lack of, and difficultyof obtaining market
decisions have an incremental
knowledge in internationaloperations. That internationalization
characteris, we feel, largelydue to thislackof marketinformationand the uncertaintyoccasioned
thereby (Hornell,Vahlneand Wiedersheim-Paul,1972; Johanson, 1970). We believe thatlack of
knowledge due to differences between countries with regard to, for example, language and
culture,is an importantobstacle to decision makingconnected withthe developmentof international operations.We wouldeven say thatthese differencesconstitutethe maincharacteristicof
international,as distinctfromdomestic, operations.By marketknowledge we mean information
about markets, and operations in those markets, which is somehow stored and reasonably
retrievable-in the mindof individuals,in computermemories,and inwrittenreports.Inourmodel
we consider knowledgeto be vested inthe decision-makingsystem: we do notdeal explicitlywith
the individualdecision-maker.

THEINTER- As indicated in the introduction,a model in whichthe same basic mechanismcan be used to
NATIONALIZA- explain all steps in the internationalization
wouldbe useful.We also thinkthata dynamic model
TIONMODEL would be suitable.Insuch a model the outcomeof one decision-or more generallyone cycle of
events-constitutes the inputof the next.Themainstructureis givenby the distinctionbetweenthe
state and change aspects of internationalization
variables.To clarify,we can say thatthe present
is one importantfactorexplainingthe course of followinginternationalistate of internationalization
zation, as in expression (1) below.
A I = f(l. ..)

where
I state of internationalization
The state aspects we consider are the resource commitmentto the foreign markets-market
commitment-and knowledge about foreign marketsand operations. The change aspects are
decisions to commit resources and the performanceof currentbusiness activities.The basic
mechanismis illustratedschematicallyin Figure1.
Figure1.

26

The Basic Mechanismof Internationalization-Stateand Change Aspects.

Market
knowledge

Commitment
decisions

Market
commitment

Current
activities

Marketknowledge and marketcommitmentare assumed to affectbothcommitmentdecisions and

the way currentactivitiesare performed.These in turnchange knowledge and commitment(cf.
Aharoni,1966).
Inthe model, itis assumed thatthe firmstrivesto increase its long-termprofit,whichis assumed to
be equivalentto growth(Williamson,1966). The firmis also strivingto keep risk-takingat a low
level. These strivingsare assumed to characterizedecision-makingon alllevels of the firm.Given
these premises and the state of the economic and business factorswhichconstitutethe framein
which a decision is taken, the model assumes that the state of internationalization
affects perceived opportunitiesand riskswhichinturninfluencecommitmentdecisions and currentactivities.
We willdiscuss the mechanismin detail in the followingsections.

The two state aspects are resources committedto foreign markets-market commitment-and
knowledge about foreign marketspossessed by the firmat a given pointof time.The reason for
consideringthe marketcommitmentis thatwe assume thatthe commitmentto a marketaffectsthe
firm'sperceived opportunitiesand risk.

State Aspects

Let us firsttake a look at the marketcommitmentconcept. To begin with, we assume that it is Market
composed oftwofactors-the amountof resourcescommittedandthe degree of commitment,that Commitment
is, the difficultyof findingan alternativeuse forthe resourcesand transferringthemto it.Resources
located ina particularmarketareacan oftenbe considereda commitmenttothatmarket.However,
insome cases such resourcescan be sold andthe financialresourcescan easily be used forother
purposes. The degree of commitmentis higherthe morethe resources in question are integrated
withother parts of the firmand theirvalue is derivedfromthese integratedactivities.Thus, as a
rule, vertical integrationmeans a higher degree of commitmentthan a conglomerativeforeign
investment.An example of resourcesthatcannot easily be directedto anothermarketor used for
other purposes is a marketingorganizationthatis specialized aroundthe productsof the firmand
has established integratedcustomer relations.However,resources located in the home country
and employed in developmentand productionof productsfora separate marketalso constitutea
commitmentto that market.The more specialized the resources are to the specific marketthe
greater is the degree of commitment.And even if such resources can easily be directed to
developmentand productionforother markets,as forexampleengineers ina centralengineering
department,they cannot always be profitablyused there. Consider Volvo-the Swedish car
manufacturer-witha large partof its productioncapacityemployed in productionof cars forthe
U.S. market.Evenifthat capacity is not highlycommittedto the U.S. production,itis not easy, at
least in the short run, to use it for productionfor other markets.And although the engineers
employed in adaptingthe car to the U.S. requirementscan probablybe used foranotherpurpose,
it is not certainthat they can be profitablyemployed there. On the whole, itseems reasonableto
assume that the resources that are located in the particularmarketare most committedto that
market;but we shall not disregard the commitmentthat follows from employing parts of the
domestic capacity fora particularmarket.
Theotherpartof marketcommitment-the amountof resources committed-is easy to grasp. Itis
close to the size of the investmentin the market,using this concept in a broad sense, including
investmentin marketing,organization,personnel, and otherareas.

Inour model, knowledge is of interestbecause commitmentdecisions are based on severalkinds Market

of knowledge. First, knowledge of opportunitiesor problems is assumed to initiatedecisions. Knowledge
Second, evaluationof alternativesis based on some knowledge aboutrelevantpartsofthe market
environmentand about performanceofvariousactivities.Verygenerally,the knowledge"relatesto
present and futuredemand and supply,to competitionandto channelsfordistribution,to payment
conditionsand the transferability
of money, andthose thingsvaryfromcountryto countryandfrom
time to time"(Carlson,1974).

27

A classificationof knowledge which is useful for us is based on the way in which knowledge is
acquired (Penrose, 1966, p 53). "One type, objective knowledge, can be taught; the other,
experience or experientialknowledge, can only be learned throughpersonal experience. With
experientialknowledge,emphasis is placed on the change in the services the humanresources
can supply whicharises fromtheiractivity"(ibid,p 53); and ". . . experience itselfcan neverbe
transmitted,it produces a change-frequently a subtle change-in individualsand cannot be
separated fromthem"(ibid,p 53). "Muchofthe experience of businessmenis frequentlyso closely
associated with a particularset of circumstances that a large part of a man's most valuable
services may be availableonly underthese circumstances"(ibid,p 53).
We believe thatthis experientialknowledge is the criticalkindof knowledgeinthe presentcontext.
Itis criticalbecause it cannot be so easily acquired as objectiveknowledge. Indomestic operations, we can to a large extent relyon lifelongbasic experiences to whichwe can add the specific
experiences of individuals,organizationsand markets.Inforeignoperations,however,we have no
such basic experientialknowledge to start with. It must be gained successively during the
operationsin the country.
We believe thatthe less structuredand welldefinedthe activitiesand the requiredknowledgeare,
the more importantis experientialknowledge.Wethinkthatitis particularly
importantinconnection
withactivitiesthatare based on relationsto otherindividuals.Managerialworkand marketingare
examples of such activities. Especially in the marketingof complex and soft-ware-intensive
products,experientialknowledge is crucial.
An importantaspect of experientialknowledge is thatit providestheframeworkforperceivingand
formulatingopportunities.On the basis of objective marketknowledge it is possible to formulate
only theoreticalopportunities;experientialknowledge makes it possible to perceive "concrete"
opportunities-to have a "feeling"about how they fitintothe present and futureactivities.
We can also distinguish between general knowledge and market-specificknowledge. General
knowledge concerns, in the present context, marketingmethods and commoncharacteristicsof
certaintypes of customers, irrespectiveof theirgeographical location,depending, forexample, in
the case of industrialcustomers, on similaritiesin the productionprocess. The market-specific
knowledge is knowledge about characteristicsof the specific nationalmarket-its business clicharacteristicsofthe
mate, culturalpatterns,structureofthe marketsystem, and, most importantly,
individualcustomerfirmsand theirpersonnel.
Establishmentand performanceof a certainkindof operationor activityina countryrequireboth
general knowledge and market-specificknowledge. Market-specificknowledge can be gained
mainlythroughexperience in the market,whereas knowledge of the operation can often be
transferredfromone countryto anothercountry.Itis the diffusionof this generalknowledgewhich
facilitates lateral growth;that is, the establishmentof technically similaractivitiesin dissimilar
business environments.
Thereis a directrelationbetween marketknowledgeand marketcommitment.Knowledgecan be
considered a resource (or,perhaps preferably,a dimensionof the humanresources), and consequently the betterthe knowledge about a market,the more valuable are the resources and the
strongeris the commitmentto the market.Thisis especially trueof experientialknowledge,whichis
usually associated withthe particularconditionson the marketin question and thus cannot be
transferredto otherindividualsor othermarkets.

Change Aspects

28

The change aspects we have considered are currentactivitiesand decisions to commitresources

to foreignoperations.

Current There is, to begin with, a lag between most currentactivitiesand their consequences. Those
Business
consequences may, in fact, not be realized unless the activities are repeated more or less
Activities continuously.Consider, for example, marketingactivities,which generally do not resultin sales
unless they are repeated for some time. In many cases the time lag is considerable, and the
marketinginvestmentrepresentsan importantand ever-increasingcommitmenttothe market.The
longer the lag, the higherthe commitmentof the firmmounts.Itseems reasonableto assume that
the more complicated and the moredifferentiatedthe productis, the largerthe totalcommitment
as a consequence of currentactivitieswillcome to be.

Currentactivitiesare also the prime source of experience. Itcould be argued that experience
could be gained alternativelythroughthe hiringof personnel withexperience, or throughadvice
frompersons withexperience. To clarifythe roles of these alternativeways of integratingexperience intothe firmin the internationalization
process, we distinguishbetween firmexperience and
marketexperience, bothofwhichareessential. Personsworkingon the boundarybetweenthe firm
and its marketmust be able to interpretinformationfrominsidethe firmand fromthe market.The
of one kindof informationis possible only forone who has experience withthe other
interpretation
part.We conclude that, forthe performanceof marketingactivities,both kindsof experience are
required;and in this area it is difficultto substitutepersonnel or advice fromoutside forcurrent
activities. The more the activities are production-oriented,or the less interactionis required
between the firmand its marketenvironment,the easier itwillbe to substitutehiredpersonnelor
advice forcurrentactivities;and consequentlythe easier itwillbe to startnew operationsthat are
not incrementaladditionsto the formeroperations. Itshouldbe remembered,however,thateven
productionactivities are dependent on the general business climate, which cannot easily be
assessed in ways otherthan performanceof business activities.
To some extent it may be possible to hire personnel withmarketexperience and to use them
profitablyaftersome time in the marketingactivities.The delay is occasioned by the need forthe
new personnelto gain the necessary experience inthe firm.Butifthe new personnelhave already
workedas representativesforthe exporter,the delay may approach zero. Thus, the best way to
quicklyobtainand use marketexperience is to hirea sales managerora salesmanof a representativeorto buy the whole ora partof the firm.Inmanycases thiskindof experience is notforsale; at
the timeof entryto a marketthe experience may noteven exist. Ithas to be acquiredthrougha long
learningprocess in connectionwithcurrentactivities.Thisfactoris an importantreason why the
internationalization
process often proceeds slowly.

The second change aspect is decisions to commitresources to foreignoperations.We assume Commitment

that such decisions depend on what decision alternativesare raised and how they are chosen. Decisions
Regardingthe firstpartwe assume thatdecisions are made in response to perceived problems
and/or opportunitieson the market.Problemsand opportunities-that is awareness of need and
possibilitiesforbusiness actions-are assumed to be dependent on experience. LikePenrose,we
mighteven say that opportunities-and problems-are partof that experience. Firmexperience,
as well as marketexperience, is relevant.Problemsare mainlydiscovered by those parts of the
organizationthat are responsible for operations on the marketand primarilyby those who are
workingthere. Forthem, the naturalsolutionto problemswillbe the extensionofthe operationson
the marketto complementingoperations. In any case we assume thatsolutionsto marketoperations problems are searched for in the neighborhoodof the problemsymptoms, that is in the
marketactivities(Cyert& March,1963). Inthe same way opportunitieswillbe perceivedmainlyby
those who are workingon the market,and such opportunitieswillalso lead to extension of the
operations on the market.They willbe relatedto those parts of the environmentthatthe firmis
interactingwith (Pfeffer,1974). Thus, whether decision alternativesare raised in response to
problemsor in response to opportunities,they willbe relatedtothe operationscurrentlyperformed
on the market.Alternativesolutionswillgenerallyconsist of activitiesthatmeanan extensionofthe
boundariesof the organizationand an increase incommitmentto the market.Wecould speak of an
opportunityhorizonthat-given the operationsperformed-describes the kindof activitiesthatare
likelyto be suggested by those responsible for operations.
But opportunitiesare also seen by individualsin organizationswithwhichthe firmis interacting;
these individualsmaypropose alternativesolutionsto the firminthe formof offersordemands.The
probabilitythatthe firmis offeredopportunitiesfromoutside is dependent on the scale and type of
operations it is performing;that is, on its commitmentto the market.
We distinguishbetween an economic effect and an uncertaintyeffect of each additionalcommitment. We assume thatthe economic effect is associated primarilywithincreases in the scale of
operationson the market,and thatthe uncertaintyeffect concerns the marketuncertainty,thatis
the decision-makers' perceived lack of abilityto estimate the present and futuremarketand
factors.We mean thatthis marketuncertaintyis reduced throughincreases in
market-influencing
interactionand integrationwiththe marketenvironment-steps such as increases incommunicationwithcustomers,establishmentof new service activitiesor, inthe extremecase, thetake-overof
customers.

29

Ourthinkingon this point is furtherillustratedby the system of relationshipsbelow:

Ri = maximumtolerable market(marketi) risk = f (firm'sresource position, firm'srisk
approach)
Ri = existing market risk situation = Ci ? Ui

where Ci = existing marketcommitment

U, = existing marketuncertainty
A R, = incrementalriskimpliedby an incrementaladditionto operationson marketi.
Scale increasingdecisions are assumed to affectthe size of Ci butnotthe size of Uiso that
A R, = Ui

A Ci > 0

Uncertaintyreducing decisions are assumed to affect U,primarilyso that

A Ri = A Ui (Cj + A C,) + A Ci U, < 0

Using this frameworkwe say thatscale-increasing decisions willbe takenwhen R,< R*i.The firm
will incrementallyextend its scale of existing operations on the market-in expectation of large
returns-until its tolerableriskfrontier(R*,)is met. Scale-increasingcommitmentsmay,forexample, be occasioned by a decline in uncertaintyabout the market(Uj)incidentalto gaining market
knowledgeacquiredwithexperience. Such a decline inmarketuncertaintycan be expected when
the marketconditionsare fairlystable and heterogeneous. Ifmarketconditionsare veryunstable,
experience cannot be expected to lead to decreased uncertainty.And, if marketconditionsare
very homogeneous, experience is probablynot a necessary requirementformarketknowledge.
Undersuch marketconditionsan optimalscale of operationscan be chosen fromthe beginning.
Marketuncertaintycan also decline as a consequence ofa competitive-or political-stabilization

of market conditions. Scale-increasing commitments may also follow a rise of the maximum
tolerable risk level due to an increase in the total resources of the firm or a more aggressive
approach toward risk. We can, in any event, say that large increases in the scale of operations in
the market will only take place in firms with large total resources or in firms which feel little
uncertainty about the market.

Uncertainty-reducing commitments on the other hand will be made when R, > R*j.The firmwill
respond to this imbalance by taking steps to increase interactions and integration with the market
environment. Such an imbalance may be the result of a decrease in the maximum tolerable market
risk (R*,) or an increase in the existing risk situation on the market Ri). The latter case may, in its
turn, be occasioned by an increase in market commitment (C,) or market uncertainty (U~).Market
commitments that increase risk are, according to our assumptions, those that increase the scale of
existing operations on the market. Such increases are likely to be associated with current activities
in an expanding market but can also be a consequence of the scale-increasing decisions
discussed in the previous paragraph. Note that increases in the scale of operations on the market
can be expected to lead to uncertainty-reducing commitments, that is increased interaction and
integration with the market environment. Market uncertainty (U,) can be expected to rise as a
consequence of experience in a dynamic market environment, showing that the original perception
of the market was too simple. It may also rise because of a structural change in market conditions,
for example, in connection with the entrance of new competitors on the market or introduction of
new techniques. A typical example of the former is the change of the market situation of Swedish
pulp and paper firms 'due to the entrance of North American producers on the European market
(Kinch, 1974). However, increases in market uncertainty due to political changes cannot be
expected to lead to the uncertainty-reducing commitments discussed here since such commitments cannot be expected to affect the political situaton.
This discussion requires some further comments. First, it is very partial since we do not take into
account how various factors other than scale may affect the economy of the market operations. The
technology of the firm probably has a great impact on the economy of different types of market
operations. Secondly, the variable "firm'sapproach to market risk" is a very complicated factor.
We can, for example, distinguish between three different strategies with respect to this factor. One
may be that a high risk level on one market is compensated by a low risk level on other
markets. Another is that the tolerable risk level is the same on all markets. A thirdis that risk taking
on the market is delegated to those working on the market as long as decisions do not require
additional resources from the firm.

30

We conclude this discussion of commitment decisions by observing that additional commitments

will be made in small steps unless the firmhas very large resources and/or market conditions are
stable and homogeneous, or the firm has much experience from other markets with similar

conditions.Ifnot, marketexperience willlead to a step-wise increase inthe scale ofthe operations

and of the integrationwiththe marketenvironmentwhere steps willbe takento correct imbalance
with respect to the risksituationon the market.Marketgrowthwillspeed up this process.

We thinkthatthe general characteristicsof the model fit nicely withempiricalobservationsgiven Empirical

earlier.Inorderto validateit empiricallywe intendto maketwokindsof empiricalstudies. Firstly, Verification
we shall make one or two intensive case studies to see if the mechanism can be used for
explanationin empiricalsituations.Inthose case studies, we shalltryto measurethe internationalization variables, marketcommitmentand marketknowledge, and investigatehow they develop
of the firm.
duringthe internationalization
we
intendto
make
courses of different
Secondly,
comparativestudies of the internationalization
firms.Assumingthatsuch factorsas firmsize, technology,productline,home country,etc., viathe
mechanism discussed affect the characterof the internationalization
in differentways, we will
investigate whetherfirmsthat differwith respect to those factors also differwith respect to the
Such studies will require more systematic discussions of the
patterns of internationalization.
expected influence of the factors. The present model will constitute the frameworkof such
discussions.

In many countries various programs to affect foreign trade and operations are designed and Possible
carriedout. Stillmoreare discussed. Usuallysuch programsare based on models inwhichprices Applications
of factors and products in differentcountriesare the only explainingfactors.We thinkthat our
model can help in giving such discussions and programs a better base. An evaluationof a
Swedish export stimulationprogramshowed that the "exportstimulationmeasures affect firms'
exportbehaviorindifferentways due to differencesintheirdegrees of previousexportexperience"
(Olson, 1975). Ourmodel indicates how such experience can be expected to affect the export
behavior. It also makes it possible to develop a better understandingof foreign investment
behavior.
We also thinkthatthe modelcan be usefulin planningand decision makinginthe firmwithregard
to internationaloperations.Manyfirmsconsider internationalization
a promisingstrategy. There
are, however, numerous examples of firmswhich have started internationaloperations without
success. We thinkthat the importanceof the experience factoris often overlooked.The model
indicates how it is related to other internationalization
variables thus giving a better base for
planningand executing the internationalization
process.
And finallywe hope, as do otherstudents inthe field, thatourway of reasoningwilladd something
to the understandingof the process by which firmsbecome internationalor even multinational.
Thus, many studies of internationaltrade and investmenthave shownthatoligopolisticindustries
have the greatest internationalengagement. Such features as high R&Dintensity,advertising
intensity,and efforts at product differentiationcharacterizedthese industries(Gruber,Mehta,
Vernon,1967; Hymer,1960; Kindleberger,1969; Caves, 1971; Vaupel,1971). Oligopolisticcompetition,however, lacks explanatoryvalue at the firmlevel; we have to lookforotherfeaturesto
explain variationsin the level of internationalinvolvementamong the several firmsin a given
oligopolisticindustry(Horst,1972; Knickerbocker,1973). Perhaps ourmodelof the internationalization process can help in providinga partofthis explanationby stressing the importanceof some
factors affecting the decision-makingprocess.

Aharoni,Y. The ForeignInvestmentDecision Process. Boston, 1966.

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