Chapter 25

GLOBAL POSITIONING
SYSTEM
System Description
The Navigation Satellite Time and Ranging (NAVSTAR)
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite
radio navigation system developed by the U. S. Department of Defense (DoD). GPS receivers provide land,
marine, and airborne users with continuous threedimensional (3D) position, velocity, and time data (PVT).
This information is available free of charge to an
unlimited number of users. The system operates under
all weather conditions, 24 hours a day, anywhere on
Earth. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics developed
a similar system that is generally not used because it is a
duplication of the NAVSTAR function.
GPS System Design
The GPS system consists of (1) the space segment, (2) the
control segment, and (3) the user segment.
Space Segment.The space segment consists of a
nominal constellation of 24 operational satellites
(including 3 spares) that have been placed in 6 orbital
planes 10,900 miles (20,200 kilometers [km]) above the
Earths surface. The satellites are in circular orbits with
a 12-hour orbital period and an inclination angle of
55 degrees. This orientation provides a minimum of five
satellites in view at any time anywhere on Earth. Each
satellite continuously broadcasts two low-power, spreadspectrum, RF Link signals (L1 and L2). The L1 signal is
centered at 1575.42 megahertz (MHz), and the L2 signal
is centered at 1227.6 MHz.
Control Segment.The control segment consists of a
Master Control Station (in Colorado Springs) and a

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

User Equivalent Range Error
User Equivalent Range Error represents the combined
effect of space and control segment errors (satellite vehicle
position [ephemeris] and clock errors), atmospherics
(ionospheric and tropospheric), and user equipment
errors (receiver measurement uncertainties). UERE
cannot be broadcast by the satellites and can be estimated
only at the receiver. The point that sets UERE apart from
other measures of error is that UERE does not take into
account any satellite geometry effects, such as HDOP or
VDOP. Table 25-4 shows a typical error budget for a
P(Y)-code GPS receiver.
Table 25-4.Typical GPS receiver error budget
Accuracy factor

Error

Space and control segment

4.0 m

Ionospheric

5.0 m

Tropospheric

2.0 m

Receiver noise

1.5 m

Multipath

1.2 m

Miscellaneous

0.5 m

UERE =

(4

+ 52 + 22 + 15
. 2 + 12
. 2 + 0.52

7.0 m

457

FIELD MANUAL
Space and Control Segment Errors
Satellites provide an estimate of their own satellite
position and clock errors. Each satellite transmits an
indication of these errors in the form of User Range
Accuracy (URA).
URA is a value transmitted by each GPS satellite that is
a statistical indicator (1-sigma estimate) of ranging
accuracies obtainable from that satellite. URA includes
all errors that the space and control segments are
responsible forfor example, satellite clock error and
SA error. URA has very coarse granularity, however.
The URA value is received in the form of an index related
to URA as shown in table 25-5.
The URA index broadcast by each satellite will change
over time. In practice, the control segment will upload
correction data to each satellite at least once every 24
hours. When a satellite first receives its upload, it should
have a very low URA index. The amount of error will
increase over time, because of things such as satellite
clock drift, and the URA index for that satellite will grow.
Some satellites URA index will grow more rapidly than
others.
In practice, authorized PPS users should expect to see
URA index values in the range of 0 to 5. More commonly,
values of 2-4 should be expected. The values depend on
the length of time since the last control segment upload to
that satellite.

458

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

Table 25-5.URA index and values
URA
index

URA
(meters)

0.00 < URA <= 2.40

2.40 < URA <= 3.40

3.40 < URA <= 4.85

6.85 < URA <= 9.65

9.65 < URA <= 13.65

13.65 < URA <= 24.00

24.00 < URA <= 48.00

48.00 < URA <= 96.00

96.00 < URA <= 192.00

10

192.00 < URA <= 384.00

11

384.00 < URA <= 768.00

12

768.00 < URA <= 1,536.00

13

1,536 < URA <= 3,072.00

14

3,072.00 < URA <= 6,144

15

6,144 < URA (or no accuracy prediction available)

459

FIELD MANUAL
Wide Area GPS Enhancement
Wide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE) is a feature
available in Precise Positioning Service PLGR+96
receivers. The WAGE feature uses encrypted satellite
data to reduce some space and control segment errors.
Each satellite broadcasts WAGE data that are valid for
6 hours after that satellite receives a data upload. These
data may be used to correct satellite clock errors on other
satellites that have not received an upload recently.
These clock corrections are used to reduce the error
caused by satellite clock biases when a period of time has
passed since the last upload to those satellites. It takes
approximately 12.5 minutes to download a complete
WAGE data set. Only WAGE data from the most recently
updated satellite are used in PLGR.
Atmospheric Errors
Atmospheric errors are those caused by the satellite
RF signal passing through the earths atmosphere. These
errors include ionospheric and tropospheric delays.
Ionospheric delay affects the GPS signal as it passes
through the earths ionosphere. The ionospheric delay to
GPS signals is very dynamic and depends on the time of
day, the elevation angle of the satellites, and solar flare
activity. Single frequency receivers use a modeled
estimate of the range error induced by GPS navigation
signals passing through the Earths ionosphere. It is very
difficult, however, to estimate the error in this model.
Dual frequency receivers measure this delay by tracking
both the GPS L1 and L2 signals. The magnitude of
the delay is frequency dependent, and the absolute

460

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

delay on either frequency can be scaled from the
differential delay between L1 and L2.
Tropospheric delay is the expected measure of range error
induced by GPS navigation signals passing through the
Earths troposphere. This measure is based on satellite
elevation. Unlike the ionospheric delay, the tropospheric
delay is very predictable, and there is very little error in
the compensation.
User Equipment Errors
User equipment errors are those uncertainties in the
measurements that are inherent in the receivers
collection and computation of measurements. Several
factors influence these uncertainties, including the GPS
hardware, the design of the tracking loops, the code type
being tracked (C/A or P(Y)), and the strength of the
satellite signals. These uncertainties are taken into
account in the Kalman filter processing done in a PLGR
when computing EPE and ETE.
Multipath effects are caused by a signal arriving at the
receiver site over two or more different paths. The difference between the path lengths can cause them to
interfere with one another in the receiver. Buildings,
parking lots, or other large objects may reflect a signal
from a satellite, causing multipath effects. Signal averaging can be used to minimize the effects of multipath
signals.
Error Source Summary
There are many factors that influence the accuracy of
GPS measurements.
Many of the factors do not
contribute large errors but cumulatively are important.

461

FIELD MANUAL
In practice, the three major sources of error are
(1) performing the survey when satellite geometry is poor,
(2) using equipment not designed to provide the desired
accuracy, and (3) mixing datums and coordinate systems.
Satellite Geometry
The most useful error measurement available is position
dilution of precision (PDOP). PDOP is a number derived
from the geometry of the visible satellites and changes as
the satellites move in their orbits. The smaller the PDOP
number, the better the satellite geometry. The PDOP
value should be six, or preferably less, for accurate GPS
work. Some GPS units display the PDOP or an accuracy
estimate in real time. Software is available that calculates the PDOP for any planned GPS survey and should
be used before conducting the survey to determine
whether accurate GPS work is possible at the planned
location and time. The software also can be used to
determine satellite positions and whether terrain or other
obstructions will affect the survey. Presurvey planning,
especially relative to PDOP, can make the difference
between a mediocre or failed GPS survey and a successful
survey.
Equipment
Using inappropriate equipment is another major factor in
GPS survey problems. The accuracy of the equipment
must be known, and the equipment must be used
properly. A small, inexpensive hand-held GPS unit can
provide an accuracy of 10s of feet when selective
availability is off and approximately 100 feet (30 m) when
SA is on. A PLGR (military GPS) can provide similar
accuracy when SA is on. A mapping grade GPS unit can
provide 1- to 2-ft (0.5-m) accuracy if the data are postprocessed and 3-ft (1-m) real-time accuracy if a satellite

462

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

differential correction signal is available. Centimeter or
survey-grade accuracy is possible with a local differential
base station providing real-time or post-processing
correction of rover data. Do not expect more accuracy
than the equipment can deliver. Manufacturer estimates
of accuracy are generally better than what is commonly
encountered in the field.
The equipment must be well maintained. Many apparently satellite related problems are caused by equipment
malfunctions, poorly charged batteries, or faulty cable
connections.
Datums and Coordinate Systems
An apparent GPS problem is introduced by collecting or
comparing position data based on different datums or
coordinate systems. Many old topographic maps and
surveys use the 1927 North American Datum (NAD27),
and most new survey data are based on the 1983 North
American Datum (NAD83). Also, some sites use a local
reference system that is not related to a regional datum
or coordinate system. Systematic errors are a good indication of a datum problem. Software is available that very
accurately converts between datums and coordinate
systems and is very useful for diagnosing and correcting
problems. Chapter 6 of Volume 1 contains a discussion of
datums, map projections, and coordinate systems.

463

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

User Equivalent Range Error
User Equivalent Range Error represents the combined
effect of space and control segment errors (satellite vehicle
position [ephemeris] and clock errors), atmospherics
(ionospheric and tropospheric), and user equipment
errors (receiver measurement uncertainties). UERE
cannot be broadcast by the satellites and can be estimated
only at the receiver. The point that sets UERE apart from
other measures of error is that UERE does not take into
account any satellite geometry effects, such as HDOP or
VDOP. Table 25-4 shows a typical error budget for a
P(Y)-code GPS receiver.
Table 25-4.Typical GPS receiver error budget
Accuracy factor

Error

Space and control segment

4.0 m

Ionospheric

5.0 m

Tropospheric

2.0 m

Receiver noise

1.5 m

Multipath

1.2 m

Miscellaneous

0.5 m

UERE =

(4

+ 52 + 22 + 15
. 2 + 12
. 2 + 0.52

7.0 m

457

FIELD MANUAL
Space and Control Segment Errors
Satellites provide an estimate of their own satellite
position and clock errors. Each satellite transmits an
indication of these errors in the form of User Range
Accuracy (URA).
URA is a value transmitted by each GPS satellite that is
a statistical indicator (1-sigma estimate) of ranging
accuracies obtainable from that satellite. URA includes
all errors that the space and control segments are
responsible forfor example, satellite clock error and
SA error. URA has very coarse granularity, however.
The URA value is received in the form of an index related
to URA as shown in table 25-5.
The URA index broadcast by each satellite will change
over time. In practice, the control segment will upload
correction data to each satellite at least once every 24
hours. When a satellite first receives its upload, it should
have a very low URA index. The amount of error will
increase over time, because of things such as satellite
clock drift, and the URA index for that satellite will grow.
Some satellites URA index will grow more rapidly than
others.
In practice, authorized PPS users should expect to see
URA index values in the range of 0 to 5. More commonly,
values of 2-4 should be expected. The values depend on
the length of time since the last control segment upload to
that satellite.

458

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

Table 25-5.URA index and values
URA
index

URA
(meters)

0.00 < URA <= 2.40

2.40 < URA <= 3.40

3.40 < URA <= 4.85

6.85 < URA <= 9.65

9.65 < URA <= 13.65

13.65 < URA <= 24.00

24.00 < URA <= 48.00

48.00 < URA <= 96.00

96.00 < URA <= 192.00

10

192.00 < URA <= 384.00

11

384.00 < URA <= 768.00

12

768.00 < URA <= 1,536.00

13

1,536 < URA <= 3,072.00

14

3,072.00 < URA <= 6,144

15

6,144 < URA (or no accuracy prediction available)

459

FIELD MANUAL
Wide Area GPS Enhancement
Wide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE) is a feature
available in Precise Positioning Service PLGR+96
receivers. The WAGE feature uses encrypted satellite
data to reduce some space and control segment errors.
Each satellite broadcasts WAGE data that are valid for
6 hours after that satellite receives a data upload. These
data may be used to correct satellite clock errors on other
satellites that have not received an upload recently.
These clock corrections are used to reduce the error
caused by satellite clock biases when a period of time has
passed since the last upload to those satellites. It takes
approximately 12.5 minutes to download a complete
WAGE data set. Only WAGE data from the most recently
updated satellite are used in PLGR.
Atmospheric Errors
Atmospheric errors are those caused by the satellite
RF signal passing through the earths atmosphere. These
errors include ionospheric and tropospheric delays.
Ionospheric delay affects the GPS signal as it passes
through the earths ionosphere. The ionospheric delay to
GPS signals is very dynamic and depends on the time of
day, the elevation angle of the satellites, and solar flare
activity. Single frequency receivers use a modeled
estimate of the range error induced by GPS navigation
signals passing through the Earths ionosphere. It is very
difficult, however, to estimate the error in this model.
Dual frequency receivers measure this delay by tracking
both the GPS L1 and L2 signals. The magnitude of
the delay is frequency dependent, and the absolute

460

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

delay on either frequency can be scaled from the
differential delay between L1 and L2.
Tropospheric delay is the expected measure of range error
induced by GPS navigation signals passing through the
Earths troposphere. This measure is based on satellite
elevation. Unlike the ionospheric delay, the tropospheric
delay is very predictable, and there is very little error in
the compensation.
User Equipment Errors
User equipment errors are those uncertainties in the
measurements that are inherent in the receivers
collection and computation of measurements. Several
factors influence these uncertainties, including the GPS
hardware, the design of the tracking loops, the code type
being tracked (C/A or P(Y)), and the strength of the
satellite signals. These uncertainties are taken into
account in the Kalman filter processing done in a PLGR
when computing EPE and ETE.
Multipath effects are caused by a signal arriving at the
receiver site over two or more different paths. The difference between the path lengths can cause them to
interfere with one another in the receiver. Buildings,
parking lots, or other large objects may reflect a signal
from a satellite, causing multipath effects. Signal averaging can be used to minimize the effects of multipath
signals.
Error Source Summary
There are many factors that influence the accuracy of
GPS measurements.
Many of the factors do not
contribute large errors but cumulatively are important.

461

FIELD MANUAL
In practice, the three major sources of error are
(1) performing the survey when satellite geometry is poor,
(2) using equipment not designed to provide the desired
accuracy, and (3) mixing datums and coordinate systems.
Satellite Geometry
The most useful error measurement available is position
dilution of precision (PDOP). PDOP is a number derived
from the geometry of the visible satellites and changes as
the satellites move in their orbits. The smaller the PDOP
number, the better the satellite geometry. The PDOP
value should be six, or preferably less, for accurate GPS
work. Some GPS units display the PDOP or an accuracy
estimate in real time. Software is available that calculates the PDOP for any planned GPS survey and should
be used before conducting the survey to determine
whether accurate GPS work is possible at the planned
location and time. The software also can be used to
determine satellite positions and whether terrain or other
obstructions will affect the survey. Presurvey planning,
especially relative to PDOP, can make the difference
between a mediocre or failed GPS survey and a successful
survey.
Equipment
Using inappropriate equipment is another major factor in
GPS survey problems. The accuracy of the equipment
must be known, and the equipment must be used
properly. A small, inexpensive hand-held GPS unit can
provide an accuracy of 10s of feet when selective
availability is off and approximately 100 feet (30 m) when
SA is on. A PLGR (military GPS) can provide similar
accuracy when SA is on. A mapping grade GPS unit can
provide 1- to 2-ft (0.5-m) accuracy if the data are postprocessed and 3-ft (1-m) real-time accuracy if a satellite

462

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

differential correction signal is available. Centimeter or
survey-grade accuracy is possible with a local differential
base station providing real-time or post-processing
correction of rover data. Do not expect more accuracy
than the equipment can deliver. Manufacturer estimates
of accuracy are generally better than what is commonly
encountered in the field.
The equipment must be well maintained. Many apparently satellite related problems are caused by equipment
malfunctions, poorly charged batteries, or faulty cable
connections.
Datums and Coordinate Systems
An apparent GPS problem is introduced by collecting or
comparing position data based on different datums or
coordinate systems. Many old topographic maps and
surveys use the 1927 North American Datum (NAD27),
and most new survey data are based on the 1983 North
American Datum (NAD83). Also, some sites use a local
reference system that is not related to a regional datum
or coordinate system. Systematic errors are a good indication of a datum problem. Software is available that very
accurately converts between datums and coordinate
systems and is very useful for diagnosing and correcting
problems. Chapter 6 of Volume 1 contains a discussion of
datums, map projections, and coordinate systems.

463