TRANSPORT PROCESSES

a study of processes transfers properties from one point to the

other in the environment and condition of the system
Basic equation of transport processes:
factor that will make
the transfer occur

Rate of transfer =

Driving Force

Resistance

amount of
properties
delivered per
units of time
FKKKSA

factor that will

slow down the
process

Chem. Eng. Dept

TRANSPORT PROCESSES

Heat transfer

Rate of transfer

Driving Force

Resistance

Heat Flux (J/m2.s)

Temperature
Different

Thermal Resistance

Heat Rate (J/s)

Mass transfer

Momentum transfer

T (K or oC)

mass Flux
(mole/m2.s)

Concentration
Different

mass Rate (mole/s)

cA (mole/m3)

momentum Flux

Velocity (m/s)

( kg/m.s2)

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Chem. Eng. Dept

Mass Resistance

Momentum
Resistance

HEAT TRANSFER
There are three ways heat transfer works: conduction, convection,
and radiation.
Conduction

nsm1.nsm.iup.edu

regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to
regions with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions
through solids, liquids & gases
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Chem. Eng. Dept

HEAT TRANSFER
Convection
transporting heat by fluid motion (gas or liquid) in the
form of current

free convection - movement results from differences

in density
forced convection - movement is forced by a fan or a
pump

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Chem. Eng. Dept

HEAT TRANSFER
Radiation

Transfer by means of electromagnetic waves

Through space or gases
The higher the temperature of an object, the more thermal radiation it gives
off.
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Chem. Eng. Dept

FOURIERS LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION

Fouriers law:

qx
dT
= -k
A
dx
where
qx = heat transfer rate in the x-direction (W)
A = cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow of heat (m2)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
dT/dx = temperature gradient in the x direction

x2

x1

dx = -k

dT

q
k
=
T1 - T2

A x -x
2
1
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Chem. Eng. Dept

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
thermal conductivity of a material describes how well the material
conducts heat.

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Chem. Eng. Dept

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity
(W/m K)*

Material

Material

Thermal conductivity
(W/m K)*

Silver

406.0

Hydrogen at 0 C

0.14

Copper

385.0

Helium at 0 C

0.14

Brass

109.0

Oxygen

0.023

Aluminum

205.0

Snow (dry)

...

Iron

...

Fiberglass

0.04

Steel

50.2

Brick,insulating

0.15

Lead

34.7

Brick, red

0.6

Mercury

8.3

Cork board

0.04

Ice

1.6

Wool felt

0.04

Glass,ordinary

0.8

Rock wool

0.04

Concrete

0.8

Styrofoam

0.01

Water at 20 C

...

Wood

Asbestos
FKKKSA

0.12-0.04

...
Air at 0 C
0.024
*From Young, Hugh D., University Physics, 7th Ed. Table 15-5.
Chem. Eng. Dept

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

(gas)
(liquid)
(solid)

FKKKSA

H2
O2
Benzene
Water
Steel
Wood

Chem. Eng. Dept

T
(C)
27
27
23
60
100
--

k
(cal/cm s C)
4.23E-04
6.35E-05
3.78E-04
1.56E-03
9.08E-01
9.00E-05

CONDUCTION - FLAT SLAB/WALL

A

q
k
=
T1 - T2

A x -x
2
1
T1 - T2 ) (T1 - T2 )
(
q=
=

Dx
kA

R = Dx
kA

T2

T1
R

where
R = heat transfer resistance (K/W)
A = area perpendicular to heat flow (m2)
k = thermal conductivity of wall (W/m.K)
x = thickness of wall/slab (m)

T1,T2 = temperature at point 1 & 2, respectively (K)

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Chem. Eng. Dept

Example 4.1-1
A

Fiber insulating board, q/A = ?

T1=352.7K

Solution:
q
T2=297.1K

25.4 mm

T1

T2

q
k
=
T1 - T2

A x -x
2
1

q
k
352.7 - 297.1
=

3
A 25.4x10

R
From A.3-15, k for fiber insulating board at 21oC = 0.048 W/m.K

q
0.048
2
=
352.7 - 297.1 = 105.1W/m

A 25.4x10- 3
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Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION - PLANE WALLS IN SERIES

For a single wall:

T1 - T2 ) (T1 - T2 )
(
q=
=
Dx
kA

T2

T1
RA

T3
RB

T4
RC

q=
where

where
R = heat transfer resistance (K/W) = Dx
kA
For 3 walls in series:

(T1 - T4 )

R A + RB + RC

(T1 - T4 )

or

RA = resistance for wall A (K/W)

kA = thermal conductivity of wall A (W/m.K)

xA = thickness of wall A (m)

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Chem. Eng. Dept

q=

Dx A

(T1 - T4 )
+

Dx B

Dx C

k AA k BA kCA

Example 4.3-1
A cold storage room is constructed of an inner layer of 12.7 mm of pine, a
middle layer of 101.6 mm of cork board and an outer layer of 76.2
concrete. The wall surface temperature is 255.4 K inside the cold room
and 297.1 K at the outside surface of concrete. The conductivites for pine,
0.151; cork board,0.0433; and concrete, 0.762 W/m.K. Calculate the heat
loss in W for 1 m2and the temperature at the interface between wood and
cork board. Answer: (-16.48 W, 256.79 K)

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Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION - SLABS/WALLS IN PARALLEL

T1 A
qT

AB

T3

T4

RA
qT

T1

where

T1 =T3

AA
T2

T2 =T4

qT =qA +qB

T1 - T2 ) (T3 - T4 )
(
q=
+
= T - T

Dx A

Dx B

k AAA

k B AB

T2
RB
AA = area perpendicular to heat flow for wall A (m2)
qT = total heat transfer rate (W)
qA = heat transfer rate for wall A (W)

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Chem. Eng. Dept

1
1
+
2

R
R

A
B

CONDUCTION - SLABS/WALLS IN PARALLEL

qT = qA = qB+ qC +qD = qE = qF +qG
T1
T2

qT

T3
T4

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T5

Chem. Eng. Dept

CONVECTION

T - T T - T

q = hA T - T = 1 = 1
1
1 1

R
hA
1

where
q = heat transfer rate (W)
R = heat transfer resistance (K/W), R = 1
hA
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
A1 = surface area perpendicular to heat flow (m2)
T1,T = wall and fluid temperature, respectively (K)

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Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION - SLABS/WALLS IN PARALLEL

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Chem. Eng. Dept

COMBINED CONVECTION & CONDUCTIONPLANE WALL

T1 - T2 ) (T1 - T2 )
(
q=
=

Without convection:

Dx
kA

With convection:

q=

(T1 - T4 )
Ri + Rw + Ro

T1 - T4 )
(
=
= UA T - T
R

(T1 - T4 )

A(T1 - T4 )
q=
=
= UA T1 - T4
1 + x + 1
1 + x + 1
hi A kA ho A hi k ho
where

T2

T1

Ri
FKKKSA

T3

Rw

T4

Ro

T2

T1
R

Ri,Rw,Ro = inside, wall & outside heat transfer

resistance, respectively (K/W)
hi,ho = inside and outside convective heat-transfer
coefficient, respectively (W/m2.K)

U = overall heat-transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)

Chem. Eng. Dept

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT, U :

SLAB/WALL

T2

T1
Ri

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T3
Rw

T4
Ro

Chem. Eng. Dept

Example
1. Consider a 0.8m high and 1.5m wide glass
window with a thickness of 8 mm and a thermal
conductivity of k = 0.78 W/m.oC .
2. Consider a 0.8m high and 1.5 m wide doublepane window consisting of two 4mm thick layers of
glass (k = 0.78 W/m.oC) separated by a 10 mm wide
stagnant air (k = 0.026 W/m.oC).
Determine the steady rate of transfer through the
glass window of (1) and the double-pane window of
(2) and the temperatures of their inner surfaces for
a day during which the room is maintained at 20oC
while the temperature of the outdoors is -10oC. Take
the convection heat transfer coefficients on the
inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1 =
10 W/m2.oC and h2 = 40 W/m2.oC, which includes
the effects of radiation.
Answer: (266W, -2.2oC,69.2 W, 14.2oC)
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Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION - HOLLOW CYLINDER/PIPE

A

T1

T2

T1 - T2 ) (T1 - T2 )
(
q=
=

ln

2pkL
q

T2

T1
R
where

R = heat transfer resistance (K/W) =

r
ln r2
1

2pkL
A = area perpendicular to heat flow (m2) = 2rL
r1 = inside radius (m)
r2 = outside radius (m)
T1,T2 = inside and outside temperature, respectively (K)
FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

Example 4.2-1
A thick wall cylindrical tubing of hard rubber (k=0.151 W/m.K)having an
inside radius of 5 mm and an outside radius of 20 mm is being used as a
temporary cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is flowing rapidly inside and
the inside wall temperature is 274.9 K. The outside temperature is at
297.1 K. A total of 14.65 W must be removed from the bath by the
cooling coil. How many m of tubing are needed?
Answer (0.964 m)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION - MULTILAYERS CYLINDER

For a single cylinder:

T1 - T2 ) (T1 - T2 )
(
q=
=

ln

2pkL
For multilayers cylinder:
q

T2

T1
RA

T3
RB

q=

T4
RC

where

RA =

r
ln r2
1

(T1 - T4 )
R A + RB + RC

RB =

r
ln r3
2

Chem. Eng. Dept

RC =

2pk AL
2pk BL
Ai = inside area perpendicular to heat flow (m2) = 2r1L
Ao = outside area perpendicular to heat flow (m2) = 2r4L
FKKKSA

(T1 - T4 )
r
ln r4
2

2pk CL

Example 4.3-2
A thick walled tube of stainless steel (A) having a k = 21.63 W/m.K with
dimensions of 0.0254 m ID and 0.0508 m OD is covered with a 0.0254
thick layer of insulation (B), k = 0.2423 W/m.K. The inside wall
temperature of the pipe is 811 K and the outside is at 310.8 K. For a
0.305 m length pipe, calculate the heat loss and also the temperature at
the interface between the metal and the insulation.
Answer: (331.7 W, 805.5 K)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

COMBINED CONVECTION & CONDUCTIONCYLINDRICAL WALL

Without convection:
T
2

T
1

T1 R T2

q=

(T1 - T2 )= (T1 - T2 )

ln

2pkL
With convection:
(T1 - T4 ) = (T1 - T4 )= U A T - T = U A T - T
q=
i i 1
o o 1
4
4
Ri + Rp + Ro
R

q=

where

(T1 - T4 )
ln

ro

= U i A i T1 - T4 = Uo Ao T1 - T4

1 + ri + 1
h i A i 2pkL ho Ao
Ai,Ao = inside and outside area, respectively (m2)
Ui,Uo = inside and outside overall heat-transfer
coefficient, respectively (W/m2.K)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT, U:

CYLINDER
q=

(T1 - T4 )
ln

ro

= U i A i T1 - T4 = Uo Ao T1 - T4

1 + ri + 1
h i A i 2pkL ho Ao

T2

T1
Ri

FKKKSA

T3
Rw

Ui =

T4

Uo =

Ro

Chem. Eng. Dept

1
Ai R
1
Ao R

Example
Steam at T1 = 320C flows in a cast iron pipe (k
= 80 W/m C) whose inner and outer diameters
are D1 = 5 cm and D2 = 5.5 cm, respectively. The
pipe is covered with 3-cm-thick glass wool
insulation with k = 0.05 W/m C. Heat is lost to
the surroundings at T2 = 5C by natural
convection and radiation, with a combined heat
transfer coefficient of h2 = 18 W/m2 C. Taking
the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be h1
= 60 W/m2 C, determine the rate of heat loss
from the steam per unit length of the pipe. Also
determine the temperature drops across the pipe
shell and the insulation.
Answers: (121W, 0.02oC, 284oC)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION - HOLLOW SPHERE

For a single sphere:
T2

T1

q=

(T1 - T2 ) = (T1 - T2 )

1 1
-

r r2

4pk
q
where

T1

T2

1 1
R

r r
R = heat transfer resistance (K/W) = 1 2
4pk
r1 = inside radius (m)

r2 = outside radius (m)

T1,T2 = inside and outside temperature, respectively (K)
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Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION

PLANE WALL: heat generated inside conducting medium
Eg. Electric resistance heaters, nuclear fuel
rods, exothermic chemical reaction
only in x-direction
.
q
T = - x 2 + To
Temperature profile:
2k
. 2
center temperature:
To = - q L + Tw
2k
.
.
.
q
qT = (2LA)
total heat loss from 2 faces, qT:
where
.
q = heat generated per unit volume (W/m3)
To = midplane (center) temperature (K)
Tw = wall temperature (K)
A = cross-sectional area (surface area at Tw) (m2)
FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

Example
A plane wall is a composite of two materials, A and B. The wall of
material A has uniform heat generation =1.5106 W/m3. The wall of
material B has no heat generation. The inner surface of material A is well
insulated. Given: T = 30 C, h = 1000 W/m2K, kA = 75 W/mK, LA =
50 mm thick, kB = 150W/mK, LB = 20 mm thick. Determine the
temperature T0 of the insulated surface and the temperature T2 of the
cooled surface under the steady-state condition
Answers: (140oC,115oC)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION

SOLID CYLINDER:
flow radially (ends neglected or insulated)
R

.
q

Tw
To
T
where

Temperature profile:
.
q
T = R 2 - r 2 + TW
4k

center temperature:
. 2
To = q R + Tw
4k
R = radius of cylinder (m)
r = distance from center (m)
.
q = heat generated per unit volume (W/m3)
To = midplane (center) temperature (K)
Tw = wall temperature (K)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

Example 4.3-4
An electric current of 200A is passed through a stainless steel wire
having a radius of 0.001268 m. The wire is L = 0.91 m long and has a
resistance of 0.126 . The outer surface temperature Tw is held at 422.1K.
The average thermal conductivity is k = 22.5 W/m.K. Calculate the center
temperature.
Answer: (441.7K)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

HEAT GENERATION WITH CONVECTION

PLANE WALL:

Tw

TO

TO

Tw

Tw
T

SOLID CYLINDER:

Tw

qq

Tw

T
T

Tw

qq

R
R
Rate of heat transfer = rate of energy generated

Tw - T ) (Tw - T )
.
(

=
q =q V = hA Tw - T =
1
R
hA
FKKKSA

Tw

Chem. Eng. Dept

Tw
R

Example
A long cylindrical rod of radius 10 cm consists of a nuclear reacting
material (k = 0.5 W/m.K) generating 24,000 W/m3 uniformly throughout
its volume. This rod is encapsulated within another cylinder whose outer
radius is 20 cm and that has a thermal conductivity of 4 W/mK. The
outer surface is surrounded by a fluid at 100C, and the convection
coefficient between the surface and the fluid is 20 W/m2K. Find the
temperatures at the interface between the two cylinders and at the outer
surface.
Answers : (150.79oC, 130oC)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION

Insulation thickness affects heat-transfer rate

INSULATED PIPE:

T2

Insulation thickness

conduction resistance of insulation layer

convection resistance of surface

Heat transfer from pipe = or ?

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION

q
qmax
qbare

r2

rcr = k/h

maximum heat-transfer occur at rcrit. = kin/ho

r2 rcrit. , adding insulation increases heat-transfer rate

r2 rcrit. , adding insulation decreases heat-transfer rate

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

EXAMPLE
An electric wire having a diameter of 1.5mm and covered with a plastic
insulation (thickness = 2.5mm) is exposed to air at 300K and h0 = 20 W/m2K.
The insulation has a k of 0.4 W/m.K. It is assumed that the wire surface
temperature is constant at 400K and is not affected by the covering.
a) Calculate the value of critical radius.
b) Calculate the heat loss per m of wire length with no insulation.
c) Repeat (b) for insulation present.
q
Answers: a) 20 mm b) 9.42W c) 32.98 W

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Chem. Eng. Dept

EXTENDED SURFACE OR FINNED EXCHANGERS

increase the rate of heat removal
greater area through which energy can flow

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Chem. Eng. Dept

EXTENDED SURFACE OR FINNED EXCHANGERS

The thin plate fins of a car radiator greatly

increase the rate of heat transfer to the air
FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

EXTENDED SURFACE OR FINNED EXCHANGERS

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Chem. Eng. Dept

TYPICAL FIN CONFIGURATIONS

Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.

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Chem. Eng. Dept

FIN ARRAYS

(a) rectangular

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

(b) annular fins.

RECTANGULAR FIN
CASE 1: FIN TIP INSULATED
Temperature profile:
T - T cosh m(L - x)
=
To - T
cosh mL
Heat lost by fin:
Fin efficiency :
1
q = (hPkA) 2 (To - T )tanh mL
h f = tanh mL
mL
CASE 2: FIN LOSES HEAT FROM TIP
Corrected length: Lc = L + t/2
where
1

A = cross-sectional area of the fin (m2)

m = hP 2
kA
P = perimeter of the fin (m)
k = thermal conductivity of fin (W/m.K)

h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

CIRCULAR FIN

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

FIN EFFICIENCY
qactual h f A f h(To -T )
=
Fin efficiency, f = q
A f h(To -T )
ideal

where

Af = outside surface area of the fin (m2)

A f = PLc + wt

Longitudinal fin

2
1

A f = 2p Lc +r -r
2
1

circular fin

Longitudinal/rectangular fin
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Chem. Eng. Dept

circular/transverse fin

EFFICIENCY OF CIRCULAR FIN

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

EXAMPLE 4.13-2
A circular aluminum fin is shown in the figure below k = 222 W/mK) is attached
to a copper tube having an outside radius of 0.04 m. The length of the fin is 0.04
m and the thickness is 2 mm. The tube base is held at 523.2K and the external
surrounding air at 343.2 K has a convective heat transfer coefficient of 30
W/m2K. Calculate the fin efficiency and the heat loss from the fin.
Answers: (0.89,149.9W)

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

HEAT TRANSFER FOR FINNED SURFACE

Rate of heat transfer from a finned surface:
qtotal = qexpose + qfin
qexposel = hoAt(To-T)
qfin = fhoAf(To-T)
qtotal = h (At + fAf )(To-T)

where
At = Aunfin = area of bare/exposed surface between
the fins (m2)
Af = Afin = area of fins (m2)
ho = outside convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

HEAT TRANSFER FOR FINNED SURFACE

Awithout fin= Ano fin = wH

At = Aunfin = wH 3(wt)
Af = Afin = 3(PLc + wt ) for 3 fins

where
At = Aunfin = area of bare/exposed tube between the fins (m2)
Af = Afin = area of fins (m2)
ho = outside convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

EXAMPLE
Steam in a heating system flows through tubes
whose outer diameter is 3 cm and whose walls
are maintained at a temperature of 120oC.
Circular aluminum fins ( k = 180 W/moC) of
outer diameter 6 cm and constant thickness t =
2mm are attached to the tube, as shown in the
Figure. The space between the fins is 3 mm,
and thus there are 200 fins per meter length of
the tube. Heat is transferred to the surrounding
air at = 25oC, with a combined heat transfer
coefficient of h = 60 W/m2 oC. Determine the
increase in heat transfer from the tube per
meter of its length as a result of adding fins.
Answer: 4786.4W

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

FOR FINNED TUBES
ro
T

Ti
Ri

To

To

Ti
ri

Rfin

To

Rbare
T

To
Rw

Total heat leaving outside of tube (single fin) :

q = qbare + qfin = hoAt(To-T)+fhoAf(To-T)

To T
To T

q = (hoAt + hoAff)(To-T) =
R
1
ho (A t A f f )

1
R

ho (At A f f )

where

At = Aunfin = area of bare(exposed) tube between the fins (m2)

Af = area of fins (m2)
ho = outside convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

FOR FINNED TUBES
ro
T

Ti
Ri

To
Rw

T -T
q = R +i R + R =UiAi(Ti-T) = UoAo(Ti-T)
i
w

To

Ti
ri

Overall heat transfer coefficient for finned tube exchanger :

1
U =
=
i A R
i

Uo =

FKKKSA

r
r ln o
i r
A
1
i
i
+
+
h
k
h (A + A h )
i
o t
f f

1 =
Ao R

Chem. Eng. Dept

ro
+
rihi

r
roln ro
i

1
+

Ao
ho(At + A f h f )

SURFACE/THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

RC = 1
hC A

where
Rc = contact resistance
hc = contact-resistance coefficient (W/m2.K)
FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

SURFACE/THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept

EXAMPLE
Heat transfer from a transistor may be enhanced by inserting it in an aluminium
sleeve (k = 200 W/m.K) having 12 integrally machined longitudinal fins on its outer
surface. The transistor radius and height are r1 = 2 mm and H = 6mm, respectively,
while the fins are of length L = r3-r2 = 10 mm and uniform thickness t = 0.7mm. The
thickness of the sleeve base is r2-r1 = 1 mm, and the contact resistance of the
sleeve-transistor interface is Rt,c = 10-3 m2.K/W. Air at T = 20oC flows over the fin
surface, providing an approximately uniform convection coefficient of h = 25
W/m2.K. If the temperature of the transistor case is T1 = 80oC, what is the rate of
heat transfer from the sleeve? Answer: 1.63 W

FKKKSA

Chem. Eng. Dept