53

Lecture 9
9.1

Multivariable Functions

Definition of multivariable functions and their natural

domains

Let us first recall that a function of one variable, y = f (x) : D R, is a rule that
assigns a unique real number f (x) to each point x in some set D of the x-axis. The
set D is called the domain of the function. Mostly the domains of the functions we
considered were open or closed intervals, the whole real line R or half-lines.
A function f of two (or three) real variables, x and y (and z, . . . ), is a rule that
assigns a unique number f (x, y) (f (x, y, z)) to each point (x, y) ((x, y, z)) in some
set D of the xy-plane (xyz-space). The set D is also called the domain of the
function.
The above definition extends naturally to functions of n-real variables, usually
denoted by f (x1, x2 , . . . , xn ).
If the domain of the function is not specified, then, as in the single variable case,
it is understood that the domain consists of all points at which the formula in the
definition of the function makes sense; this is called the natural domain of the
function.
The procedure of finding the natural domain is similar to single variable functions. First understand the formula as a chain of operations, as you would if you
1
is represented
computed the formula using the calculator. E.g. f (x, y) =
log(x2 + y)
by the following chain:
x x2 x2 + y log(x2 + y)

1
.
log(x2 + y)

Each step must be well-defined, which gives a number of conditions: no condition for
x2 +y, for log being defined x2 +y > 0, for 1/ log(x2 +y) being defined log x2 + y 6= 0,
i.e. x2 + y 6= 1. In this case the natural domain is given by x2 + y > 0 and x2 + y 6= 1.
The first condition is an inequality. To understand the geometrical shape of the
corresponding domain one may look at the equality x2 + y = 0 first. This is the
parabola y = x2 which cuts the xy-plane into two pieces, one where x2 + y > 0
and x2 + y < 0. To find out which one we are interested in it suffices to check for
one point. Since (1, 0) belongs to the set (12 + 0 > 0), it is clearly the upper part
of the two. From this we need to delete the parabola x2 + y 6= 1, i.e. y 1 = x2 .
The only difference to the analogous problem in single variable calculus is that we
need to handle inequalities and equations that involve several variables and describe
regions in 2 or higher dimensional space.

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9.2 Graphing multivariable functions

Example 1. Find the natural domain of

(a) f (x, y) = ln(x y 2 )

(b) f (x, y, z) = p

1
1

x2

y2 z2

Solution
(a) For ln(xy 2 ) to be defined, we need xy 2 > 0 and that is the only restriction.
Therefore the natural domain consists of all the points (x, y) which satisfy
x y 2 > 0. We denote
y

this set of points as

{(x, y) : x y 2 > 0}.
Geometrically, this set consists
of all the points lying to the right
of the parabola x = y 2 .

p
(b) For the formula to make sense, we need 1 x2 y 2 z 2 6= 0 and 1 x2
y 2 z 2 0. Combining these two requirements,
z
we need 1 x2 y 2 z 2 > 0, i.e.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 < 1. Thus the natural
domain is {(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 < 1}.
y
This set consists of all the points lying
x
inside the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1.

9.2

Graphing multivariable functions

The graph of a function of two variables z = f (x, y) : D R is the surface

{(x, y, z) : (x, y) D, z = f (x, y)}
in the xyz-space lying in a curved way over the domain D.
Another way to visualise functions of 2 variables is the method of level curves.
For a fixed value z = k, the equation f (x, y) = k represents a curve in the xy-space,
called a level curve of height k, or level curve with constant k. These are the
curves of intersection of the graph surface with the planes z = k that are parallel
to the xyplane and intersect the z-axis at the level z = k. Such level curves are
often used in practice, e.g. in meteorology the points of equal barometric pressure
are connected by curves (isobars).

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9.2 Graphing multivariable functions

The level curves of the ellipsoid x2 + 2y 2 + z 2 = 1 are empty for k < 1 or k > 1
(the planes z = k do not intersect the ellipsoid). For k = 1 the level curves are
just a point (0, 0, 1). For 1 < k < 1 the level curves are the ellipses
x2 + 2y 2 = 1 k 2 .
A three variable function w = f (x, y, z) cannot be realised as a graph in 2
or 3-space. But, similar to level curves, for fixed values w = k, the equations
f (x, y, z) = k represent surfaces in the xyz-space, called a level surfaces of height
k.
Example 2. Describe the graph and level curves for z =

p
1 x2 y 2 .

p
Solution: Square both sides of the equation z = 1 x2 y 2. It results z 2 = 1
x2 y 2 , which is equivalent to x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, and we know this equation
p represents
a sphere of radius 1 center (0, 0, 0). However, our initial equation z = 1 x2 y 2
implies that z is always non-negative. Therefore the graph is the upper half of this
sphere, or the upper hemisphere.
p
To describe the level curves, let us choose a constant k and consider 1 x2 y 2 =
k. This equation can hold for some point (x, y) only if 0 k 1, as the left hand
side is p
always between 0 and 1. On the other hand, for each constant k between 0
and 1, 1 x2 y 2 = k is equivalent to 1 x2 y 2 = k 2 , or x2 + y 2 = 1 k 2 . This

last equation represents a circle with center (0, 0) and radius 1 k 2 .

2
z

y
k=0
z=k
y

Example 3. Describe the level surface for w = x2 + (y 1)2 + (z 2)2 .

Solution: Let w = k. Then
x2 + (y 1)2 + (z 2)2 = k
is a sphere of radius

k and center (0, 1, 2) if k 0.

If k < 0, then the equation can never be satisfied.

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9.3

9.3 Topological properties of domains

Topological properties of domains

For computing limits and derivatives (which are a special type of limits) functions
had to be defined in some neighbourhood of the limit point. On the other hand
for the theorems on extrema and intermediate values of continuous functions it was
essential that the function was defined on a closed interval. To understand the
domain of a multivariable function properly, we need similar notions of open and
closed sets.
If D is a set of points in 2-space, then a point (x0 , y0 ) is called an interior point
of D if there is a circular disk (neighbourhood) with center (x0 , y0 ) and positive
radius which lies entirely in D.
If every such disk contains both points in D
Boundary point
and points not in D, then (x0 , y0 ) is called
Interior point
a boundary point of D. The set of
all interior points of D is called the interior
Interior
of D, and the set of all boundary points
Boundary
of D is called the boundary of D.
In 3-space, the definitions are similar: we replace (x0 , y0 ) by (x0 , y0, z0 ), replace
circular disk by spherical ball.
If a set contains no boundary point, it is called an open set. If a set contains
all its boundary points, it is called a closed set.
The following common terminology is convenient: Any open set containing a
point ~a is called a neighbourhood of ~a. A neighbourhood of ~a from which the
point ~a has been deleted is called a punctured neighbourhood of ~a.
A set S is said to be bounded if it can be put inside some circle or sphere,
otherwise it is unbounded.
A set S is said to be connected if for any two points ~a and ~b of the set there
are finitely many points ~x1 , . . . ~xN such that the segments ~a~x1 , ~x1~x2 , . . . , ~xN 1 ~xN ,
~xN~b are all contained in S.
Example 4.
(a) D1 = {(x, y) : x2 +y 2 2} is a closed set as it contains all its boundary points,
its boundary is the circle x2 + y 2 = 2. It is bounded.
(b) D2 = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 < 2} is an open set as it contains no boundary point.
The set is bounded.

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9.3 Topological properties of domains

(c) D3 = {(x, y) : 1 < x2 + y 2 2} is neither open nor closed, as it contains part

of its boundary. It is bounded. (For sketches of the sets D1 , D2 , D3 see the
figure below.)

With boundary

Without boundary

Example 5
(a) D1 = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 2} consists of all the points lying outside the sphere
x2 + y 2 = 2, including the sphere which is its boundary. It is closed and
unbounded.
(b) D2 = {(x, y) : x2 +y 2 > 2} is D1 without boundary. It is open and unbounded.
(c) D3 = {(x, y) : 1 < x + y 2} consists of all the points lying between the two
lines x + y = 1 and x + y = 2. The line x + y = 2 is in D3 but x + y = 1 is
not. This set is unbounded, but it is neither open, nor closed.

x+y=2
x

x
x+y=1

D1

D2

D3