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Copyright 1991 by ASME

Performance Deterioration in Industrial Gas Turbines

IHOR S. DIAKUNCHAK
Gas and Steam Turbine Engineering
Power Generation Technology Division
Westinghouse Canada Inc.

Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the most important factors affecting the industrial gas
turbine engine performance deterioration with service time and provides
some approximate data on the prediction of the rate of deterioration.
Recommendations are made on how to detect and monitor the performance

deterioration. Preventative measures, which can be taken to avoid or retard

the performance deterioration, are described in some detail.
INTRODUCTION
Why does performance degradation of gas turbine engines occur with
operating time?
Even under normal engine operating conditions, with a good inlet filtration
system, and using acleanfuel the engine flow path componentswill become
fouled, eroded, corroded, covered with rust scale, damaged, etc. (Upton,
1974, DeGreef et al, 1978, Bammert and Woelk, 1980, Bammert and Stobe,
1970, Haub and Hauhe, 1990). The result will be dereterioration in engine
performance, which will get progressively worse with increasing operating
time.
Types of engine performance deterioration may be listed underthe following
main headings:
1. Performance deterioration recoverable with cleaning/washing.
2.

Performance deterioration non-recoverable with cleaning/washing.

3. Permanent performance deterioration, which is not recoverable after an

overhaul and the refurbishment of all clearances, replacement of

damaged parts, etc.

Recoverable Deterioration
Normal operation of an engine, even if it is equipped with agoodfilter, results
in the accumulation of dirt, dust, pollen, etc. particles on the compressor
airfoils and gas path surfaces, as well as blockage of the inlet filters (Thames

et al, 1989, Saravanamuttoo and Lakshminarasimha, 1985). These particles,

in addition to soot particles produced in the combustor, can also accumulate

on the flow path surfaces of the turbine. Oil leaks into the compressor inlet
or presence of oily hydrocarbons orother sticky chemicals in the atmosphere
exacerbate the situation. The oil or "oily" substances in the incoming air act
as glue to fix the dirt particles to compressor airfoil and shroud surfaces. In
the back end of the compressor, where the temperatures are high enough,
these "oils" bake on to the surfaces to produce a fairly thick coating. In the
case of a compressor in a gas turbine installed in a paper mill, the paper
fibres plus some "oily" substance present in the atmosphere resulted in a
fairly thick, rough, baked on coating on most of the compressor flow path
surfaces. When crude oil is burned in the gas turbine engine, the hot end is
subjected to additional harmful deposits, including salt deposits originating
in the inlet air or from fuel additives.

The'Youling" of the flow path surfaces, described above, results in varying

degrees of performance deterioration in the different components of the gas
turbine engine, and hence in a decrease in the overall engine performance.
Compressor fouling results in a reduction of inlet mass flow and compressor
efficiency. Hot end fouling results mostly in the reduction in the overall
turbine efficiency and in a reduction in engine firing temperature.
The following methods are used in cleaning the flow path components of gas
turbine engines, without the necessity of engine disassembly:
1. On line dry cleaning of compressors with new catalyst, rice husks, pecan
shells, or some other dry abrasive material.
2. On line (at base load or part power) wash of compressor with water,
water mixed with detergent, or some other suitable fluid, which is
preferably non-toxic, non-flammable, and biodegradable.
3. Soak wash (with the engine not running) with a suitable fluid. This
method is probably the most efficient for cleaning the compressor, and
especially the hot end components, which were coated with deposits as
a result of running on crude oil fuel, without opening up the engine.
The use of appropriate filters will attenuate the rate of fouling, but will not
eliminate it. Smooth airfoil surfaces, or those coated with coatings, which
reduce surface roughness, will be less susceptible to fouling and will give
better response to cleaning or washing.
Icing up of the filter, the inlet cylinder, the inlet guide vanes and the front part
of compressor can have a significant effect on engine performance and
operation. The resulting performance deterioration may be even more
severe and more sudden than that due to "normal" compressor fouling. The
icing phenomenon is temporary, and, assuming it does not result in

compressor damage, will not affect the rate of performance deterioration

with time.
Non-Recoverable with Cleaning/Washing
Even with regular cleaning/washing some surface deposits will remain and
will detract from the performance of the affected component. Any flow path
damage, surface erosion/corrosion, tip and seal clearance increase, cylinder
distortion, etc. will not be affected by cleaning/washing and the resulting

performance deterioration will remain and perhaps get worse with time.
Permanent Performance Deterioration
During an engine overhaul the flow path components are thoroughly
cleaned, damaged parts are replaced or damaged areas "blended out", tip
and seal clearances are restored to "as new" condition, any obvious leakage
paths are sealed up, the pertinent airfoils recoated, etc. These actions
ensure that the engine is restored as closely as possible to the "as new and
clean" condition. After the completion of a major overhaul the engine
performance would theoretically be expected to be as per the initial

Presented at the International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition
Orlando, FL June 3-6, 1991
This paper has been accepted for publication in the Transactions of the ASME
Discussion of it will be accepted at ASME Headquarters until September 30, 1991

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performance acceptance test. However, it is usually the case that the engine
performance is not restored to the "as new" condition because of cylinder
distortion (and hence eccentricity in clearances and increased leakage
paths), increased surface roughness of flow path components (due to
erosion or rust scale deposits on compressor discs and annulus surfaces),
distortion in platforms causing loss of aerodynamic performance and
increased leakage, airfoil untwist, etc. Fortunately, under normal
circumstances the unrecoverable performance deterioration is small.
FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION
Contaminants
Air borne contaminants are listed below:
1. Hard Particles (causing erosion and fouling): dust, dirt, sand, rust, ash,
carbon particles.
2. Soft Particles (causing fouling): oil, unburnt hydrocarbons, soot, air
borne industrial chemicals, fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, pollen,
plant spores, air borne insects, air borne salts.
About 80% of particulate contaminants are below 2m in diameter. If an
evaporative cooler is used, then water borne contaminants, such as dirt and
salts, may be introduced. These may result in fouling and corrosion.
Contaminants affecting the hot end include some of those listed above, plus
fuel borne contaminants, those produced as a result of the combustion
process, contaminants in water or steam injected for NO, control, and any
particles, such as rust scale, etc., introduced through the cooling air system
piping.
Fouling
Fouling is defined as degradation of flow capacity and efficiency caused by
adherence of particular contaminants to the gas turbine engine airfoil and
annulus surfaces. The result of fouling is build up of material which changes
the shape of the airfoil, changes the airfoil inlet angle, increases surface
roughness, and reduces the airfoil throat opening. The end result is reduced
component performance.
Fouling, which can normally be eliminated by cleaning, can occur in both the
compressor and the turbine. Compressor fouling is more common and has
the more serious effect on engine performance. Typically about 70 to 85%
of all gas turbine engine performance loss accumulated during operation is
attributable to compressorfouling. The contaminants that cause compressor
fouling enter the compressor with the inlet air. Those that cause turbine
fouling enterthe turbine with the inlet air, cooling air, fuel, fuel additives, and
water/steam used for NO, control.
All compressors are susceptible to fouling and the degree of fouling, the rate
of fouling, andthe effect on performance depend on the following: compressor
design, compressor airfoil loading, airfoil incidences, airfoil surface
smoothness/coating, type and condition of the air borne contaminants, the
site environment, and the climatic conditions (high humidity increases the
rate of fouling) (Seddigh, Saravanamuttoo, 1990). Compressor fouling not
only reduces the inlet flow and compressor efficiency, but also reduces the
compressor surge margin (Mezheritsky and Sudarev, 1990) and may result
in compressor surge. Turbine fouling will depend on the ability of the
contaminants to reach the turbine and to adhere to the gas path surfaces.
Operation of a gas turbine engine on residual fuel oil, heavy oil, or crude oil
will have a corrosive effect on the hot end gas path components. The
corrosion plus deposits on the flow path surfaces will result in engine
performance deterioration.
Types of Filters
The function of gas turbine inlet filters is to remove particles, such as dirt,
dust, soot, etc., from the compressor inlet flow and prevent compressor
fouling, erosion and corrosion. The three main types of filters are listed
below:
1. Inertial Filter - This is the simplest and least expensive type of filter and
it functions by centrifuging out particles from the inlet flow. The
accumulated dirt is then removed (continuous 5 to 10% bleed). The
velocity in the filter has to be fairly high to make it work. This filter is
effective in removing particles above 20m diameter. Thus, this type of
filter is good in preventing erosion due to the presence of large dust or
dirt particles in the inlet air. But it is not very effective in removing
particles less than 20m in diameter, and hence it is not very efficient in
preventing compressorfouling. Compressor fouling is generally caused
by particles with diameter of 5m or less. The pressure loss inthe inertial
filter is about 1 in. (25 mm) H 2 O, and it does not increase with service.

2. Self-Cleaning Pulse Filter - The system utilizes high efficiency media

filter cartridges, which are sequentially cleaned during normal turbine
operation by pulses of pressurized air. The compressed air jets set up
vibration waves in the cartridges and shake off the dirt, which collects
on the bottom. The inlet air enters the cylindrical cartridges from the
sides and then flows radially outward through a venturi. The 'pulse" air
blows radially downward into the cartridges. As the contaminants build
up on the outside surfaces of the cartridges, the pressure drop across
the cartridges will increase. When the pressure drop reaches a pre-set
limit [usually 1 to 1.5 in. (25 to 37.5 mm) H 2 O above the initial "operating"
pressure drop of about 1 in. (25 mm) H 2 0] the automatic "pulse"
cleaning sequence is activated. The air "pulse" is controlled by a timer/
sequencer, which operates air valves attached to a high pressure air
supply. This is a goodfilterto use when moisture is present in the airand
where icing is likely to occur (the "pulse" knocks off the ice particles as
they are formed). The efficiency of this filter can be quite high.
3. High Efficiency Filter - This filter uses glass fibre filter pads, which must
be replaced when the loss becomes excessive. The engine must be
stopped for filter pad replacement. There are special filters available
which prevent salt migration downstream. The pressure loss with clean
filter pads is about 1 in. (25 mm) H 2 0. This type of filter has the highest
efficiency.
The choice of the most effective inlet filtration system depends on the site
conditions, and may include a combination of the above filtertypes. It should
be pointed out that the cost of even the most expensive inlet filtration system
will be recovered as a result of improved engine performance.
Coatings
There are two main reasons for coating of compressor airfoils with a suitable
coating which results in reduced surface roughness on compressor airfoils.
The first reason is improved performance and the second is corrosion
protection.
On a new engine, due to reduced airfoil surface roughness, the coating of
compressor airfoils will result in an improvement in compressor performance
and hence in output power and heat rate.This is only a part of the
performance benefit resulting from the coating. In environments which have
dust particles, etc. rough blades will foul very quickly. The result is a serious
loss of performance over a period of several days. By washing the compressor
only some of the performance loss is regained. Over a long period of time,
even with repeated washing, the engine performance will have deteriorated
by several per cent. With coated blades the fouling rate is greatly reduced,
the intervals between washes is increased (to at least double of the interval
with uncoated airfoils), the airfoils are easier to clean, and there is no
significant reduction in the "clean" engine performance after many washes
(i.e. there is no decrease in performance after a wash from one wash to the
next). Thus over a long operating period the average performance with
coated compressor airfoils may be 1 to 3% betterthan with uncoated airfoils.
Coating compressor airfoils with a coating such as Sermetel 5380 DP will
result in reduced airfoil surface roughness, in increased protection from
corrosion and perhaps in some protection from erosion.
Cleaning
The objective of cleaning is to restore the gas turbine engine flow path
surfaces as closely as possible to their initial new condition. In installations
where fouling is considered to be a serious problem, the cleaning operation
should be started soon after engine commissioning and continued at regular
intervals. If initiallythe engine is allowedto get massivelyfouled, subsequent
dry cleaning or even on line washing may produce only limited results.
Compressor Cleaning
The following methods are employed to restore the compressor airfoil and
annulus surfaces to the "clean" condition for an engine which is fully
assembled:
1. Manual Cleaning - Hand cleaning of the inlet duct, inlet guide vanes, and
perhaps the first stage compressor blades may be carried out by
accessing these components from the inlet, when the engine is shut
down. This hand cleaning can be quite effective, since the airfoil throat
areas of the front stages have the most influence on the compressor
inlet flow.
2. "Dry" Cleaning - The compressor is cleaned on line by injecting dry
abrasive media, such as new catalyst, crushed pecan nut shells, etc. By
the scouring action of the abrasive particles the deposits attached to the
compressor surfaces are dislodged and blown downstream. There is a
danger that the use of dry abrasive materials may result in erosion of

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airfoil surface coatings and blockage of turbine airfoil cooling holes. Dry
abrasive cleaning is usually not recommended for coated compressor
airfoils. Figure 1 shows the effect of progressive fouling on the mass flow
of an industrial gas turbine, as well as the results of on line dry cleaning
and hand cleaning of the front components of the compressor.
Washing - Water or water mixed with detergents is injected into the
compressor inlet when the engine is on line. The water used in this
operation must be clean and free from such impurities as sulphates,
carbonates and chlorides, which will be deposited as scale in the rear
compressor stages where the airtemperature is above the boiling point.
The contaminants adhering to the compressor surfaces are 'washed"
away or dissolved and removed. Although sometimes the contaminants
removed from the front stages may be deposited on the downstream
stages, this is a very effective cleaning method. Even more effective
method is to soak wash when the engine is shut down.
The selection of the most effective compressor cleaning method (whether
dry cleaning or water/detergent washing or both) depends on the type and
condition of the contamination. Dry cleaning is usually most efficient if the
compressor is fouled by dry hard deposits. Contamination by oil or salt
deposits is best taken care of by washing. Experimentation and good record
keeping may be required to arrive at the optimum cleaning procedure.

Hot End Cleaning

Removing of deposits from the hot end components is more difficult to
accomplish. This is done by injecting water through the existing atomizing
air system when the engine is cold, with the rotor being rotated at about the
ignition speed by the starting device. The injection is followed by shut down
and a soak period. This cycle is repeated and finally followed by a spin to dry
the engine (DeGreef et al, 1978). The effectiveness of the water washing
depends primarily on the duration of the soaking.

Corrosion, Erosion, Damage

Corrosion is the loss of material from flow path components caused by the
chemical reaction between these components and contaminants which
enter the gas turbine with the inlet air, fuel, or injected water/steam. Salts,
mineral acids and reactive gases such as chlorine and sulphur oxides, in
combination with water, can cause wet corrosion, especially of the compressor
airfoils. Coating of compressor airfoils will protect them against wet corrosion
and prevent the resulting performance deterioration. Elements such as
sodium, vanadium and lead, in metallic or compound form, can lead to high
temperature corrosion of turbine airfoils. The result is a loss in both the
service life of turbine components and in engine performance. Even in gas
turbines running on clean gas fuel there will be hot end component surface
oxidation, which will result in the formation of a rough scale and hence
performance deterioration.
Erosion is the abrasive removal of material from the flow path components
by hard particles suspended in the air or gas stream. Particles causing
erosion are usually 20m or more in diameter. The erosion of airfoil surfaces
results in increased surface roughness, changes in the inlet metal angle
(hence change in airfoil incidence), change in airfoil profile, change in airfoil
throat opening, and increase in blade tip and seal clearances. The results of
the above changes are increased losses and therefore a decrease in
performance. Occasionally erosion results in reduced airfoil trailing edge
thicknesses. This may be beneficial to performance, but is unacceptable
from mechanical integrity considerations.
Damage is often caused by large foreign objects striking the flow path
components of the gas turbine engine. These objects enter the engine with
the inlet air or are the result of pieces of the engine itself breaking off and
being carried downstream. Pieces of ice breaking off from the inlet of the
compressor, or large pieces of carbon breaking off from fuel nozzles can also
result in damage to internal components. The resulting damage can lead at
worst to a catastrophic engine failure or at best to non-recoverable (with
cleaning) engine performance deterioration.

Engine Operation and Maintenance Practices

The manner in which the engine is operated will have an effect on the
performance deterioration rate. The starting cycle results in the most severe
hot end thermal gradients experienced during normal engine operation. At
ignition the combustor exit temperature exceeds that during normal operation
for a short time until the control system regulates the fuel and air flows to
lower it. Therefore, the oxidation and corrosion experienced by the hot end
components is most severe during this time and will add to the engine
performance degradation. During the starting cycle the rotor assembly
passes through its critical speeds. The resultant increase in vibration, if the
rotor is not balanced perfectly, will cause blade tip and seal rubs. Also on

start-up, the transient differential expansion rates between the large mass
stationary components and the lighter mass rotor assembly may result in
blade tip and seal rubs. The increased clearances will result in increased
leakage and hence in performance deterioration. Operation at peak rating
will have similar results, as described above, with the exception of rubs due
to running through criticals, and will cause performance deterioration.
Frequent emergency trips from base load will also have a negative effect on
engine performance. Therefore, an engine which is subjected to many
starting and emergency trip cycles and/or is operated for considerable
periods of time at peak rating will experience a, more severe performance
degradation than an engine which is operated at or below base load.
Maintenance practices of a gas turbine engine have a considerable impact
on the rate of engine performance deterioration. The control system must be
properly maintaned to ensure correct fuel scheduling during starting and
normal operation, in order to prevent excessive temperature gradients. The
fuel system and the water/steam injection systems must be maintained
properly to prevent contaminants from getting into the engine. Proper
maintenance of the combustion system is required to ensure low
circumferential and radial temperature gradients. It is very important that the
engine be operated within the specified safe operating envelope. Regular
inspection of the inlet filter system and regular compressor cleaning should
be instituted. Following the correct engine maintenance practices will result
in reduced rate of performance deterioration.

PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION
Inlet
Fouling of high efficiency filters occurs progressively with time. The blockage
of the filter pads results in increased inlet loss and hence in engine
performance deterioration. This performance loss is recovered completely
when new filter pads are installed. The performance deterioration for an
industrial gas turbine engine with increasing inlet loss is shown in Figure 2.
For a 6 in. (150 mm) H 2 O inlet loss increase the engine output power
decreases by about 2.6% and the heat rate increases by about 1%.
Compressor
Some information available from open literature indicates that fouling causing
a 5% reduction in inlet flow will also reduce the compressor efficiency by
about 2.5% (Saravanamuttoo and Lakshminarasimha, 1985). The resulting
decrease in engine power will be about 10%. Usually the fouling trend is
assumed to have a linear characteristic with time. Experimental tests on the
compressor of a small turboprop gas turbine engine indicated that the prime
effect of fouling is on the inlet air flow rather than on compressor efficiency,
and that the reduction in flow varies with operating speed (being higher at
design speed).
Site test data obtained on a large industrial gas turbine indicated that
compressor fouling resulted in a 5% reduction in inlet mass flow and 1.8%
reduction in compressor efficiency. This amount of fouling would reduce the
engine output power by about 7% and increase the heat rate by about 2.5%.
Bleed valve leakage, flange and horizontal joint leakage, and the improper
positioning of the inlet guide vanes will have a deleterious effect on the
compressor performance. The compressor control bleed valves have a
tendency to bind in the open position orto leak during full load operation. The
latter is the more likely occurrence, which will get progressively worse with
time and result in a performance penalty. The improper stagger of the inlet
guide vanes will also result in a decrease in compressor performance.
The performance deterioration due to "nicks", tip and seal rubs, erosion,
damage, etc., may be significant in some cases, but usually it is considerably
less than that due to compressor fouling. It should be pointed out that
compressorfouling and other compressor performance deterioration causes
have no effect on engine firing temperature.
Hot End
Under "hot end" are included: combustion system, turbine, and exhaust
diffuser. The combustion system is not likely to be the direct cause of
performance deterioration with time. Irrespective of the fuel used (whether
natural gas, distillate oil, or even crude oil) and even if the fuel nozzles are
coated with carbon deposits, the combustion efficiency will not decrease.
However, carbon deposits breaking off from the nozzles and soot produced
as a result of incomplete fuel burning will result in performance deterioration.
Also, changes in the combustor outlet Pattern Factor may result in a
temporary or a permanent deformation of downstream components, which
in turn will result in performance deterioration. Hot end cylinder warping,
which will increase with time, may result in flange and horizontal joint
leakage, and hence in performance deterioration.

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Fouling of the turbine airfoils and annulus, surface erosion, "nicks" and
deformation, blade tip and seal land rubs, and increased leakage and
cooling flows will result in performance deterioration. Experiments carried
out on a multi-stage axial turbine showed that both reduction in airfoil profile
thickness (as caused by erosion) and increase in airfoil profile thickness
(resulting from surface deposits) result in a significant performance reduction
(Bammert and Stobbe, 1970). Any changes in the exhaust diffuser
performance can be included in the overall turbine efficiency changes. A
decrease of 1% in the overall turbine efficiency in an engine such as the
CW251 B12 will result in about 2.5% decrease in output power and a similar
increase in heat rate. In addition, because of a decrease in the turbine
temperature drop, the engine will be underfired by about 12F (6.7C) (note
that the engine is controlled to a specified exhaust temperature). This will
result in a further 1.2% decrease in output power and about .2`/o increase in
heat rate. Thus the cumulative result of a 1% decrease in turbine efficiency
with time is about 3.7% decrease in output power and about 2.8% increase
in heat rate.

measurement. When the compressor is fouled the inlet mass flow is

reduced, and as a result the engine matches at a lower pressure ratio.
Therefore, the amount of compressor fouling can be deduced at any
time by comparing the actual site combustor shell pressure to the
expected pressure if the compressor were clean. One complication is
that the combustor shell pressure varies with barometric pressure, inlet
loss, compressor inlet temperature, and output power (assuming
operation not at base load). If the assumption is made that the engine
is operated at base load and that the inlet loss and barometric pressure
variations are small, then the expected or "clean" combustor shell
pressure variation with inlet temperature is a unique line (a typical curve
is shown on Figure 3 for an engine at sea level on natural gas fuel). To
check for fouling at any time, the site measured combustor shell
pressure can then be plotted on this curve. If the point is below the line,
then the compressor is assumed to be fouled. Each percentage point
that the actual pressure is below the line corresponds to one per cent
reduction in inlet flow.

Gearbox, Generator, Auxiliaries, Exhaust System

Measurement of Inlet Cylinder Depression - The measurement of the

inlet cylinder depression with the aid of a manometer gives an indication
of inlet flow. The compressor inlet cylinder acts like an accelerating flow
nozzle, sincethere is a continuous reduction in area from the inlet flange
to the inlet guide vane inlet plane. Therefore, there will be a large
difference in the static pressures measured at the inlet flange and the
inlet guide vane inlet plane. As in a nozzle, the ratio of the static pressure
difference measured at the two planes divided by the pressure at inlet
is independent of the pressure loss upstream of the measurement plane
fora given volume flow. A change in the inlet cylinder pressure ratio will
result only from obstructions within the compressor itself, and hence can
be used to detect compressor fouling.

The components included under this heading will also suffer performance
deterioration with time and as a result will affect the overall engine
performance. It is more difficult to detect the performance losses in these
components or to predict their rate of increase with time. The exception is
the exhaust system loss. The increase in exhaust loss can be measured and
steps can be taken to remedy the situation if the loss becomes excessive.
Figure 2 shows the effect of exhaust loss increase on the CW251 B12 engine
performance. It should be noted that an increase in exhaust loss will result
in a reduction in the firing temperature and hence a further reduction in

engine performance. Thus a 6 in. (150 mm) H 2 O increase in exhaust loss will

result in about 4.2F (2.3C) decrease in the firing temperature. Hence the
total engine performance deterioration will be a 1.4% decrease in power and
1.1% increase in heat rate.
Overall Plant

The overall plant performance deterioration is the result of the combined

effect of all of the performance shortfalls of the individual components
described previously. Past experience with gas turbines has shown that
after 3000 operating hours the output power loss can be as high as 20%
under unfavorable conditions and as low as 2% under the most favorable

conditions (Scheperet al, 1978). For instance, a 2 in. (50 mm) H 2 O increase
in inlet loss, a 5% decrease in inlet mass flow, a 1.8% decrease in
compressor efficiency, and a .5% decrease in turbine efficiency, will result
in a 10% decrease in output power and a 4.2% increase in heat rate.

The control system can also affect the perceived performance deterioration.
If the control system is not properly adjusted, the engine may be operated
belowthe desired base load setting. Thiswill lead to decreased output power
and higher heat rate.

METHODS OF DETECTION OF FOULING/PERFORMANCE

DETERIORATION
Detection of the extent of compressor fouling or engine performance
deterioration is necessary before the appropriate actions can be taken to
restore the performance shortfall. A side benefit of monitoring the compressor
fouling or engine performance is the early detection of potential engine
mechanical problems, and their resolution before the occurrence of a
catastrophic engine failure.
Economic considerations may enter into the determination of compressor
cleaning frequency. On line washing usually requires running the engine at
part load, while soak washing necessitates shutting down the engine for a
considerable period of time. In both cases there is a loss in power, and hence
in revenue. Therefore, washing more frequently than required is a wasteful
procedure. However, if compressor washing is delayed too long, the
resulting performance deterioration will also cause a loss in revenue. Thus
it is important to be able to detect compressor fouling and to institute an
optimum compressor washing frequency. The optimum will depend on the
particular situation at each installation. As a general recommendation, the
compressor should be cleaned/washed when the estimated mass flow
decrease reaches the 2 to 3% level.

Compressor Fouling
Compressor fouling, and hence engine performance deterioration, can be
detected using the following methods:
1. Change in Combustion Shell Pressure - The combustion shell pressure
is one of the parameters used by the control system to maintain the
engine at base load. Therefore, it is a readily available and accurate

Assuming that a proper inlet cylinder flow calibration curve is not

available, a plot of the static pressure ratio versus the non-dimensional

compressor speed (N /T where 0 is as defined on Figure 4) is produced

when the compressor is "new and clean". In order to get a large enough
variation of inlet speed, the data may have to be recorded over a length
of time, in which there is a significant ambient temperature variation. The
inlet cylinder static pressure ratio obtained at any time in the future is
then plotted on this graph. If the new points fall below the "clean" curve,
then the compressor is fouled. The reduction in compressor inlet flow is
proportional to the square root of the reduction in the inlet cylinder static
pressure ratio.
3. Inlet Scroll Calibration Curve - The compressor inlet scroll calibration
curve is obtained during a shop test of the engine when accurate
measurements are made of the inlet flow and the static pressures at the
compressor inlet flange and just upstream of the inlet guide vanes.
Figure 5 shows a typical inlet scroll calibration curve, which is the nondimensional inlet mass flow plotted versus the inlet cylinder static
pressure ratio. Occasionally there is an inconsistency between shop
and site inlet flow measurements, even when the compressor is "new

and clean", I. e. there is a difference in the inlet flow, for the same N /T,

between shop and site. This may be explained by the differences in the
inlet ducting, pressure tap, and pressure line installations between shop
and site. To be on the safe side, a new "clean" curve should be obtained
from the site data as follows: As soon as possible after engine
commissioning, when the compressor is clean, data points should be
obtained over a wide ambient temperature range. With the compressor
pressure ratio and non-dimensional speed determined from site data
obtain the expected non-dimensional inlet massflowfrom the compressor
map (see Figure 6, derived from shop tests) at the different ambient
temperature base load operating conditions. Then plot the nondimensional inlet mass flow versus the site measured inlet cylinder
pressure ratio. A smooth curve should be drawn through these points
parallel to the original shop inlet scroll calibration curve. Then, as the
engine operating hours increase, with the site measured inlet cylinder
pressure ratio the inlet mass flow is read from the calibration curve
(preferably the one established at site). This mass flow is then compared
to the "clean" compressor mass flow from Figure 6 to determine the
amount of compressor fouling that has occurred.
With the aid of the shop test derived compressor map it is also possible to
determine the amount of compressor efficiency decrease that has taken
place with operating time. A graph showing the base load compressor
efficiency variation versus non-dimensional speed can be used for this
purpose (see Figure 7). The compressor efficiency may be estimated
approximately from the overall pressure ratio (combustion shell pressure
divided by the ambient pressure, or preferably the compressor inlet pressure)

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and the compressor temperature rise from inlet to the combustor shell. The
compressor efficiency estimated in this manner will be lower than the actual
one because of the probable inclusion of inlet duct loss, inaccurate compressor
exit pressure, and temperature pick-up across the combustoroutlet transition
ducts. However, as with the compressor inlet mass flow, efficiency data can
be collected when the compressor is "new and clean" and can subsequently
be used for comparison when compressor fouling has occurred.

Engine Performance
The extent of compressorfouling and the otherdeleterioug effects that occur
in an engine with increasing operating time can be determined by periodically
monitoring the engine output power and comparing it to the expected value,
orto the value when the enginewas "new and clean". Thistype of monitoring
is more complicated than just detecting compressor fouling. The simplicity
or complication may range from the measurement of just a few key
performance parameters to a full blown on line health monitoring system. To
detect the power shortfall some or most of the following parameters must be
measured: output power, auxiliary power, power factor, speed, inlet
temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure, exhaust temperature,
combustor shell pressure, inlet loss, exhaust loss, water/steam injection
rate, and instrumentation bleed air, if any. With the above information and
with the aid of the correction curves for the deviation of site conditions from
the standard or guarantee power the site output power is corrected to
standard conditions and compared to the "clean"engine power. The amount
of the power shortfall from the expected value will indicate the extent of
compressor fouling or other problems causing performance deterioration.
A further complication could be introduced by measuring fuel flow, fuel
temperature, fuel Lower Heating Value, etc., so as to be able to determine
the engine heat rate and compare it to the "clean" value. For this exercise
similar correction curves, as described above, will have to be used.

COST OF FOULING/PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION

There is a significant cost to the gas turbine engine operator associated with
fouling and the resulting performance deterioration. To make an approximate
estimate of the cost the following assumptions are made:
1. Simple Cycle CW251B12 Econopac Engine, on natural gas fuel, no
injection.
2.

Net Output Power = 46,500 KW

The above are average yearly values.
Engine on base load operation for 8,000 hours per year.

4.

Cost of electricity is $.04/KW.HR .

In orderto even make an attempt at the prediction of performance deterioration

some ground rules or assumptions must be made. In the prediction of the
likely engine performance deterioration with time the following assumptions
were made:
1. Types of fuel used: (a) Natural Gas, (b) Distillate Oil, and (c) Heavy or
Crude Oil.
2. Clean environment.
3. The engine will start its service life at time zero in the "new and clean"
condition with zero performance shortfall.
4. Continuous base load operation for three years (24,000 hours or
equivalent service hours) before a major overhaul. During the overhaul
the engine is refurbished to almost "as new" condition, i.e. tip and seal
clearances restored, damaged parts removed, "nicks" blended out, flow
path surfaces cleaned, etc.

Proper operating and maintenance procedures.

7. Effective and regular cleaning/washing of the compressor over the

operating period.

Improper cleaning, maintenance, etc. will result in an average yearly

decrease in power of 3% and increase in heat rate of 1%.

The resulting yearly power shortfall = .03 x 46500 x 8000 = 11.2 x10

At one installation site test data indicated that up to 8% power loss occurred
over a two week period. Most of this power shortfall could be recovered by
cleaning the compressor with new catalyst. At another installation, after
incorporation of coated compressor airfoils, the fouling rate was reduced
considerably and on line washing of the compressor recovered all of the
power shortfall. At a third installation, after six months of continuous
operation without compressor cleaning, the engine experienced a 4.3% loss
in power. A series of on line, at reduced load, water washes recovered all
but .5% of the power shortfall. It should be pointed out that this engine had
a good inlet filtration system and coated compressor stator airfoils.

6.

5. Cost of natural gas fuel is $2/MBTU

6.

The exact degree of performance deterioration occurring with service time

is impossible to predict accurately due to the large number of previously
described variables. The amount of actual field test performance data that
has been published on gas turbine engine performance deterioration with
time is very limited. Some approximate published data (DeGreef et al, 1978)
and some in-house test results are available.

5. Good filtration system used, clean operating environment (no oil leaks,
no corrosive chemicals, no sand), no major foreign object damage,
coated compressor airfoils.

Net Heat Rate = 10,550 BTU/KW.HR .

3.

service hours and what constitutes excessive fouling or performace

deterioration rate which may require urgent remedial action. The vendor
maybe required to guarantee engine performance over a specified number
of operating hours and will require a realistic prediction of the performance
deterioration rate.

KW.HR .

The cost of the power shortfall = 11.2 x 10 6 x .04 = $446,400.

The resulting yearly excess fuel flow = .01 x 10550 x
(1-.03) x 46500 x 8000 = 38.07 x 10 9 BTU.
The cost of the excess fuel = 2 x 38.07 x 10 9 /10 6 = $ 76,140.
The total yearly cost of the assumed average performance deterioration is
$522,500.
Over the three year operating period between major overhauls the total cost
will be about 1.5 million dollars.
In the case of a combined cycle application there will be an additional cost
due to reduced steam production in the waste heat boiler. Although
compressor fouling results in an increase in exhaust temperature (at the
same ambient temperature), the reduced exhaust flow has a greater
negative effect. Thus the net effect is reduced steam production as a result
of compressor fouling.

PREDICTION OF PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION WITH TIME

There are several reasons why the prediction of performance deterioration
with time is required. At the negotiation stage the prospective customer may
request this information so as to be able to carry out a long term economic
benefit analysis on the engine. A user of the engine may wish to know what
is a reasonable performance deterioration after a specified number of

Based on the above assumptions, the previously described engine

component performance deteriorations, and some actual field test data, the
overall engine performance deterioration with time can be estimated very
approximately. The assumed shape of the typical performance deterioration
versus service hours curve is shown on Figure 8. This curve shows results
of frequent compressorcleaning and also the non-recoverable, with cleaning,
performance deterioration line. It should be pointed out that the nonrecoverable with cleaning performance deterioration will apply equally to
power and heat rate. This can be explained by the fact that once the effect
of compressor fouling (which has a more significant influence on airflow and
hence power, than on compressor efficiency and heat rate) has been
removed then the degradation of power and heat rate will be approximately
similar.
In predicting performance deterioration with time the following scenario is
assumed: that the engine has been manufactured correctly and does not
have any hidden problems waiting to happen, iswell maintained, isproperly
operated, does not experience overtemperaturing during starts, is not
subjected to an excessive number of trips from full load, and is cleaned
regularly (when the power loss reaches 2 to 3%) over the entire operating
period. Although this scenario may be described as optimistic, it is not
impossible to achieve in practice if all of the recommendations listed below
are adhered to. In this case, after the three years of operation the
permanent performance deterioration (after cleaning) is 1.25% on natural
gas fuel, 1.75% on distillate oil fuel, and 3% on crude or residual oil fuel.
Note that the performance deterioration percentages apply to both output
power and heat rate, as was explained previously. After a major overhaul
and complete refurbishing of the flow path parts, the permanent performance
shortfall will be almost eliminated. The remaining unrecovered performance
shortfall will be .25% for both natural gas and distillate oil fuels, and .5% for

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crude or residual oil fuel. The residual performance decrement is higher for
crude/residual oil fuel because of the more severe deleterious effect of
these fuels on the hot end, compared to natural gas or distillate oil. Figure
9 shows the typical performance deterioration (non recoverable with
frequent cleaning) with operating time for the three cases. After the
overhaul the engine performance deterioration will experience a similar
rate as when it was new, that is the shape of the curve will be the same as
in the first 24,000 operating hours, but its starting point will be the residual
performance decrement.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the considerations described in this report the following
recommendations are made to obtain minimum engine performance
deterioration rate and to achieve optimum engine performance over its
entire service life:
1. To retard the rate of compressor fouling the engine site installation
should incorporate the optimum inlet filtration system for the particular
site environmental conditions.
2. Smooth and/or coated compressor, and if possible turbine, airfoils
should be used.
3. Clean fuels and injected steam/water should be used.
4. The official site performance acceptance test should be carried out
immediately after engine commissioning and initial synchronization in
order to obtain reliable "bench mark" engine performance and health
monitoring type of information when the engine is in the "new and clean"
condition.
5. Engine performance deterioration and compressor fouling should be
monitored regularly and recorded.
6. Appropriate and regular compressor, and if necessary turbine, cleaning
procedure should be used.
7. Good operating and maintenance procedures should be employed.
8. The control system should be carefully monitored and adjusted as
requiredto eliminate possibilityof overtemperaturingon starts, operation
above base load firing temperature for prolonged periods, and spurious
engine trips.
9. Any required remedial actions as regards engine performance or
mechanical integrity should be executed promptly.
10. During a major overhaul the engine should be restored as closely as
possible to its original "new and clean" condition.

CONCLUSIONS
1. The most important factors affecting industrial gas turbine engine
performance deterioration with time were discussed.
2.

Methods of monitoring and preventing performance deterioration were

outlined.

3. Estimates of the cost of performance deterioration were presented.

4. Approximate engine performance deterioration rates with operating
time were proposed.
5. Recommendations were made on how to keep industrial gas turbine
engine performance deterioration to a minimum.
REFERENCES
1. A. W. J. Upton, "Axial Flow Compressor and Turbine Blade Fouling:
Some Causes, Effects and Cleaning Methods", First Symposium on
Gas Turbine Operations and Maintenance, National Research Council
of Canada, October 1974.
2.

J. L. DeGreef, P. Maes, K. W. Johnson, "Operating Experience on

Residual Fuel Oil with a W251 Combustion Turbine," ASME Paper No.
78-GT-104, April, 1978.

3.

K. Bammert, G. U. Woelk, "The Influence of the Blading Surface

Roughness on the Aerodynamic Behaviour and Characteristic of an
Axial Compressor", Journal of Engineering for Power, Vol. 102, April
1980.

4.

K. Bammert, H. Stobe, "Results of Experiments for Determining the

Influence of Blade Profile Changes and Manufacturing Tolerances on
Efficiency, the Enthalpy Drop, and the Mass Flow of Multi-Stage Axial
Turbines", ASME Paper No. 70-WA/GT-4, November 1970.

5. G. L. Haub, W. E. Hauhe, "Field Evaluation of On-Line Compressor

Cleaning in Heavy Duty Industrial Gas Turbines", ASME Paper No. 90GT-107, June 1990.
6. J. M. Thames, J. W. Stegmaier, J. J. Ford, "On-Line Washing Practices
and Benefits", ASME Paper No. 89-GT-91, June 1989.
7. H. I. H. Saravanamuttoo, A. N. Lakshminarasimha, "A Preliminary
Assessment of Compressor Fouling," ASME Paper No. 85-GT-153,
March, 1985.
8. F. Seddigh, H. I. H. Saravanamuttoo, "A Proposed Method for Assessing
the Susceptibility of Axial Compressors to Fouling", ASME Paper No.
90-GT-348, June 1990.
9. A. D. Mezheritsky, A. V. Sudarev, "The Mechanism of Fouling and the
Cleaning Technique in Application to Flow Parts of the Power Generation
Plant Compressors", ASME Paper No. 90-GT-103, June 1990.
10. G. W. Scheper, et al, "Maintaining Gas Turbine Compressors for High
Efficiency," Power Engineering, August, 1978.

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.28

1.05

26

S
S
.95

AVERAGE
FOULING

.24

90

UNFOULDED
COMPRESSOR

CLEANED
ON
LINE

SHUTDOWN
HAND
CLEANED

CLEANED
ON
LINE

.85

.22

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

DAYS
.20

FIGURE 1 -RELATIVE MASS FLOW VARIATION

WITH TIME

.18
N = ROTATIONAL SPEED, RPM

1.05

INLET LOSSES

0
H
U

LL

ULU

8 = Tw R x GAS CONSTANT
540xGAS CONSTANT

.16
HEAT RATE

5000

1.0

5200

5400
N

EXHAUST FLOW

cr

5800

5600

6000

RPM

FIGURE 4 - INLET CYLINDER STATIC PRESSURE

RATIO vs NON-DIMENSIONAL SPEED

POWER

0
U

/J,

0.95

1.05
0
F
U

LIw

LL

Q to
H
0

D=
0
U

0.95
15

10

0
C

20

EXCESS LOSSES - INCHES OF WATER

FIGURE 2 - CORRECTION FACTOR CURVES FOR

INLET AND EXHAUST DUCT LOSSES
_ .08

.10

.12

.14

.16

.18

.20

.22

.24

STATIC PRESSURE RATIO

240

FIGURE 5 - TYPICAL INLET SCROLL CALIBRATION

CURVE

220
S
a
200
10

m
w
a
w

180

I
N
0=

I-

160
0

O
U

140
-20

20

40

60

80

100

120

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE. F

FIGURE 3 COMBUSTOR SHELL PRESSURE vs

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
7

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26

90

88

>: 86

0
z
W

U
UU-

Ui

84

0
LU
LU
w
Q
a

DISTILLATE OIL FUEL

p 82
0

AFTER OVERHAUL

80

78
5,000

5,200

5,600

5,400

5,800

6,000

NATURAL GAS FUEL

RPM

FIGURE 7 COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY vs

REFERRED SPEED

AFTER OVERHAUL
00

10

15

20

a
25

SERVICE HOURS, THOUSANDS

I^

w
w

C)
w
0
w

0
Uw
w
B-

II II

I
I i

FOULDED

/ I I

COMPRESSOR
EFFECT OF
CLEANING/
WASHING

FIGURE 9 PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION WITH

SERVICE HOURS, NON-RECOVERABLE
WITH PROPER CLEANING

BEFORE
OVERHAUL
AFTER
OVERHAUL

NON-RECOVERABLE WITH
CLEANING/WASHING

MAJOR

OVERHAUL

SERVICE HOURS

FIGURE 8 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE

DETERIORATION

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