Advances in Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics

June 2nd 6th, 2014,

Aalto University,
Espoo, Finland
given by

Prof. Darrell Socie

University of Illinois, USA

Prof. Grzegorz Glinka

University of Waterloo, Canada

2014 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Bibliography
1. Bannantine, J., Corner, Handrock, Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue Analysis, Prentice-Hall,
1990.... (good general reference)
2. Dowling, N., Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, Prentice Hall, 2011, 3rd edition
(middle chapters are a great overview of most recent approaches to fatigue analysis),
3. Stephens, R.I., Fatemi, A., Stephens, A.A., Fuchs, H.O., Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John
Wiley, 2001.... (good general reference),
4. M. Janssen, J. Zudeima, R.J.H. Wanhill, Fracture Mechanics, VSSD, The Netherlands, 2006
(understandable, rigorous, mechanics perspective),
5. Socie, D.F., and Marquis, G.B., Multiaxial Fatigue, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
Warrendale, PA, 2000
5. Haibach, E., Betriebsfestigkeit, VDI Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1989 (in German).
6. Bathias, C., and Pineau, A., Fatigue des Materiaux et des Structures, Hermes, Paris, 2008 (in
French and English),
7. Radaj, D., Design and Analysis of Fatigue Resistant Structures, Halsted Press, 1990,
(Complete, civil and automotive engineering analysis perspective),
8. V.A. Ryakhin and G.N. Moshkarev, Durability and Stability of Welded Structures in Earth Moving
Machinery, Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1984 (in Russian, cranes and earth moving machinery),
9. A. Chattopadhyay, G. Glinka, M. El-Zein, J. Qian and R. Formas, Stress Analysis and Fatigue of
Welded Structures, Welding in the World, (IIW), vol. 55, No. 7-8, 2011, pp. 2-21.
2014 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Mechanical Engineer yesterday and today

Slide ruler

1-2 operation/min.
Before yesterday
2011 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Calculator

1-10 operation/min.
Yesterday
3

Computer PC/laptop

10? operation/min.
Today

DAY 1

Contemporary Fatigue Analysis

Methods
(basics concepts and assumptions)

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Information Path for Strength and Fatigue Life Analysis

Material
Properties

Component
Geometry

Stress-Strain
Analysis

Damage Analysis

Fatigue Life

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Loading
History

Stress Parameters Used in Fatigue Analyses

Sn net nominal stress; S gross nominal stress
e
peak

local linear-elastic notch-tip stress

a
peak

local actual elastic-plastic notch-tip stress

e
peak

Kt =

K stress intensity factor

a Y

/Sn stress concentration factor

S

e
peak

Sn

K
2 a

peak

e
peak

a
peak

crack

Sn

y
0

a
dn

dn
T

a)
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

c)

b)
6

What stress parameter is needed for the Fracture

Mechanics based (da/dN- K) fatigue analysis?
S
Stress (x)

The Stress Intensity Factor K characterizing

the stress field in the crack tip region is
needed!

K
2 x

The K factor can be obtained from:

x
0

a
T

S
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

- ready made Handbook solutions (easy to use

but often inadequate in practice)

- from the near crack tip stress (x)

distribution or the displacement data obtained
from FE analysis of a cracked body (tedious)
- from the weight function by using the FE
stress analysis data of un-cracked body
(versatile and suitable for FCG analysis)

Loads and stresses in a structure

Load F

peak
n

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

The Most Popular Methods for

Fatigue Life Analysis - outlines
Stress-Life Method or the S - N approach;
uses the nominal or simple engineering stress S to
quantify fatigue damage
Strain-Life Method or the - N approach;
uses the local notch tip strains and stresses to quantify
the fatigue damage
Fracture Mechanics or the da/dN - K approach;
uses the stress intensity factor to quatify the fatigue
crack growth rate

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Information path for fatigue life estimation based on

the S-N method
GEOMETRY, Kf

LOADING

MATERIAL

F
E
PSO

Stress-Strain
Analysis
MATERIAL
n

Damage Analysis

A
D
F

No

Fatigue Life

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

10

The Similitude Concept in the S-N Method

a) Structure

H
F

n/2

or

hs/2

Stress amplitude,

K5

K0
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
0

Number of cycles, N

The Similitude Concept states that if the nominal stress histories in the structure and in the test
specimen are the same, then the fatigue response in each case will also be the same and can be
described by the generic S-N curve. It is assumed that such an approach accounts also for the stress
concentration, loading sequence effects, manufacturing etc.

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

11

Steps in Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based on the

S-N Approach
a) Structure

The S N method
b) Component

H
Q

e) Standard S-N curves

hs/2

c) Section with welded joint

Weld

n/2

or

d) Standard welded joints

Stress amplitude,

P
V

K0
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
Number of cycles, N

5
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

12

Steps in Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based

on the S-N Approach (continued)
h)

Stress,

f)

K5

Stress

g)
3

Fatigue damage:

D1

1
N1

D2

1
N2

D3

1
N3

D4

1
N4

D5

1
N5

m5
1

C5
m5
2

C5
m5
3

C5
m5
4

C5
m5
5

C5

i) Total damage:
1

D
t

D1

D2

D3

D4

D5 ;

j) Fatigue life: N blck=1/D

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13

The linear hypothesis of Fatigue Damage Accumulation

(the Miner rule)

m
i) =

A or Ni=A/(

Stress range,

Ni(

m
i)

N5

N1 N4 N2

nR

N3 N0

Cycles

D1

D2

1
N1

1
N2

m
1

; D4

A
m
2

; D5

LR

N4
1

1
D

0; D3

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1 N1

1 N2

D1

D2

D3

D4

D5

i 1
m

1
N3

Di

;
3

1
1 N3

14

N1

N2

N3

N4

N5

if D

1 N4

1 N5

Failure !!

; Nf

LR nR

The FALSN fatigue life estimation software Typical input and output data

Weldment

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15

The scatter in fatigue:Fatigue S-N curves for assigned probability

of failure; P-S-N curves
S45 Steel tempered
at 600o C (W1)

Stress amplitude Sa [N/mm2]

500

f(N)

450

A N

P=99%
P=90%
f(S)

P=50%

P=10%

6
48

P=1%

400

Probability of failure
P(%)

105
(source: S. Nishijima, ref. 39)
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

106
Number of cycles N
16

107

108

Probabilistic fatigue life assessment

LOADING

STRUCTURAL COMPONENT

MATERIAL
S

Rw

PWL
No

t
fR

fK

fS

Smax

Kf

SAMPLING A SET OF RANDOM DATA

COMPUTING of Tj

j<L
T
N
Failure probability calculation
Pf = P[T(X) T r]:

Pf

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

L f (T
L

17

Tr )

Rw

Characteristic regions of cumulative

probability of the fatigue life distribution

Un-satisfactory

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Most
frequent

18

Over designed

Information path for fatigue life

estimation based on the -N method
GEOMETRY, Kf

LOADING

MATERIAL

F
E

PSO

Stress-Strain
Analysis
MATERIAL

Damage Analysis
2Nf

Fatigue Life
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

19

 N Method

/2)

The Similitude Concept in the

a) Specimen

'
f

x
peak

peak

log (

2N f

l)

j)
'
f

2N f c

y
z

peak

log
(2Nf)

b) Notched component

The Similitude Concept states that if

the local notch-tip strain history in the
notch tip and the strain history in the
test specimen are the same, then the
fatigue response in the notch tip region
and in the specimen will also be the
same and can be described by the
material strain-life ( -N) curve.

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

20

Steps in fatigue life prediction procedure based on

the - N approach
a) Structure

peak

hs
n
peak

hs

b) Component

d)

c) Section with welded joint

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

21

f)
peak

e)

1'

1
3

5
7

1
n'

tt

0
2

K'

6
4

1,1'
7,7'

5,5'
3

'
f

'
f

'
f

'
f

N f ?,?

8
2,2'

/2)

'
f

peak

Neuber :

'
f

'
f

log (

Fatigue damage:

2N f

'
f

2N f

1
; D2
N1

D1

1
; D3
N2

1
; D4
N3

1
;
N4

Total damage:
f/E

D1

D2

D3

D4 ;

e/E
p

e=

2N

Fatigue life: N blck=1/D

log(2Nf)

2Ne

(continued). Steps in fatigue life prediction procedure based on the -N approach

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

22

 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

23

 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

24

 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

25

Three basic sets of input data for the evaluation of the Fatigue Crack
Initiation Life and Reliability (the N approach)
LOADING

COMPONENT

MATERIAL

K5

,
f

K'

,
f

2N

f(Kt)

f(k)

Scaling factor

fM1

SCF

fM3

Kt
fM2

SAMPLING: k , Kt ,

, f' , K

LIFE CALCULATION: T i

i <L
Y
N

Computing of failure probabilities

Pf

P T X

f(T)

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

Tr

L f (T
L

Tr )

R(T) = 1 - F(T)

26

Probability of failure
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

27

Information path for fatigue life estimation based on

the da/dN- K method
GEOMETRY, Kt

LOADING

MATERIAL

F
E
PSO

Stress-Strain
Analysis
MATERIAL

Damage Analysis

da
dN

Kth

Fatigue Life
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

28

The Similitude Concept in the da/dN K Method

10-6

Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle

a) Structure
H
Q

b) Weld detail

P
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

10-9
10-10
10-11

10

100

K,MPa m

c) Specimen

10-8

10-12

K
a

10-7

The Similitude Concept states that if the stress

intensity K for a crack in the actual component
and in the test specimen are the same, then the
fatigue crack growth response in the component
and in the specimen will also be the same and
can be described by the material fatigue crack
growth curve da/dN - K.
29

Steps in the Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based

on the da/dN- K Approach
e)

c) Section with welded joint

Weld

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

d)

30

S5

S4

S2

S3

S1

b) Component

Stress, S

a) Structure

Steps in Fatigue Life Prediction Procedure Based on the

da/dN- K Approach (contd)
i)

Stress intensity factor, K

(indirect method)

(x, y)

Weight function, m(x,y)

K

x, y m x, y dxdy
A

Crack depth, a

af
f)

Fatigue Life

ai

Stress intensity factor, K

(direct method)

Number of cycles , N

g)
a

KI

2 xFE

yFE

h)

Integration of Paris equation

or
K

dU
da

31

Ki

a0

ai
i 1

N
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

af

EG

ai

Ni

Ni

 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

32

 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

33

 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

34

Probabilistic analysis using MC simulation

LOADING

MATERIAL

STRUCTURAL COMPONENT
da

dN

PWL
Kth

t
fS

fa

Smax

fC

fK

Kt

Kth

Kth

Kc

KIc

fKth

SAMPLING RANDOM VARIABLES

CALCULATION of Tj

fKc

j<L
Yes
No
Failure probability calculation
Pf = P[T(X) Tr]:

Pf

L f (T Tr )
L

The FALPR statistical simulation flow chart for the analysis of fatigue crack growth
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

35

Irregular geometrical shape of a real fatigue crack

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

36

Welded Joint with Load = 4000 lb (ai/ci=0.286)

300000

Fatigue life N f (Cycle)

250000

Exp. (Specimen #11)

Exp. (Specimen #12)
Exp. (Specimen #14)
Exp. (Specimen #15)
Exp. (Specimen #16)
Exp. (Specimen #17)
Exp. (Specimen #18)
Pre. Life (Loc. 1) No Rs
Pre. Life (Loc. 1) With Rs

200000

150000

100000

50000

0
0

0.5

1.5

Crack Length 2c (in)

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

37

2.5

Global and Local Approaches to Stress

Analysis and Fatigue

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

38

Stress state near the notch tip (on the symmetry line)
22

23

21

a=
a=

0
32

12

a=0
a
11
31

33

a=

13

3
a
11
a
ij

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

39

0
0

0
a
22

0
0
a
33

Stress state in the disk at the blade-disk interface

22

23

21

a=
a=

2
32

12

a
11 =

1
31
33

a=

13

3
a
11
a
ij

0
0

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

40

0
a
22
a
32

0
a
23
a
33

Stresses concentration in axis-symmetric notched body

F

22

2
peak

22

22

F
Anet

33

and

A, B
11

A
22

D
11

F
33

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

peak

3
22

41

Kt

Stresses concentration in a prismatic notched body

22

F
A, B, C

22

22

D
11

and

n
11

A
22

E
3

F
33

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

F
Anet

peak

42

33

peak

Kt

How to get the nominal stress from the Finite

Element Method stress data?
r

The smallest optimum element

size < r !!

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

43

Loads and stresses in a structure

Fi

t
Fi-1

Fi+1

peak, i

f Fi

f F

n, i

g Fi

g F

pea
k

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

44

Loads and Stresses

The load, the nominal stress, the local peak stress and the stress concentration factor
Axial load linear elastic analysis

Stress

F
peak

F
;
Anet

kF F ;

n
peak

Analytical, FEM

kF

dn
T

n, i

1 ;
Anet

hF

kF Fi ;

peak , i

F
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

hF F ;

45

peak

hF Fi ;

Hndbk

hF

kF K t ;

Loads and Stresses

The load, the nominal stress, the local peak stress and the stress concentration factor

Stress

peak

Bending load linear elastic analysis

M cnet
;
Inet

kM M ;

n
y
0

dn

b)

kM

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

cnet
;
I net

peak ,i

hM M i or

46

n,i

kM M i ;
peak ,i

k M M i K tb

Stress Concentration Factors in Fatigue Analysis

The nominal stress and the stress concentration factor in simple load/geometry configurations
Simple axial load

Bending

Tension

P
or S
Anet

P
Agross

Stress

Stress

Pure bending load

peak

M cnet
or S
I net

peak

n
y

peak

Kt

dn

net Kt

dn

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

or K t

peak

gross Kt

Kt stress concentration factor

(net or gross, net Kt gross Kt !! )
peak

S
S

I gross

M c gross

n-

stress at the notch tip

net nominal stress

S - gross nominal stress

47

Stress concentration factors for notched machine components

Stress concentration factor Kt=

peak/

3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8

1.6
h
1.4

peak
n =P/[(b-d)h]

1.2
1.0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Diameter-to-width ratio

0.4

0.5

0.6

d/b
(B.J. Hamrock et. al., ref.(26)

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

48

Stress concentration factors for notched machine components

r

Stress concentration factor Kt=

peak/

3.0
2.8

M
2.6

2.4
2.2
peak

2.0

Mc
I

6M
bh2

1.8
1.6

H/h=6
H/h=2
H/h=1.2
H/h=1.05

1.4
1.2

H/h=1.01

1.0
0

0.10

0.05

0.15

Radius-to-height ratio

0.20

0.25

0.30

r/h
(B.J. Hamrock et. al.

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

49

Stress concentration & stress distributions in weldments

t1
pea

r
hs

B
C

F
C
Various stress distributions in a T-butt weldment with transverse fillet welds;

Normal stress distribution in the weld throat plane (A),

Through the thickness normal stress distribution in the weld toe plane (B),
Through the thickness normal stress distribution away from the weld (C),
Normal stress distribution along the surface of the plate (D),
Normal stress distribution along the surface of the weld (E),
Linearized normal stress distribution in the weld toe plane (F).
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

50

Stress concentration factor for a butt weldment

under axial loading
l = hp
g=h

1 exp
K tten

0.9

1
1 exp

0.45

where : W

W
2h
W
2h
t

0.65

1
W
2.8
t

h
r

2h 0.6 hp

Range of application - reasonably designed weldments, (K.Iida and T. Uemura, ref. 14)
2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

51

Stress concentration factor for a T-butt

weldment under tension load; (non-load carrying fillet weld)
t1= tp
Validated for : 0.02 r/t 0.16 and
30o
60o, source [14]

h
p

P
t

1 exp
K tt

0.9

1
1 exp

0.45

W
2h
W
2h

0.65

1
W
2.8
t
where : W

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

52

2
t

2h

h
r
0.3 t p

2hp

Cyclic Loads and Cyclic Stress Patterns

(histories) in Engineering Objects

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

53

Loads and Stresses

The load, the nominal stress, the local peak stress and the stress concentration factor

Simultaneous axial and bending load

M
Stress

n,i
peak

peak ,i

kF Fi kM M i ;
kF Fi Ktt kM M i Ktb;

or
y
0

dn
T

peak ,i

hF Fi hM M i ;

kF , kM ;

From simple analytical stress analysis

K tt , K tb ;

From stress concentration handbooks

hF , hM ;

From detail FEM analysis

b)

F
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

54

The load W and the nominal stress

in an railway axle

n ,min

a)

32 M b
d3
b)

d
W/2

W/2
B

W/2

RB

RA
Moment Mb
n ,min

32 M b
d3

c)
1 cycle

1
n,max

Mb

peak

M bc
I

W
L l ; c
4

Stress

N.A.

32 M b
;
d3
d
d3
; I
;
2
64

n,a

time

n,min

Note! In the case of smooth components,

such as the railway axle, the nominal stress and the local peak stress are the same!
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

55

Fluctuations and complexity of the stress state at the

notch tip
x3

x3

33

T
F

x2

22

x2

2R

22

23
33

Proportional loading path

Non-proportional loading path

23

ABC

23
23

ABC

23

A
t

2
22

22

C
0

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

56

22

How to establish the nominal stress history?

a) The analytical or FE analysis should be carried out for one characteristic load magnitude, i.e.
P=1, Mb =1, T=1 in order to establish the proportionality factors, kP, kM, and kT such that:
P
n

kP P;

M
n

k M M b;

T
n

kT T

b) The peak and valleys of the nominal stress history n,,i are determined by scaling the peak and
valleys load history Pi, Mb,I and Ti by appropriate proportionality factors kP, kM, and kT such that:
P
n, i

kP Pi

M
n, i

kM Mb,i ;

T
n, i

kT Ti

c) In the case of proportional loading the normal peak and valley stresses can be added and the
resultant nominal normal stress history can be established. Because all load modes in proportional
loading have the same number of simultaneous reversals the resultant history has also the same
number of resultant reversals as any of the single mode stress history.

n,i

kP Pi kM Mb,i ;

d) In the case of non-proportional loading the normal stress histories (and separately the shear
stresses) have to be added as time dependent processes. Because each individual stress history
has different number of reversals the number of reversals in the resultant stress history can be
established after the final superposition of all histories.

n ti
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

k P P ti k M M b t i
57

Superposition of nominal stress histories induced by two

independent loading modes
Two non-proportional modes of loading
n,a

Mode a

Stress

Stress

n,a

Two proportional modes of loading

Mode a
time

n,b

Stress

Stress

n,b

Mode b

n,b

Resultant stress:
n(ti)= n,a(ti)+ n,b(ti)
Stress

n,a+

n=

time

Stress

Resultant stress:

Mode b

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

58

Wind load and stress fluctuations in a wind

turbine blade
In-plane bending

Out of plane bending

14
Load-lag stress [MPa] Wind speed [m/s]

Load-lag stress [MPa] Wind speed [m/s]

14

12

10
8
5

12

10

- 28

-5
600

605

610
Time [s]

615

620

- 30
0
- 40
- 50
600

605

610
Time [s]

615

620

Source [43]

Note! One reversal of the wind speed results in several stress reversals
Wind speed fluctuations + Blade vibrations

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

59

Stress fluctuations

Characteristic load/stress history in the aircraft wing skin

a)

b)
0

Flying

Stress

c)

time

0
Landing

Taxiing

Source [9]

a) Ground loads on the wings, b) Distribution of the wing bending moment induced by the ground
load, c) Stress in the lower wing skin induced by the ground and flight loads
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

60

Loads and stresses in a structure

Fi

t
Fi-1

Fi+1

peak, i

f Fi

f F

n, i

g Fi

g F

pea
k

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

61

Loading and stress histories

Nominal stress history,

Fi

peak

peak,
i

n,i+1

Fi+1

n,i

peak,i+1

Time

Time
0

Fi-1

Time
0

n,i-1
peak,i-1

+1
n, i

Characteristic non-dimensional load/stress history

i
i+1

n,i
peak , i

0
i-1

n,i

kF Fi
Kt

-1

62

n, i

Fi
Fmax
1

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

peak

peak,max

Stress

Stress

Load F

Fmax

Notch tip stress history,

n,max

Load history, F

n,i

K t kF Fi
n,i

peak , i

n ,max

peak ,max

How to get the nominal stress n from the

Finite Element method stress data?
Notched shaft under axial, bending and torsion load
x3
T

x2

Discrete cross section stress distribution

obtained from the FE analysis

x3
n

pea
k

Run each load case

separately for an unit
load

b) Linearize the FE stress

field for each load case

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

22

a)

63

y dy

t1

m
n

b
n

y ydy

t2

t
n

yi

(y1)

yi

yi

t2

(yi)
peak

yi

Determination of
nominal stresses
from discrete FE data
by the linearization
method

yi

yn

yn

(yn)
0

m
n

P
1 t

y 1 dy
t

y dy

1 t

t
b
n

yi

c M
I

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

t
2

y 1 y dy
t

1 t
12

t
64

y
1

t
3

y dy

t2

yi

yi
;

How to get the resultant stress distribution from the

Finite Element stress data? (Notched shaft under axial, bending load)
x3
n

x3

22

Bending

x
2

23

22

33

r
x3
n

x3

pea
k

Axial

22

Resultant

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

65

(x3)

22

Cyclic nominal stress and corresponding fluctuating stress distribution

Stress

n, max

time

n, 0
n, min

x3
22(x3, n,min)

22(x3, n,0)

22(x3, n,max)

Resultant

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

22

66

The stress state at the weld toe

Multiaxial state of
stress at weld toe
One shear and two
normal stresses
Due to stress
concentration, xx is
the largest component

zz
xx

Predominantly responsible
for fatigue damage

xz
zx
xx
zz

2010 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

67

Determination of the nominal, n, and the hot spot

stress , hs, from 3D-FE stress analysis data
a)

y
b)
x L

y
x

(x,y)

peak

(x,y)
L /2

hs

x , y dxdy
n

L /2

t L

P
t L

- depends on L and is constant along the weld toe line

x 0, y dy 6
hs

m
hs

b
hs

x 0, y ydy
t

t2

Independent of L but it changes

along the weld toe line

a) Stress distribution in the critical cross section near the cover plate ending and the nominal or the
hot spot stress n (independent of length L ) and hs (independent of length L),
b) Stress distribution in the critical plane near the ending of a vertical attachment (gusset) and the
nominal or the hot spot stress n (dependent on length L ) or hs (independent of length L)
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

68

The Nominal Stress

hs , A

n, A

n, B

m
hs , A

versus the local Hot Spot Stress

b
hs , A

m
hs , B

hs , B

P
;
t L
??;

hs,A

b
hs , B

P
P

B
(x,y)

hs,B

y
x

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

69

hs

Example:
Preparation and Analysis of Representative
Stress/Load History:
The Rainflow Cycle Counting Procedure

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

70

Stress/Load Analysis - Cycle Counting Procedure

and Presentation of Results
The measured stress, strain, or load history is given usually in the form of a time series, i.e. a sequence of
discrete values of the quantity measured in equal time intervals. When plotted in the stress-time space the
discrete point values can be connected resulting in a continuously changing signal. However, the time effect
on the fatigue performance of metals (except aggressive environments) is negligible in most cases.
Therefore the excursions of the signal, represented by amplitudes or ranges, are the most important
quantities in fatigue analyses. Subsequently, the knowledge of the reversal point values, denoted with large
diamond symbols in the next Figure, is sufficient for fatigue life calculations. For that reason the intermediate
values between subsequent reversal points can be deleted before any further analysis of the loading/stress
signal is carried out. An example of a signal represented by the reversal points only is shown in slide no. 141.
The fatigue damage analysis requires decomposing the signal into elementary events called cycles.
Definition of a loading/stress cycle is easy and unique in the case of a constant amplitude signal as that one
shown in the figures. A stress/loading cycle, as marked with the thick line, is defined as an excursion starting
at one point and ending at the next subsequent point having exactly the same magnitude and the same sign
of the second derivative. The maximum, minimum, amplitude or range and mean stress values characterise
the cycle.
1 cycle

max
a

min

2
max

min

min

stress range

max

Stress

max

stress amplitude

a
m

mean stress

time

min

Unfortunately, the cycle definition is not simple in the case of a variable amplitude signal. The only nondubious quantity, which can easily be defined, is a reversal, example of which is marked with the thick line in
the Figures below.
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

71

Removing material from a clay mine in Tennessee

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

72

 2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

73

Bending Moment Time Series

20

Bending moment [10 kNm]

15
10
5
0
-5

11

16

21

26

31

36

41

46

51

56

61

66

71

-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35

Load point No.

Bending Moment measurements obtained at constant time intervals

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

74

76

81

Bending Moment History - Peaks and Valleys

Bending moment value [10 kNm]

20
15
10
5
0
1

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35

Load point No.

Bending Moment signal represented by the reversal point values

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

75

27

29

Constant and Variable Amplitude Stress Histories;

Definition of the Stress Cycle & Stress Reversal
a)

Constant amplitude stress history

max

Stress

max

mean

max

One cycle

min

min

Time
Variable amplitude stress history

max
m

Stress

b)

R
One
reversal

Time

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

76

min

2
min
max

min

Stress Reversals and Stress Cycles in a Variable

Amplitude Stress History
The reversal is simply an excursion between two-consecutive reversal
points, i.e. an excursion between subsequent peak and valley or valley
and peak.
In recent years the rainflow cycle counting method has been accepted
world-wide as the most appropriate for extracting stress/load cycles for
fatigue analyses. The rainflow cycle is defined as a stress excursion,
which when applied to a deformable material, will generate a closed
stress-strain hysteresis loop. It is believed that the surface area of the
stress-strain hysteresis loop represents the amount of damage induced
by given cycle. An example of a short stress history and its rainflow
counted cycles content is shown in the following Figure.

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

77

Stress History and the Rainflow Counted Cycles

Rainflow counted cycles

Stress

Stress history
i+1
i-1

i-2

i+2

Time

A rainflow counted cycle is identified when any two adjacent reversals in the
stress history satisfy the following relation:

ABS
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

i 1

ABS
78

i 1

The Mathematics of the Cycle Rainflow Counting Method

for Fatigue Analysis of Fluctuating Stress/Load Histories
A rainflow counted cycle is identified when any two adjacent reversals in
thee stress history satisfy the following relation:

ABS

i 1

ABS

The stress amplitude of such a cycle is:

ABS
a

i 1

i 1

The stress range of such a cycle is:

ABS

2
The mean stress of such a cycle is:

i 1
m

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

2
79

i 1

The rainflow cycle counting procedure - example

Determine stress ranges, Si, and corresponding mean stresses, Smi for the stress history
given below. Use the rainflow counting procedure.

Si= 0, 4, 1, 3, 2, 6, -2, 5, 1, 4, 2, 3, -3, 1, -2 (units: MPa 102)

Stress Si (MPa 102)

5
4
3
2
1
0
-1

-2
-3

Reversing point number, i

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

80

10

11

12

13

14

The ASTM rainflow counting procedure

1. Find the reversing point with highest absolute stress magnitude,
2. The part of the stress history before the maximum absolute attach to the end of
the history,
3. Perform the rainflow counting on the re-arranged stress history, i.e. from
maximum to maximum
Original stress history
Absolute maximum !

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

10

81

11

12

13

14

The ASTM modification of the Stress History

The original stress history
Absolute maximum

10

11

12

13

14

1
0
-1 1 2
-2

9 10

6
5
4
3
2

The modified
stress history

-3
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

82

11 12 13 14 15

The Modified Stress History according to the ASTM

6

Stress (MPa)x10 2

5
4
3
2
1
0
-1

11

12

13

14

15

13

14

15

-2
-3

Start counting from point No. 2 !

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1

-2
-3

starting point
2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

83

11

12

Start counting from the point No. 2 !!

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1

-1

11

12

13

14

15

3 2 2.5;
2

12

13

-2
-3

6 7

3 2 1;

m,6 7

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1

-1

11

14

15

-2
-3

4 5

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

1 4

3;

m,4 5

84

1 4
2

2.5;

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1

-1

11

12

13

14

15

-2
-3

2 3

2 (5)

7;

m,6 7

2 5 1.5;
2

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1

11

12

13

14

15

-2
-3

9 10

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

10

1 ( 2)

3;
85

9
m,9 10

10

1 2
2

0.5;

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1

11

12

13

14

15

-2
-3

13 14

13

13

3 2 1;

14

m,13 14

14

3 2 2.5;
2

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1

11

12

13

14

15

-2
-3

11 12

11

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

12

4 1

11

3;

m ,11 12
86

12

4 1 2.5;
2

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1

-1

6 ( 3)

11

12

13

14

15

-2
-3

1 8

9;

1
m,1 8

Cycles counted ASTM method

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

=1;
4- 5 =3;
13- 14=1;
11- 12=3;
2- 3 =7;
9- 10 =3;
1- 8 =9;
6- 7

87

= 2.5;
m,4- 5 = 2.5;
m,10- 11= 2.5;
m,11- 12= 2.5;
m,2- 3 = 1.5;
m,9- 10 =-0.5;
m,1- 8 = 1.5;
m,6- 7

6 3 1.5;
2

Extracted rainflow cycles,

Mean stress,

Stress range,

298.8
283.9
268.9
254
239
224.1
209.2
194.2
179.3
164.3
149.4
134.5
119.5
104.6
89.64
74.7
59.76
44.82
29.88
14.94

-32

-22

-13

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
6
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
3
5
9
0
0

-3.2 6.44 16.1 25.7 35.3

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
4
7
7
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
7
3
4
9
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
5
1
7
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
4
10
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
3
0
0

45

54

0
0
1
0
2
2
4
7
4
3
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
3
0
0

1
0
0
1
2
2
5
2
4
1
0
0
0
2
1
2
2
8
0
0

64.1 73.7 83.3 92.9

0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
3
4
2
10
11
15
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
4
1
3
8
18
20
37
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
7
10
23
34
49
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
3
7
20
31
64
0
0

103

112

122

131

141

151

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
5
17
31
62
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
11
28
41
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
4
9
16
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
7
11
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0

1
0
1
1
5
5
14
11
9
5
4
6
14
29
57
126
205
361
0
0
854

Total number of cycles, N=854

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

88

Extracted rainflow cycles,

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

89

Total number of cycles in the entire history, NT

max

a) The stress range

exceedance diagram
(stress spectrum)

nj=6 - number of cycles

in the class j=6

Stress range
max/

max

max

12 3

Relative stress range

j/

j=4/

j=6

max

j=6

j=4

j=7

Number cycles N

nj=6/NT

0.5

12 3
0

j=4

j=6

j=7

0.5
Relative number of cycles N/NT

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

b) the stress range

frequency distribution
diagram

90

1.0

Day 1

The End

2008 Grzegorz Glinka. All rights reserved.

91