Meiosis and Tetrad Analysis Lab Activity

Objectives:
Explain how meiosis and crossing over result in the different arrangements
of
ascospores within asci.
Learn how to calculate the map distance between a gene and the
centromere of the
same chromosome.

Introduction:
All new cells come from previously existing cells. The process of cell division,
which
involves both division of the nucleus and division of the cytoplasm, forms new
cells. There are two types of nuclear division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis
typically results in new somatic (body) cells. Formation of an adult organism
from a fertilized egg, asexual reproduction, regeneration, and maintenance or
repair of body parts are accomplished through mitotic cell division. Meiosis
results in the formation of either gametes (in animals) or spores (in plants).
These cells have half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
Meiosis involves two successive nuclear divisions that produce four haploid
(monoploid)
cells. Meiosis I is the reduction division. It is this first division that reduces the
chromosome number from diploid to haploid and separates the homologous
pairs. Meiosis II, the second division, separates the sister chromatids. The
result is four haploid gametes.
Each diploid cell undergoing meiosis can produce 2 different chromosomal
combinations, where n is the haploid number. In humans, the number is 2 ,
which is more than eight million combinations. Actually, the potential
variation is even greater because, during meiosis I, each pair of
chromosomes (homologous chromosomes) comes together in a process
known as synapsis. Chromatids of homologous chromosomes may exchange
parts in a process called crossing over. The relative distance between two
genes on a given chromosome can be estimated by calculating the
percentage of crossing over that takes place between them.
Sordaria fimicola is an ascomycete fungus that can be used to demonstrate
the results of crossing over during meiosis. Sordaria is a haploid organism for
most of its life cycle. It becomes diploid only when the fusion of the mycelia
(filament-like groups of cells) of two different strains results in the fusion of
the two different types of haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus. The diploid
nucleus must then undergo meiosis to resume its halploid state.
Meiosis, followed by one mitotic division, in Sordaria results in the formation
of eight
n

23

haploid ascospores contained within a sac called an ascus (plural, asci). Many
asci are
contained within a fruiting body called a perithecium (ascocarp). When
ascospores are
mature the ascus ruptures, releasing the ascospores. Each ascospore can
develop into a new haploid fungus. The life cycle of Sordaria fimicola is
shown in Figure 1 on the next page.

The spore color of the normal (wild type) Sordaria, is black. This phenotype is
due to the production of the pigment melanin and its deposition in the cell
walls. Several different genes are involved in the control of the melanin
biosynthetic pathway and each gene has two possible allelic forms. The tan
spore gene also has two forms: a wild type allele ( t+), and a mutant allele(t).
Normal black spores are produced only if both wild type alleles are present at
the loci of both genes. Thus, black ascospores have the genotype g+ t+
(remember, spores are haploid). Those with the genotype g+ t are tan. To
observe crossing over one must make hybrids between wild type and mutant
strains. The arrangement of the spores directly reflects whether or not
crossing over has occurred. In figure 2 no crossing over has occurred. Figure 3
shows the results of crossing over between the centromere of the
chromosome and the gene for ascospore color.
Figure 2: Meiosis with No Crossing Over

Two homologous chromosomes line up at metaphase I of meiosis. The two

chromatids of one chromosome each carry the gene for tan spore color (t)
and the two chromatids of the other chromosome carry the gene for wild type
spore color (t+).
The first meiotic division results in two cells, each containing just one type of
spore color
gene (either a tan or wild type). Therefore, segregation of these genes has
occurred at the first meiotic division. Each cell is haploid at the end of meiosis
I. The second meiotic division results in four haploid cells, each with the
haploid number of chromosomes. A mitotic division simply duplicates these
cells, resulting in 8 spores. They are arranged in the 4:4 pattern shown
above.
Figure 3: Meiosis with Crossing Over

In the example above crossing over has occurred in the region between the
gene for spore color and the centromere. The homologous chromosomes
separate during meiosis I. This time, the first meiotic division results in two
cells, each containing both genes (1 tan, 1 wild type); therefore, the genes for
spore color have not yet segregated, although the cells are haploid.
The second meiotic division results in the segregation of the two types of
genes for spore color.
A mitotic division results in 8 spores arranged in the 2:2:2:2 or 2:4:2 pattern.
Any one of
these spore arrangements would indicate that crossing over has occurred
between the gene for spore coat color and the centromere.

Mapping Genes on Chromosomes

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes which
occurs during crossing over creates a major exception to Mendels principle of
segregation. Recall that the segregation of alleles from the two parents
occurs during anaphase I of meiosis, that is, during the first division of
meiosis. If crossing over occurs, however, the alleles rearranged by the
crossover are not segregated until anaphase II of meiosis, that is during the
second division of meiosis. Thus, it is said that crossing over leads to second
division segregation of the alleles involved in the crossover. Gene mapping
became possible when it was realized that the frequency of second division
segregation was related to the physical distance separating the genes
involved.
If we assume that crossing over can occur at any point along a chromosome,
it is logical
that the probability of a crossover occurring between a gene locus and the
centromere will be proportional to the locus-centromere distance. Therefore,
we can use the frequency (proportion) of crossover-produced ascospores as a

measure of the relative distance separating the gene locus and the
centromere.
Geneticists define a crossover map unit as the distance on a chromosome
that produces one recombinant post-meiotic product per 100 post-meiotic
products. Here, the number of map units would be equal to the number of
recombinant ascospores per 100 total ascospores (both recombinant and
non-recombinant).

map units =

__________recombinant asci_____
x100
total asci (recomb. + nonrecomb.)

Given that map units express the percent recombinant spores resulting from
crossovers
and each single crossover produces 4 recombinant spores and 4 nonrecombinant spores, the map unit distance is always one half the frequency
of crossing over for the gene. See your textbook for more information on
gene mapping.
Using tetrad analysis, geneticists have been able to obtain genetic maps of
chromosomes of many organisms. These maps indicate the sequence of
genes on chromosomes and the relative location of these genes. However,
because a genetic map is based on crossover frequencies, the relative
distances between genes do not correspond to real, physical distances.
That is, although the sequence of genes is correct, some genes may be closer
together and others farther apart than genetic maps indicate. This is because
some regions of chromosomes have a greater, or lesser, tendency to form
crossovers than other regions. For example, the centromere seems to inhibit
crossing over and genes located close to it do not crossover as much as they
should based solely on their physical location.
Published gene map locations for the gene that we are studying is
approximately 27
map units for the tan spore gene (Olive,1956).
Experimental Procedure: (we are using pictures of asci obtained using this
procedure)
In the example below, two strains of Sordaria (wild type and a mutant
variety) have been inoculated on a nutrient plate. Where the mycelia of the
two strains meet, Figure 4, fruiting bodies called perithecia develop. Meiosis
occurs within the perithecia during the formation of the asci.
Figure 4: Sordaria plate

1. Each group of 4 students will set up and work on the wild/tan cross.
2. Use a scalpel to gently scrape the surface of the nutrient medium where
the two strains intersect to collect perithecia. At the intersection of the two
strains is the region to harvest the perithecia.
3. Place the perithecia in a drop of water on a slide. Cover with a coverslip
and return to your work area. Using the eraser end of a pencil (or a
toothpick), press down the coverslip gently so that the perithecia rupture but
the ascospores remain in the asci.
4. View your slide using the 10X objective and locate a group of hybrid asci
(those containing both mutant and wild ascospores).
5. Count at least 50 hybrid asci and enter your data in Table 1.
6. Determine the distance between the gene for spore color and the
centromere.
Calculate the percentage of crossovers by dividing the number of crossover
asci (2:2:2:2 or 2:4:2) by the total number of asci X 100. To calculate the map
distance, divide the percentage of crossover asci by 2. This is done since only
half of the spores in each ascus are the result of crossing over.

Meiosis Lab Activity

Analysis of Results: Type up on a word document and hand in.
1. Complete table 3.3:
Table 3.3: Crossing Over Data for Asci of Soldaria
Number of
4:4
(noncrossovers)

Number of
Asci showing
crossovers

Total Asci

% Asci
Showing
crossovers
divided by 2

Gene to
centromere
distance
(map units)

2. Discuss how crossing over produces 2:2:2:2 or 2:4:2 rather than the 4:4
spore
arrangement. Use a hand-drawn diagram similar, not identical to Figure 3.15,
show
how you would get a 2:4:2 arrangement of ascospores by crossing over.
3. Determine your percent error in comparing experimental map distance
with Book
Value map distance for the mutant tan variety.
4. Discuss why meiosis is important to sexual reproduction.