Definition of Speech Acts

A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. Some of
the functions which are carried out using speech acts are offering an apology, greeting,
request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just one
word or several words or sentences.
Three Types of Speech Act
According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech
Act
Theory, there are three types of acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or
context.
These are:
1. Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering.
Please do the dishes.
2. Illocutionary act is the social function of what is said.
By uttering the locution Please do the dishes, the speaker requests the
addressee to wash the dishes.
3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular
context in which the speech act was mentioned.
Please do the dishes would lead to the addressee washing the dishes.
indirect speech acts- which occur when there is no direct connection between the form of the
utterance and the intended meaning..
Utterance literally asks the addressee if he or she has the ability to hand a plate of rice, it
actually indirectly requests the addressee to pass the rice to the speaker.
Performatives-Austin also introduced the concept of performative utterances: statements
which enable the speaker to perform something just by stating it. In this manner, verbs that
execute the speech act that they intend to effect are called performatives. A performative
utterance said by the right person under the right circumstances results in a change in the
world. Note that certain conditions have tobe met when making a performative utterance.
Searles Classifications of Speech Act
As a response to Austins Speech Act Theory, John Searle (1976),classified illocutionary acts
into five distinct categories.
1. Assertive a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth
of a proposition. Some examples of an assertive act are suggesting, putting forward,
swearing, boasting, and concluding.
Example:No one makes better pancakes than I do.
2. Directive a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee
perform an action. Some examples of a directive act are asking, ordering, requesting,
inviting, advising, and begging.
Example: Please close the door.
3. Commissive a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to doing something in
the future. Examples of a commissive act are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.
Example: From now on, I will participate in our group activity.
4. Expressive a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or
emotional reactions. Some examples of an expressive act are thanking,
apologizing,welcoming, and deploring.
Example: I am so sorry for not helping out in our group projects and letting you do all the
work.
5. Declaration a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in the external
situation.Simply put, declarations bring into existence or cause the state of affairs which
they refer to.Some examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a
sentence, and excommunicating.
Communicative competence (i.e., the ability to use linguistic knowledge to effectively
communicate with others) is essential for a speaker to be able to use and understand speech

acts. Idioms and other nuances in a certain language might be lost or misunderstood by
someone who does not fully grasp the language yet.
Types of Communicative Strategy
Since engaging in conversation is also bound by implicit rules, Cohen (1990) states that
strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation. Knowing and applying
grammar appropriately is one of the most basic strategies to maintain a conversation. The
following are some strategies that people use when communicating.
1. Nomination
A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and productively establish a topic.
Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open a topic with the people you are
talking to.
When beginning a topic in a conversation, especially if it does not arise from a previous
topic, you may start off with news inquiries and news announcements as they promise
extended talk. Most importantly, keep the conversational environment open for opinions until
the prior topic shuts down easily and initiates a smooth end. This could efficiently signal the
beginning of a new topic in the conversation.
2. Restriction
Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. When
communicating in the classroom, in a meeting, or while hanging out with your friends, you
are typically given specific instructions that you must follow. These instructions confine you
as a speaker and limit what you can say.
For example, in your class, you might be asked by your teacher to brainstorm on peer
pressure or deliver a speech on digital natives. In these cases, you cannot decide to talk
about something else. On the other hand, conversing with your friends during ordinary days
can be far more casual than these examples. Just the same, remember to always be on point
and avoid sideswiping from the topic during the conversation to avoid communication
breakdown.
3. Turn-taking
Sometimes people are given unequal opportunities to talk because others take much time
during the conversation. Turn-taking pertains to the process by which people decide who
takes the conversational floor. There is a code of behavior behind establishing and sustaining
a productive conversation, but the primary idea is to give all communicators a chance to
speak.
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Remember to keep your words relevant and reasonably short enough to express your views
or feelings. Try to be polite even if you are trying to take the floor from another speaker. Do
not hog the conversation and talk incessantly without letting the other party air out their
own ideas. To acknowledge others, you may employ visual signals like a nod, a look, or a
step back, and you could accompany these signals with spoken cues such as What do you
think? or You wanted to say something?
4. Topic Control
Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic
in conversations. For example, in meetings, you may only have a turn to speak after the
chairperson directs you to do so. Contrast this with a casual conversation with friends over
lunch or coffee where you may take the conversational floor anytime.
Remember that regardless of the formality of the context, topic control is achieved
cooperatively. This only means that when a topic is initiated, it should be collectively
developed by avoiding unnecessary interruptions and topic shifts. You can make yourself
actively involved in the conversation without overly dominating it by using minimal
responses like Yes, Okay, Go on; asking tag questions to clarify information briefly like
You are excited, arent you?, It was unexpected, wasnt it?; and even by laughing!
5. Topic Shifting

Topic shifting, as the name suggests, involves moving from one topic to another. In other
words, it is where one part of a conversation ends and where another begins.
When shifting from one topic to another, you have to be very intuitive. Make sure that the
previous topic was nurtured enough to generate adequate views. You may also use effective
conversational transitions to indicate a shift like By the way, In addition to what you said,
Which reminds me of, and the like.
6. Repair
Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening, and
comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation. For example, if everybody in the
conversation seems to talk at the same time, give way and appreciate others initiative to
set the conversation back to its topic.
Repair is the self-righting mechanism in any social interaction (Schegloff et al, 1977). If there
is a problem in understanding the conversation, speakers will always try to address and
correct it. Although this is the case, always seek to initiate the repair.
7. Termination
Termination refers to the conversation participants close-initiating expressions that end a
topic in a conversation. Most of the time, the topic initiator takes responsibility to signal the
end of the discussion as well.
Although not all topics may have clear ends, try to signal the end of the topic through
concluding cues. You can do this by sharing what you learned from the conversation. Aside
from this, soliciting agreement from the other participants usually completes the discussion
of the topic meaningfully.
Speech Process
1 Audience analysis entails looking into the profile of your target audience. This is done so
you can tailor-fit your speech content and delivery to your audience. The profile includes the
following information.
2 The purpose for writing and delivering the speech can be classified into threeto inform,
to entertain, or to persuade.
informative speech provides the audience with a clear understanding of the concept or
idea presented by the speaker.
An entertainment speech provides the audience with amusement.
persuasive speech provides the audience with well-argued ideas that can influence
their own beliefs and decisions.
3 The topic is your focal point of your speech, which can be determined once you have
decided on your purpose. If you are free to decide on a topic, choose one that really interests
you. There are a variety of strategies used in selecting a topic, such as using your personal
experiences, discussing with your family members or friends, free writing, listing, asking
questions, or semantic webbing.
4Narrowing down a topic means making your main idea more specific and focused. The
strategies in selecting a topic can also be used when you narrow down a topic.
In the example below, Defining and developing effective money management skills of
Grade 11 students is the specific topic out of a general one, which is Effective money
management.
5 Data gathering is the stage where you collect ideas, information, sources, and references
relevant or related to your specific topic. This can be done by visiting the library, browsing
the web, observing a certain phenomenon or event related to your topic, or conducting an
interview or survey. The data that you will gather will be very useful in making your speech
informative, entertaining, or persuasive.
6 Writing patterns, in general, are structures that will help you organize the ideas related to
your topic. Examples are biographical, categorical/topical, causal, chronological,
comparison/contrast, problem-solution, and spatial.

7An outline is a hierarchical list that shows the relationship of your ideas. Experts in public
speaking state that once your outline is ready, two-thirds of your speech writing is finished. A
good outline helps you see that all the ideas are in line with your main idea or message. The
elements of an outline include introduction, body, and conclusion. Write your outline based
on how you want your ideas to develop. Below are some of the suggested formats.
8 The body of the speech provides explanations, examples, or any details that can help you
deliver your purpose and explain the main idea of your speech.
One major consideration in developing the body of your speech is the focus or central idea.
The body of your speech should only have one central idea.
9The introduction is the foundation of your speech. Here, your primary goal is to get the
attention of your audience and present the subject or main idea of your speech. Your first
few words should do so. The following are some strategies.
10 The conclusion restates the main idea of your speech. Furthermore, it provides a
summary, emphasizes the message, and calls for action. While the primary goal of the
introduction is to get the attention of your audience, the conclusion aims to leave the
audience with a memorable statement.
.
11 Editing/Revising your written speech involves correcting errors in mechanics, such as
grammar, punctuation, capitalization, unity, coherence, and others. Andrew Dlugan (2013),
an award-winning public speaker, lists six power principles for speech editing.
Edit for focus.
So, whats the point? Whats the message of the speech?
Ensure that everything you have written, from introduction to conclusion, is related to your
central message.
Edit for clarity.
I dont understand the message because the examples or supporting details were
confusing.
Make all ideas in your speech clear by arranging them in logical order (e.g., main idea first
then supporting details, or supporting details first then main idea).
Edit for concision.
The speech was all over the place; the speaker kept talking endlessly as if no one was
listening to him/her.
Keep your speech short, simple, and clear by eliminating unrelated stories and sentences
and by using simple words.
Edit for continuity.
The speech was too difficult to follow; I was lost in the middle.
Keep the flow of your presentation smooth by adding transition words and phrases.
Edit for variety.
I didnt enjoy the speech because it was boring.
Add spice to your speech by shifting tone and style from formal to conversational and viceversa, moving around the stage, or adding humor.
Edit for impact and beauty.
Theres nothing really special about the speech.

Make your speech memorable by using these strategies: surprise the audience, use vivid
descriptive images, write well-crafted and memorable lines, and use figures of speech.
12 Rehearsing gives you an opportunity to identify what works and what does not work for
you and for your target audience. Some strategies include reading your speech aloud,
recording for your own analysis or for your peers or coaches to give feedback on your
delivery. The best thing to remember at this stage is: Constant practice makes perfect.
Some Guidelines in Speech Writing
1.
Keep your words short and simple. Your speech is meant to be heard by your
audience, not read.
2.
Avoid jargon, acronyms, or technical words because they can confuse your audience.
3.
Make your speech more personal. Use the personal pronoun I, but take care not to
overuse it. When you need to emphasize collectiveness with your audience, use the personal
pronoun we.
4.
Use active verbs and contractions because they add to the personal and
conversational tone of your speech.
5.
Be sensitive of your audience. Be very careful with your language, jokes, and
nonverbal cues.
6.
Use metaphors and other figures of speech to effectively convey your point.
7.
Manage your time well; make sure that the speech falls under the time limit.
Insights on Public Speaking
According to Stephen Lucas (2011), author of The Art of Public Speaking, a good delivery
means that you are capable and able to present your message in a clear, coherent, and
interesting way.
Types of Speech According to Purpose
1. An informative speech provides the audience with a clear understanding of a concept or
idea. The
lectures of your teachers are the best examples of this type.
2. An entertainment speech amuses the audience. The humorous speeches of comedians
and performers are the best examples of this type.
3. A persuasive speech seeks to provide the audience with favorable or acceptable ideas that
can
influence their own ideas and decisions. The campaign speeches of the running candidates
for
government posts are the best examples of this type.
Types of Speech According to Delivery
1. Extemporaneous
Description Speaking with limited preparation. Guided by notes or outline. Delivered
conversationally
Most popular type of Speaking
Advantages Helps you look confident Engages the audience
Disadvantages May not have adequate time to plan, organize, and rehearse
2. Impromptu
Description Speaking without advanced preparation Unrehearsed speech Spoken
conversationally Speaking
Advantages Spontaneous or natural speaking More focused and brief

Disadvantages Tendency to be disorganized Lacks connection with the audience Nerveracking for inexperienced speakers and beginners
3. Manuscript
Description Speaking with advanced preparation Planned and rehearsed speech
Reading aloud a written message
Advantages Exact repetition of the written words Guided speech
Disadvantages Boring and uninteresting presentation Lacks audience rapport or
connection
4. Memorized
Description Speaking with advanced preparation Planned and rehearsed speech Reciting
a written message word-for-word from memory
Advantages Exact repetition of the written words from memory
Free to move around the stage
Disadvantages Speakers might end up speaking in a monotone pattern. Alternatively,
he/she
might take a fast pace. When the speaker cannot control his/her stage fright, he/she might
have
difficulty remembering his/her memorized speech.
As a public speaker you need to be ready to deal with the most common challenges in
different
speaking environments. Below are some of them.
1. Speaking to a specific audience size
Description Audience size depends on the venue size.
Advantages You can determine your approach with your audience: more intimate and
personal for a smaller size; more formal for a larger size.
Disadvantages This can be challenging and intimidating.
Tips Ask the organizers about the estimated number of the audience so you can
adjust your delivery.
Practice, practice, practice.
2. Speaking in an open-air venue or outside a building
Description Examples are open courts or grounds, football fields, farms, etc.
Advantages You will feel more relaxed due to the atmosphere of the venue.
Disadvantages You will encounter a lot of communication barriers such as noise,
inattentive audiences, discomfort, challenging weather, possible absence of
technology such as audio-visual equipment, etc.
You might be forced to make adjustments, especially in voice projection.
Tips Check the venue prior to your speaking engagement.
Ask the organizers about the availability of equipment.
Challenge yourself on how you can get and maintain the attention of your
audience.
Use the outdoor setting or venue to your advantage as a way of
jumpstarting your speech or as an example to support your main point.
Practice, practice, practice.
3. Speaking in different venues
Description Speaking venues that vary according to size: classroom, meeting or
conference room, ball room, social hall, auditorium, covered court, open
court, etc.
Advantages You will be exposed to different venues, which will add to your public
speaking experience.

Disadvantages You will have to make big adjustments in terms of your nonverbal cues:
volume of voice, body language, facial expression, etc.
Tips Check the venue days before your scheduled speech and arrive hours
earlier in the venue, so you can determine the adjustments to make.
For a large venue, speak more slowly, use pauses frequently to highlight the
most important ideas of your speech, and make use of facial expressions
and gestures. When you use visual aids, make them more visible.
In a small venue, your audience will see you up close. Therefore, manage
your notes well when you use them and adjust your nonverbal cues as
necessary.
Practice, practice, practice.
4. Speaking with a microphone
Description Its main function is to increase the volume of your voice, not to clarify
the pronunciation and enunciation of words.
Advantages With a microphone, you can easily get the attention of your audience
because of the loudness of your voice.
Disadvantages Using a microphone can be challenging because there is a tendency to
underuse or overuse it.
Tips Check the microphone if it functions well.
Check your voice in the microphone to see whether you are audible
enough.
In a small venue, you may not use a microphone, but you need to
manage your voices volume well.
Practice, practice, practice.
5. Speaking with a podium or lectern
Description A podium or lectern is a reading desk with a stand and a slanted top.
Advantages Notes can be placed on the slanted top, and will work best for
extemporaneous and manuscript speeches.
The lectern can be used as a means to hide or cover nervousness or stage
fright.
Disadvantages Some may have the tendency to hide their hands behind the podium,
which will not help them enhance their message.
Tips Stand straight, as good posture exudes confidence.
Avoid gripping the edges of the podium with both hands. Aside from this,
also avoid hiding them behind the podium.
For extemporaneous and impromptu speakers, step to the side occasionally
once you have composed yourself, so you can effectively use your gestures,
make eye contact, and connect more with your audience.
Practice, practice, practice.