wave trough

The lowest part of the wave between crests. See also crest; wave
As the temperature decreases, the peak of the black-body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer
wavelengths. The black-body radiation graph is also compared with the classical model of Rayleigh and Jeans.

Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The
direction of the field is taken to be the direction of the force it would
exert on a positive test charge. The electric field is radially outward
from a positive charge and radially in toward a negative point
charge.
Magnetic field of an ideal cylindrical magnet with its axis of symmetry inside the image plane. The magnetic
field is represented by magnetic field lines, which show the direction of the field at different points.

Particle
Quantum mechanics attempts to explain the behavior of sub-atomic particles at the
nanoscopic level.
It is one of the most successful branches of physics under account less examples
under scientific experiments concerning predictions made by the lords of qm.
What is a particle?
One of the particles you will be most familiar with will be the electron. This orbit
(picture), the nucleus of atoms and the nucleus is made up of two other particles,
protons and neutrons. The electron is an elementary particle, one of the
fundamental constituents of the universe. Scientists have found that protons and
neutrons are made up of other particles called quarks. Quarks are also elementary
particles. Quarks are held together by gluons. Gluons are also particles but they are
different from the quarks. The other particles that produced the strong force that
holds the quarks together. Gluons are also behind the strong force which holds the
protons and neutrons together within the nuclei of the atom. Gluons do these by
mediating the strong force between the quarks or between the protons and the
neutrons as the case maybe.
The type of particles like electrons and quarks, we can think of as creating matter
and the types of particles like gluons we can think of as creating the forces. There
are four forces that we know of, the strong force, the electromagnetic force, the
weak force, and the gravity. The standard model of elementary particles
Fermions and leptons gauge bosons higgs boson

Quantum leap - excitation l energy absorbed

Particles Behave like waves
double slit experiment
Peak trough
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/introduction_to_quantum_mechanics.htm

Introduction to quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a physical science dealing with the behaviour of matter

and energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles / waves.
It also forms the basis for the contemporary understanding of how very large objects such as stars
and galaxies, and cosmological events such as the Big Bang, can be analyzed and explained.
Quantum mechanics is the foundation of several related disciplines including nanotechnology,
condensed matter physics, quantum chemistry, structural biology, particle physics, and electronics.
The term "quantum mechanics" was first coined by Max Born in 1924.
The acceptance by the general physics community of quantum mechanics is due to its accurate
prediction of the physical behaviour of systems, including systems where Newtonian mechanics fails.
Even general relativity is limited -- in ways quantum mechanics is not -- for describing systems at the
atomic scale or smaller, at very low or very high energies, or at the lowest temperatures.
Through a century of experimentation and applied science, quantum mechanical theory has proven
to be very successful and practical.
The foundations of quantum mechanics date from the early 1800s, but the real beginnings of QM
date from the work of Max Planck in 1900.
Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr soon made important contributions to what is now called the "old
quantum theory."
However, it was not until 1924 that a more complete picture emerged with Louis de Broglie's matterwave hypothesis and the true importance of quantum mechanics became clear.
Some of the most prominent scientists to subsequently contribute in the mid-1920s to what is now
called the "new quantum mechanics" or "new physics" were Max Born, Paul Dirac, Werner
Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, and Erwin Schrdinger.
Later, the field was further expanded with work by Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Richard
Feynman for the development of Quantum Electrodynamics in 1947 and by Murray Gell-Mann in
particular for the development of Quantum Chromodynamics.
The interference that produces colored bands on bubbles cannot be explained by a model that
depicts light as a particle.

It can be explained by a model that depicts it as a wave.

The drawing shows sine waves that resemble waves on the surface of water being reflected from two
surfaces of a film of varying width, but that depiction of the wave nature of light is only a crude
analogy.
Early researchers differed in their explanations of the fundamental nature of what we now call
electromagnetic radiation.
Some maintained that light and other frequencies of electromagnetic radiation are composed of
particles, while others asserted that electromagnetic radiation is a wave phenomenon.
In classical physics these ideas are mutually contradictory.
Ever since the early days of QM scientists have acknowledged that neither idea by itself can explain
electromagnetic radiation.
Despite the success of quantum mechanics, it does have some controversial elements.
For example, the behaviour of microscopic objects described in quantum mechanics is very different
from our everyday experience, which may provoke some degree of incredulity.
Most of classical physics is now recognized to be composed of special cases of quantum physics
theory and/or relativity theory.
Dirac brought relativity theory to bear on quantum physics so that it could properly deal with events
that occur at a substantial fraction of the speed of light.
Classical physics, however, also deals with mass attraction (gravity), and no one has yet been able
to bring gravity into a unified theory with the relativized quantum theory.

http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c120/quantum.html
Introduction to Quantum Theory
Skills to develop

Give a very brief history on the development of chemistry as a science

leading to the development of quantum theory.
Explain these terms: electron, atomic nucleus, electromagnetic
radiation, spectroscopy,
Introduction to Quantum Theory

Chemistry began as a discipline to document materials that restore

health, as pharmacy is today. During the 16th to 18th centuries, we
have learned that material consists of compounds that are
combinations and variation of only about 90 chemical elements,
each with a unique atomic weight. The variation of their
macroscopic properties as a function of the atomic weight is very
interesting. For example, lithium, sodium, potassium and cesium
react with water vigorously, and their reactivity increases as their
atomic weights increase. This discovery led to their arrangement in
a periodic table in the 19th century.
During the 20th century, chemists have studied the structure of atoms. The discovery
of electrons in 1897 by J.J. Thomson showed that there were more fundamental
particles present in the atoms. Fourteen years later, Rutherford discovered that most of
the mass of an atom resides in a tiny nucleus whose radius is 100,000 times smaller
than that of an atom. In the mean time, Max Planck (1858-1947) theorized that light
beams were made of photons that are equivalent to particles of wave motion. These
discoveries created new concepts. When these concepts and discoveries are integrated,
new ideas emerge. The result is a quantum theory, named perhaps from the discrete
nature of energy levels in microscopic systems. This theory gives good interpretations
of the phenomena of the atomic and subatomic world. In this microscopic world,
distances are measured in nanometers (10 -9 or 1e-9 meter) and fantometers (1e-15
meter, also called fermi, in honour of
Fermi who built the first nuclear
reactor).
The quantum theory has many
mathematical approaches, but the
philosophy is essentially the same.
Quantum mechanics is the foundation
of chemistry, because it deals with
subatomic particles, as well as atoms,
molecules, elements, compounds, and
much larger systems.
At the sub-atomic scale, there is no boundary between particles and waves. In fact,
both particles and wave properties must be considered simultaneously for a
system. The study of quantum mechanics lead us to understand the material and the

universe beyond the general perception of matter by our ordinary senses of tasting,
seeing, hearing, feeling, and sensing.
Furthermore, when coupled with the theory of relativity developed by Einstein, there
is no boundary between material and energy. Energy and mass are equivalent, and
they can convert into each other.
On this and some related pages that follow, you are introduced to the quantum theory
for the treatment of the hydrogen atom. The quantum theory does much more than
explaining the structure of the simplest atom, it rationalizes the existence of the
chemical elements. The most widely used periodic table of chemical elements today is
based on the results of quantum theory. What we tend not to appreciate today is the
hard work and ingenuity that went into the development of the quantum theory we
today take for granted.
A hydrogen atom is the simplest atom. It consists of a proton in the nucleus and an
electron around it. This type of atom is also the most abundant atom in the solar
system, as well as the universe. Closer to home, hydrogen is also very abundant on the
surface of the planet of Earth. Most hydrogen atoms are combined with oxygen to
form the water molecule. In organic substances, hydrogen atoms are mostly attached
to carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms. In terms of number, hydrogen is the most
abundant atom in our body. (This is the atom which causes problems in our body with
certain types of radiation -- Can you find why? -- This is a good topic to discuss with
your professor after class)
To learn the theory, some basic concepts are required. Thus, we present several
modules to explain quantum theory and the hydrogen atom.
To learn the theory, some basic concepts are required. Thus, we present several
modules to explain quantum theory and the hydrogen atom.
Here is a preview of these modules
Electromagnetic Radiation
Transmission of energy through space via no medium
is electromagnetic radiation. The visible region of the
electromagnetic radiation is light, but that is a very small
region. There is much more than light to meet the eye.

 Spectra
Diagrams showing the distribution of intensity versus
wavelengths are called spectra. Their study reveals the
fundamentals of electromagnetic radiation as well as leading to
useful applications. For example, the Hydrogen Spectra study
led Bohr and others to develop the quantum theory to describe
the atomic structures. For some cool spectrum demonstration,
check out the IR Tutor created by Charles Abrams. Here is one
of his animated pictures.
Quantum numbers
The states of electrons are represented by
wavefunctions. Each wavefunction has a set
of numbers, called quantum numbers. We
often use quantum numbers to describe
properties of electrons. This page gives a
simplistic but important view of quantum numbers.
Atomic orbitals
Electronic states, represented by wavefunctions, in an atom
are called atomic orbitals. Since we use quantum numbers to
describe them, atomic orbitals are labelled by quantum
numbers, such as 2sorbital, s represent quantum number l = 0,
that implies m = 0. Each atomic orbital accomodates two
electrons due to electron spin.
Periodic table
The beauty of quantum theory is its mathematical results not
only explain the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic
Table of chemical elements, but they seem rationalize the
existence of the elements. Its rationalization lies in
the Electronic configuration of atoms with more than two
electrons. Based on the electronic configurations, Atomic
properties are nicely explained.
Zests of elements - A delightful look at the chemical
elements. Elements review - A review and quiz.

Confidence Building Questions

Which element has the lightest atomic weight?

Hydrogen
hydrogen

Skill Hydrogen consists of a proton and an electron.

What led to the invention of a periodic table of chemical
elements?
The study of properties of elements.

Skill Organization and analysis of information are scientific skills.

What are cathode rays discovered by J.J. Thomson in
1897?
Hint . . .

Skill - Explain how an experiment is done, and interpret the results.

What is approximately the length of atomic radii?
Hint . . .

Examples - Atomic radii in picometer (10-12 m): H 37, He 50, Li 152, Cs 265,
Fe 124, I 133 pm. 1 nm = 1000 pm.
What is approximately the length of nuclear radii?
Hint . . .

Discussion - A femtometer (fm) is 10-15 m. The radius of an atom is 100,000

times larger than that of its nucleus.

Which is heavier, the proton or the

electron?
Hint . . .

Skill - Know some properties of the subatomic particles.

What theory is developed to interpret phenomena

originated from the atom?
Hint . . .

Skill - The word quantum refers to a small bundle of energy.

Give some wave properties that particles do not have.
Hint . . .

Skill - Describe the duality of wave and particle for subatomic particles.
Classical Mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the motion and behaviour of objects
on a bigger scale. eg, cars, humans.
Quantum Mechanics is another branch of physics that deals with the behavior of sub-atomic
particle. Eg, electrons, photons
In simple terms,
Classical mechanics deals with finding force, acceleration, velocity, displacement and their
angular analogues exactly. Basically everything in the world is deterministic and can be
found exactly.
But classical physics failed to explain-blackbody radiation, the photoelectric effect, the
discrete atomic spectra and the electron as a subatomic particle.
These limitations were overcome by quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics deals with finding probability of the above mentioned variables mainly
momentum and position.
Another difference is that classical mechanics treats objects as particles while quantum

mechanics takes into account the wave nature of the particles (the particle wave duality) as
well.
It is non-deterministic and probabilistic.
It's used at the microscopic level/atomic level.

Classical mechanics deals with the phenomenon happening at the classical scale. Means we
deal with big things such as a ball or something. In classic mechanics, equations can be used
to predict specific things that would happen and when they would happen and other details.
Quantum mechanics deals with the phenomenon happening at the quantum scale. Means
we deal with very small things such as an electron or a quark. In Quantum Mechanics, the
equations only give the probability of something happening. We can never be sure what
might happen.

Classical mechanics deals with the phenomenon happening at the classical scale. Means we
deal with big things such as a ball or something. In classic mechanics, equations can be used
to predict specific things that would happen and when they would happen and other details.
Quantum mechanics deals with the phenomenon happening at the quantum scale. Means
we deal with very small things such as an electron or a quark. In Quantum Mechanics, the
equations only give the probability of something happening. We can never be sure what
might happen.

In brief, the main difference between quantum and classical physics is the difference
between a ramp and a staircase.
In classical mechanics, events (in general) are continuous, which is to say they move in
smooth, orderly and predictable patterns. Projectile motion is a good example of
classical mechanics. Or the colors or the rainbow, where frequencies progress
continuously from red through violet. Events, in other words, proceed incrementally up a
ramp.
In quantum mechanics, events (in particular) are unpredictable, which is to say "jumps"
occur that involve seemingly random transitions between states: hence the term
"quantum leaps". Moreover a quantum leap is an all or nothing proposition, sort of like
jumping from the roof of one building onto another. You either make it or you break it!
Events in the quantum world, in other words, jump from one stair to the next and are
seemingly discontinuous
Electrons, for example, transition between energy levels in an atom by making quantum
leaps from one level to the next. This is seen in the emission spectra, where various
colors, indicative of energy level transitions made by electrons, are separated by dark

areas. The dark areas represent the area through which electrons make quantum -- and
therefore dis-continuous -- leaps between energy levels.
There are many other differences between quantum and classical mechanics involving,
for example, explanations of the so-called "ultraviolet catastrophe", but these are too
technical to discuss in detail here.
Let me just say the final difference between classical and quantum mechanics is the
quantum notion of the "complementary nature of light", which states that light is BOTH a
particle, which has mass, and a wave, which has none. This seemingly contradictory
concept shows how weird quantum physics can be when compared to classical physics.
Classical mechanics consists of the work done in the areas of chemistry and physics
prior to the 20th century. This includes the organization of the periodic table,
thermodynamics, the wave theory of light, and Newtonian mechanics. Quantum
mechanics was born out of the inability of classical mechanics to reconcile theory
with experiment.
The branch of mechanics that deals with the mathematical description of the
motion and interaction of subatomic particles, incorporating the concepts of
quantization of energy, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle, and the
correspondence principle.

Max Planck suggested that the energy of light is proportional to its frequency, also showing that light
exists in discrete quanta of energy.

It is a pioneering result of modern physicsand quantum theory. It is a pioneering result of modern

physicsand quantum theory.
Source: Boundless. Planck's Quantum Theory. Boundless Chemistry. Boundless, 08 Aug. 2016.
Retrieved 19 Nov. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistrytextbook/introduction-to-quantum-theory-7/the-nature-of-light-63/planck-s-quantum-theory-296-7514/

photoelectric effect
The emission of electrons from the surface of a material following the absorption of
electromagnetic radiation.

electromagnetic radiation
Radiation (quantized as photons) consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
oriented perpendicularly to each other, moving through space.

Source: Boundless. Planck's Quantum Theory. Boundless Chemistry. Boundless, 08 Aug. 2016.

Retrieved 19 Nov. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistrytextbook/introduction-to-quantum-theory-7/the-nature-of-light-63/planck-s-quantum-theory-296-7514/

Black body radiation spectrum
Typical spectrum from a black body at different temperatures (shown in blue, green and red curves). As
the temperature decreases, the peak of the black-body radiation curve moves to lower intensities and
longer wavelengths. Black line is a prediction of a classical theory for an object at 5,000K, showing
catastropic discrepancy at shorter wavelengh.

Source: Boundless. Planck's Quantum Hypothesis and Black Body Radiation. Boundless Physics.
Boundless, 26 May. 2016. Retrieved 19 Nov. 2016
from https://www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks/boundless-physics-textbook/atomic-physics29/overview-184/planck-s-quantum-hypothesis-and-black-body-radiation-682-6361/
References:

http://www.emedicalprep.com/study-material/chemistry/plancks-quantumtheory.html
https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistrytextbook/introduction-to-quantum-theory-7/the-nature-of-light-63/planck-s-quantumtheory-296-7514/

Light (red arrows, left) is shone upon a metal. If the light is of sufficient frequency (i.e. sufficient
energy), electrons are ejected (blue arrows, right)
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/wave-particle_duality.htm

299 792 458 m / s

Electromagnetic radiation

a kind of radiation including visible light, radio waves, gamma rays, and X-rays, in which electric
and magnetic fields vary simultaneously.