The Himalayan Physics, Vol.1, No.

1, May 2010
Quantum Optics: An Introduction
Min Raj Lamsal
Prithwi Narayan Campus, Pokhara
Email: min_lamsal@yahoo.com
Optics is the physics, which deals with the study of in electrodynamics gave beautiful and satisfactory
nature of light, its propagation in different media description of the electromagnetic phenomena. At
(including vacuum) & its interaction with different the same time, the kinetic theory of gases provided
materials. Quantum is a packet of energy absorbed or a microscopic basis for the thermo dynamical
emitted in the form of tiny packets called quanta. It properties of matter. Up to the end of the nineteenth
means the amount of energy released or absorbed in century, the classical physics was so successful
a physical process is always an integral multiple of and impressive in explaining physical phenomena
a discrete unit of energy known as quantum which is that the scientists of that time absolutely believed
also known as photon. Quantum Optics is a field of that they were potentially capable of explaining all
research in physics, dealing with the application of physical phenomena.
quantum mechanics to phenomena involving light
and its interactions with matter. However, the first indication of inadequacy of the
Physics in which majority of physical phenomena classical physics was seen in the beginning of the
can be successfully described by using Newton’s twentieth century where it could not explain the
laws of motion is called classical physics. In fact, the experimentally observed spectra of a blackbody
classical physics includes the classical mechanics and radiation. In addition, the laws in classical physics
the electromagnetic theory. In classical mechanics, could not explain phenomena involving very high
the matter is regarded as consisting of point particles velocities and the phenomena involving very short
which move under the action of mutually interacting distance like atoms and other microscopic particles.
forces according to Newton’s laws of motion i.e. Similarly, the electromagnetic wave theory could
not explain phenomena like Photoelectric effect,
Force (F) = mass (m) × acceleration (a) Compton Effect etc.
Newton’s laws explained successfully the motion of
the planets as well as many other electrically neutral On the way to explain the spectra of blackbody
macroscopic bodies. The electromagnetic theory radiation, Max Planck, in 1900, gave birth to a new
explained the physical phenomena concerning idea- the idea of quantum energy- that is the energy
electricity and magnetism in terms of electric and is absorbed or emitted in the form of tiny packets
magnetic fields. It was Maxwell who unified electric called quanta. A packet is called a quantum. Planck
and magnetic fields, called electromagnetic field, arrived at the quantum hypothesis by assuming that
and concluded that both electric and magnetic field a simple harmonic oscillator acts as a resonator to
vectors travel in free space as waves which carry radiation. And Planck’s idea of quantum is the seed
energy. In this way, the classical picture of the world which has grown up as quantum physics in present
given by the classical physics can be summarized as: day physics called modern physics.
the matter consists of point particles carrying mass
and radiation consisting of waves carrying energy Since its birth Max Planck’s idea of quantum energy
and momentum. has been in intensive use in explaining various
physical phenomena. For example: Einstein in
The laws in classical physics reached its climax in 1904 used this idea to explain photoelectric effect.
the later half of the nineteenth century. The laws of Similarly, De Broglie in 1912, Bohr & Frank Hertz
mechanics started by Newton and their development in 1913, Stern-Gerlach in 1922, & Compton in 1923
by Lagrange, Poisson, Jacob, Hamilton etc. seemed & so on used their idea in their theories. And now a
perfect and universal. Similarly, Maxwell’s equations day, the quantum physics has become indispensable
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for researches in fundamental physics. While the the intervening space (called quantum tunneling).
quantum theory of Planck, as extended to atomic Information moves instantly across vast distances.
structure by Bohr, Sommerfeld, & others, has In fact, in quantum mechanics we discover that the
proved to be of inestimable value in the analysis entire universe is actually a series of probabilities.
of atomic spectra, other methods of representing Fortunately, it breaks down when dealing with large
atomic processes have been developed which are in objects, as demonstrated by the Schrödinger s Cat
still better agreement with the experimental facts. thought experiment.
The theory that light moved in discrete bundles (i.e.
In the year 1923 De Broglie put forward a new theory photons) was presented in Max Planck’s 1900 paper
of quantum dynamics which at the outset met with on the ultraviolet catastrophe in black body radiation.
little success. At about the same time Heisenberg put In 1905, Einstein expanded on these principles in his
forward an independent theory of quantum dynamics explanation of the photoelectric effect to define the
which was so successful in its general applications photon theory of light. Quantum physics developed
that it attracted wide attention. While both of these through the first half of the twentieth century largely
theories are different in mathematical formulation by understanding how photons and matter interacted
Schrodinger was able to show that they lead to the and inter-related. This was viewed, however, as
same result & that the two theories are in reality the a study of the matter involved more than the light
same. While quantum mechanics has proved to be involved. In 1953, the maser was developed (which
so successful in its mathematical formulations of emitted coherent microwaves) and in 1960 the laser
atomic processes that it replaces the older quantum (which emitted coherent light). As the property of
theory. the light involved in these devices became more
Quantum Optics is a field of research in physics, important, quantum optics began being used as the
dealing with the application of quantum mechanics term for this specialized field of study.
to phenomena involving light and its interactions
with matter. Quantum optics is a branch of quantum Taking findings from quantum electrodynamics
physics that focuses primarily on the behavior of (QED), it is also possible to interpret quantum optics
light, or photons. At the level of quantum optics, in the form of the creation and annihilation of photons,
the behavior of individual photons has a bearing on described by field operators. This approach allows the
the out coming light, as opposed to classical optics, use of certain statistical approaches that are useful in
which was developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Lasers analyzing the behavior of light, although whether it
are one application that has come out of the study represents what is physically taking place is a matter
of quantum optics. Quantum optics (and quantum of some debate. As an example, Lasers (and masers)
physics as a whole) views electromagnetic radiation are the most obvious application of quantum optics.
as traveling in the form of a wave and a particle, a Light emitted from these devices are in a coherent
phenomena called wave particle duality. The most state, which means the light closely resembles a
common explanation of how this works is that classical sinusoidal wave. In this coherent state,
the photons move in a stream of particles, but the the quantum mechanical wave function (and thus
overall behavior of those particles are determined the quantum mechanical uncertainty) is distributed
by a quantum wave function that determines the equally. The light emitted from a laser is, therefore,
probability of the particles being in a given location highly ordered, and generally limited to essentially
at a given time. the same energy state (and thus the same frequency
& wavelength). This changed with the invention
In the realm of quantum physics, observing something of the laser in 1950. Laser science i.e., research
actually influences the physical processes taking into principles, design and application of these
place. Light waves act like particles and particles act devices became an important field, and the quantum
like waves (called wave particle duality). Matter can mechanics underlying the laser’s principles was
go from one spot to another without moving through
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studied now with more emphasis on the properties According to quantum mechanics, light may be
of light, and the name quantum optics became considered not only as an electro-magnetic wave but
customary. As laser science needed good theoretical also as a “stream” of particles called photons which
foundations, and also because research into these travel with c, the vacuum speed of light. These
soon proved very fruitful, interest in quantum optics particles should not be considered to be classical
rose. Following the work of Dirac in quantum field billiard balls, but as quantum mechanical particles
theory, Glauber and Mandel applied quantum theory described by a wavefunction spread over a finite
to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to region. Each particle carries one quanta of energy
gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection given by the relation,
and the statistics of light (see degree of coherence).
E = hf
This led to the introduction the coherent state as a
quantum description of laser light and the realization Where h is Planck’s constant and f is the frequency
that only some states of light could not be described of the light. The postulation of the quantization of
with classical waves. In the 1970s, Kimball light by Max Planck in 1899 and the discovery of
demonstrated the first source of light which required the general validity of this idea in Albert Einstein’s
a quantum description, a single atom that emitted 1905 explanation of the photoelectric effect soon
one photon at a time. This was first conclusive led physicists to realize the possibility of population
evidence that light was made up of photons. Another inversion and the possibility of the laser.
quantum state of light with certain advantages
A frequently encountered state of the light field is
over any classical state, the squeezed light was
the coherent state as introduced by R. J. Glauber in
soon proposed. At the same time, the development
1963. This state, which can be used to approximately
of short and ultrashort laser pulses created by Q
describe the output of a single-frequency laser well
switching and modelocking techniques, opened the
above the laser threshold, exhibits Poissonean photon
way to the study of unimaginably fast (“ultrafast”)
number statistics. Via certain nonlinear interactions,
processes. Applications for solid state research (e.g.
a coherent state can be transformed into a squeezed
Raman spectroscopy) were found, and mechanical
coherent state, which can exhibit super- or sub-
forces of light on matter were studied. The latter led
Poissonean photon statistics. Such light is called
to levitating and positioning clouds of atoms or even
squeezed light. Other important quantum aspects are
small biological samples in an optical trap or optical
related to correlations of photon statistics between
tweezers by laser beam. This, along with Doppler
different beams. For example, parametric nonlinear
cooling was the crucial technology needed to
processes can generate so-called twin beams, where
achieve the celebrated Bose-Einstein condensation.
ideally each photon of one beam is associated with
Other remarkable results are the demonstration of a photon in the other beam. Atoms are considered
quantum entanglement, quantum teleportation and as quantum mechanical oscillators with a discrete
(recently, in 2004) quantum logic gates. The latter energy spectrum with the transitions between the
are of much interest in quantum information theory, energy eigen states being driven by the absorption or
a subject which partly emerged from quantum emission of light according to Einstein’s theory with
optics, partly from theoretical computer science. the oscillator strength depending on the quantum
Today’s fields of interest among quantum optics numbers of the states. For solid state matter one uses
researchers include parametric down-conversion, the energy band models of solid state physics. This
parametric oscillation, even shorter (attosecond) is important as understanding how light is detected
light pulses, use of quantum optics for quantum (typically by a solid-state device that absorbs it) is
information, manipulation of single atoms, Bose- crucial for understanding experiments.
Einstein condensation, their application, and how
Research into quantum optics, which aims to
to manipulate them (a sub-field often called atom
bring photons to use for information transfer and
optics), and much more.
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Lamsal/Quantum...
computation, is now often called photonics to Quantum optics is used in different branches of
emphasize the claim that photons and photonics physics like spectroscopy and photonics. Quantum
will take the role that electrons and electronics optics is helpful in electron microscopy which is
now have. According to quantum mechanics, light used to have resolution of the order of 20A0 which
may be considered not only as an electro-magnetic is applied in hospitals for surface scanning of burnt
wave but also as a “stream” of particles called layer of skin. It is also used in surface imaging of
photons which travel with c, the vacuum speed of the materials. The resolution of eye lens is only
light. These particles should not be considered to be 0.1 mm but if transmission electron microscope
classical billiard balls, but as quantum mechanical [TEM] and scanning electron microscope [SEM]
particles described by a wave function spread over are used in TV, monitor then they can have more
a finite region. Each particle carries one quanta of resolution. Similarly, performance of photoemissive
energy equal to hf, where h is Planck’s constant and cells, photovoltaic cells, photoconductive cells etc.
f is the frequency of the light. The postulation of the can be improved by using principles of quantum
quantization of light by Max Planck in 1899 and the optics. Similarly, the functioning of Burglar alarms,
discovery of the general validity of this idea in Albert fire alarms, street light switches and traffic counting
Einstein’s 1905 explanation of the photoelectric devices can be modified efficiently with the help of
effect soon led physicists to realize the possibility quantum optics. The principles of quantum optics
of population inversion and the possibility of the can also be applied in photography, TV camera, TV
laser. This kind of use of statistical mechanics is the receivers, Cinematography, automatic doors, night
fundament of most concepts of quantum optics: Light vision scopes etc. They are also used to measure
is described in terms of field operators for creation the transparency or opacity of liquids and solids,
and annihilation of photons i.e. in the language of to study the spectrum of celestial bodies and their
quantum electrodynamics. temperature, to control heat in chemical reactors and
so on.
A frequently encountered state of the light field is
the coherent state as introduced by R. J. Glauber in Bibliography:
1963. This state, which can be used to approximately http://gerdbreitenbach.de/gallery
describe the output of a single-frequency laser well
above the laser threshold, exhibits Poissonean photon http://www.rpphotonics.com/encyclopedia.html
number statistics. Via certain nonlinear interactions,
a coherent state can be transformed into a squeezed
coherent state, which can exhibit super- or sub-
Poissonean photon statistics. Such light is called
squeezed light. Other important quantum aspects are
related to correlations of photon statistics between
different beams. For example, parametric nonlinear
processes can generate so-called twin beams, where
ideally each photon of one beam is associated with a
photon in the other beam.

Atoms are considered as quantum mechanical