Experiment 1

Stagnant Water Film System

Objective:
To report the overall heat transfer co efficient of the gas in the case of stagnant water film system

Theory:
Heat transfer:
Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy from a heated item to a cooler item. When an object or
fluid is at a different temperature than its surroundings or another object, transfer of thermal energy, also
known as heat transfer, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the body and the surroundings reach
thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer always occurs from a hot body to a cold one, a result of the second law
of thermodynamics. Where there is a temperature difference between objects in proximity, heat transfer
between them can never be stopped; it can only be slowed down.
Overview:
Classical transfer of thermal energy occurs only through conduction, convection, radiation or any
combination of these. Heat transfer associated with carriage of the heat of phase change by a substance
(such as steam which carries the heat of boiling) can be fundamentally treated as a variation of convection
heat transfer. In each case, the driving force for heat transfer is a difference of temperature.
Heat transfer is of particular Interest to engineers, who attempt to try to understand and control the flow
of heat through the use of thermal insulation, heat exchangers, and other devices,
Heat-a transfer of thermal energy, (i.e., of energy and entropy) from holter material to cooler material.
Heat transfer may change the Internal energy of materials. Internal energy - the internal vibrational
energy that the molecules or electrons composing all materials contain (except at absolute zero).
Conduction-transfer of heat by electron diffusion or phonon vibrations. Convection-transfer of heat by
conduction in a moving medium, such as a Radiation transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation or,
equivalently, by photons.
Phase change transfer of heat by the potential energy associated with the heat of phase change, such as
boiling, condensation, or freezing.
Conduction:
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature through direct molecular communication within a medium or between mediums in direct
physical contact without a flow of the material medium. The transfer of energy could be primarily by
elastic impact as in fluids or by free electron diffusion as predominant in metals or phonon vibration as
predominant in insulators. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate
against one another, or as electrons move from atom to atom. Conduction is greater in solids, where
atoms are in constant contact. In. liquids (except liquid metals) and gases, the molecules are usually
further apart, giving a lower chance of molecules colliding and passing on thermal energy.
Heat conduction is directly analogous to diffusion of particles into a fluid, in the situation where there are
no fluid currents. This type of heat diffusion differs from mass diffusion in behavior, only in as much as it
can occur in solids, whereas masa diffusion is mostly limited to fluids.
Metals (e.g. copper) are usually the best conductors of thermal energy. This. is due to the way that metals
are chemically bonded: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds) have free moving electrons
and form a, crystalline structure, greatly aiding in the transfer of thermal energy.
As density decreases so does conduction. Therefore, fluids (and especially gases) are less conductive.
This is due to the large distance between atoms in a gas fewer collisions between atoms means less
conduction. Conductivity of gases increases with temperature but only slightly with pressure near and
above atmospheric.
To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ the thermal
conductivity, also known as the conductivity constant or conduction coefficient, k. In thermal
conductivity k is defined as "the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time (1) through a thickness (L), in a
direction normal to a surface of area (A), due to a temperature difference. Thermal conductivity is a
material property that is primarily dependent on the medium's phase, temperature, density, and molecular
bonding.
A heat pipe is a passive device that is constructed in such a way that it acts as though it has extremely
high thermal conductivity.
Convection:
Convection is a combination of conduction and the transfer of thermal energy by fluid circulation or
movement of the hot particles in bulk to cooler areas in a material medium. Unlike the case of pure
conduction, now currents in fluids are additionally involved in convection. This movement occurs into a
fluid or within a fluid, and cannot happen in solids. In solids, molecules keep their relative position to
such an extent that bulk movement or flow is prohibited, and therefore convection does not occur.
In natural convection a fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less dense and rises. The
surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it. This cooler fluid is then heated and the process
continues, forming a convection current. The driving force for natural convection is buoyancy, a result of
differences in fluid density when gravity or any type of acceleration is present in the system.
Forced convection, by contrast, occurs when pumps, fans or other means are used to propel the fluid and
create an artificially induced convection current. Forced heat. convection is sometimes referred to as heat
advection, or sometimes simply advection for short. But advection is a more general process, and in heat
advection, the substance being "advected" in the fluid field is simply heat (rather than mass, which is the
other natural component in such situations, as mass transfer and heat transfer share generally the same
equations).
In some heat transfer systems, both natural and forced convection contribute significantly to the rate of
heat transfer.
To calculate the rate of convection between an object and the surrounding fluid, engineers employ the
heat transfer coefficient, h. Unlike the thermal conductivity, the heat transfer coefficient is not a material
property. The heat transfer coefficient depends upon the geometry, fluid, temperature, velocity, and other
characteristics of the system in which convection occurs. Therefore, the heat transfer coefficient must be
derived or found experimentally for every system analyzed. Formulae and correlations are available in
many references to calculate heat transfer coefficients for typical configurations fluids.
It should be noted that convection does not occur in a perfect vacuum due to the lack of media to transmit
heat. This mode of heat transfer does not occur in space where there is no atmosphere in the surroundings
of the system to be analyzed. It only occurs where gases are present.
Radiation:
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic radiation. All objects with a temperature above
absolute zero radiate energy at a rate equal to their emissivity multiplied by the rate at which energy
would radiate from them if they were a black body. No medium is necessary for radiation to occur,
radiation works even in and through a perfect vacuum. The energy from the Sun travels through the
vacuum of space before warming the earth. Also, the only way that energy can leave earth is by being
radiated to space.
Both reflectivity and emissivity of all bodies is wavelength dependent. The temperature determines the
wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation as limited in intensity by Planck's law of black-
body radiation. For anybody the reflectivity depends on the wavelength distribution of incoming
electromagnetic radiation and therefore the temperature of the source of the radiation. The emissivity
depends on the wave length distribution and therefore the temperature of the body itself. For example,
fresh snow, which is highly reflective to visible light, (reflectivity about 0.90) appears white due to
reflecting sunlight with a peak energy wavelength of about 0.5 micrometres, its emissivity, however, at a
temperature of about -5ºC, peak energy wavelength of about 12 micrometres, is 0.99.
Gases absorb and emit energy in characteristic wavelength patterns that are different for each gas.
Visible light is simply another form of electromagnetic radiation with a shorter wavelength (and therefore
a higher frequency) than infrared radiation. The difference between visible light and the radiation from
objects at conventional temperatures is a factor of about 20 in frequency and wavelength; the two kinds of
emission are simply different "colors" of electromagnetic radiation.
Newton's law of cooling:
A related principle, Newton's law of cooling, states that the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to
the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings, or environment. The law is

dQ
=hA (T o−T env )
dt

And
Q = Thermal energy in Joules
h = Heat transfer coefficient
A = Surface area of the heat being transferred
To = Temperature of the object's surface
Tenv = Temperature of the environment
This form of heat loss principle is sometimes not very precise, an accurate formulation may require
analysis of heat flow, based on the (transient) heat transfer equation in a nonhomogeneous, or else poorly
conductive, medium. The following simplification may be applied so long as it is permitted by the Biot
number, which relates surface conductance to interior thermal conductivity in a body. If this ratio permits,
it shows that the body has relatively high internal conductivity, such that (to good approximation) the
entire 1 dy is at same uniform temperature as it is cooled from the outside, by the environment. If this is
the case, then is easy to derive from these conditions the behavior exponential decay of temperature of a
body. In such cases, the entire body is treated as lumped capacitance heat reservoir, with total heat
content which is proportional to simple total heat capacity Q=mcΔT and the temperature of the body
One dimensional Application, Using Thermal Circuits:
A very useful concept used in heat transfer applications is the representation of thermal transfer by what
is known as thermal circuits. A thermal circuit is the representation of the resistance to heat flow as
though it were an electric resistor. The heat transferred is analogous to the current and the thermal
resistance analogous to the electric resister made of an L, long cement plaster with a thermal coefficient k,
and L long paper faced fiber glass, with thermal coefficient ką. The left surface of the wall is at T, and
exposed to air with a convective coefficient of h.
Insulation and radiant barriers:
Thermal insulators are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of heat by limiting conduction,
convection, or both. Radiant barriers are materials which reflect radiation and therefore reduce the flow of
heat from radiation sources. Good insulators are not necessarily good radiant barriers, and vice versa.
Metal, for instance, is an excellent reflector and poor insulator.
The effectiveness of an insulator is indicated by its R- (resistance) value. The P. value of a material is the
of the conduction coefficient (k) multiplied by the thickness (d) of the Insulator. The units of resistance
value are in SI units (K-m²)
R=Q MT
Rigid fiberglass, a common insulation material, has an R-value of 4 per inch while poured concrete, a
poor insulator, has an R-value of 0.08 per inch.
The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its reflectivity, which is the fraction of radiation
reflected. A material with a high reflectivity (at a given wavelength) has a low emissivity (at that same
wavelength), and vice versa (at any specific wavelength, reflectivity 1-emissivity). An ideal radiant
barrier would have a reflectivity of 1 and would therefore reflect 100% of incoming radiation. Vacuum
battles (Dewars) are silvered to approach this. In space vacuum, satellites use multi-layer insulation which
consists of many layers of aluminized (shiny) mylar to greatly reduce radiation heat transfer and control
satellite temperature.
Procedure:

 Note the room temperature.

 Take the known weight of water (or volume of water) in the box (in which water to be heated)
such that the pipe is completely dipped in the water.
 Place the four thermometers in the geometry. Two of them are placed in the water near inlet and
outlet of the flue gases and other two are placed at the inlet of flue gases and second in the exit of
the flue gases.
 One end of pipe is open to atmosphere and at the other there is a square head. beneath which a
burner is placed so that the fuel is burned to give off gases.
 Bumer is flamed and flue gases pass through the pipe and exchange their heat with water Burner
is so placed that the flame is not in the contact with the instead thermometer bulb is placed in flue
gases.
 Try to obtain the steady state condition i.e. when rise in temperature is stopped.
 Here heat given to the water is balanced with heat loses
 At steady state note the volume of the water.
 It is difficult to measure the exact volume of water so just measure the dimension of the box i.e.
length and width of the box. Also measure the height of the water in the box. By using the
formula of volume calculate the volume with the tubes in side it (box).
 Measure the outer diameter of the tubes and calculate the volume the volume of the tubes.
Subtract the above calculated value of volume with the tubes volume. In this way, we can
calculate the volume of the water.
 Heat the water of ½ hour and note the volume of water remained in the tank. Also find the
volume of water is evaporated.
SCHEMATIC:
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
TR= Room Temperature = 34°C
No. Initial Final Water lost Temp. Temp. Temperature of water Time of
of vol, of vol. of due to of the of the evaporation
Obs water water evaporation flue flue
gas at gas at
inlet outlet

T1 T2 Tavg
- mL mL mL ºC ºC ºC ºC ºC min
1 3700 3250 450 260 90 49 48 48.5 20

Length of the box = l = 46 cm

Width of the box= w = 9.6 cm
Height of the box = h = 11.5 cm
Diameter of the pipe= Dp = 3.54 cm
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient = U = ?
Q= UA θm
U= Q/Aθm
Where,
A = surface area of the pipe = Π. Do. L= 0.0511 m2
θm = ( θ1 – θ2 )/ ln θ1/ θ2 ºC
θ1 = temperature difference at inlet of the gas = 211 ºC
θ2 = temperature difference at outlet of the gas = 42 ºC
θm = (211-42)/ ln 211/42
θm = 106.6966 ºC
Now,
Q = heat loss of the surroundings,
Q = QR + Qc + Qλ
QR = Heat loss due to radiation
QC= Heat loss due to convection
Qλ= Heat loss as latent heat

QR = ?
QR = A Ɛ σ (Tav – TR) , J/s
Where,

Ɛ = emissivity of the oxidized iron at Tav =

Σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant ≈ 5.670 x 10-8

A= area of base + areas of walls – 2(cross-section area of the pipe), m 2

A = 441.6 + 110.4 – 19.67
A= 532.325 cm2 = 0.0532325 m2

QR = ( 532.325 .10− 4 ) ( 0.77 ) ( 5.670. 10−8 ) (48.5−28)

QR = 4.76 x 10-8 J/s

QC = ?
QC = h A (Tav – TR)
h = heat transfer coefficient
A = heat transfer area for air to take heat
A = area of walls – 2(cross-sectional area of pipe)
A= 0.0532325 m2

For natural convection to air for vertical surfaces:

h = C’’ (ΔT)n l3n-1 ; l < 1 m (W/m2 ºC)
C’’ = 0.450, n = 4 , l = 0.46 m

ΔT = Tav – TR, ºC
ΔT = 48.5 – 28 = 20.5 ºC
h = 0.450 ( 20.5 4 ) 0.4613= 3.2815 W/m2 ºC

Qc = 3.2815 ( 0.0532325 ) (20.5 )

Qc= 3.58099 J/s

 Qλ= (m λs)/t, J/s
λs = latent heat at Tav = 2453.5 J/g
m = mass of evaporated water = 450 g
t = time of evaporation = 1200 s, so

450(2453.5)
Q λ= = 940.50 J/s
1200
Q = QR + Qc + Qλ
Q= 940.50 + 3.58099 + 4.76 x 10-8 = 944.081 J/s
And,
U = Q/A θm

= 944.081/ 104.69* 0.0511 W/(s-m 2- ºC)

U = 176.475 W/(s-m2- ºC)

Results:
The overall heat transfer coefficient for this experiment is 176.475 W/(s-m2- ºC).

Discussion:
The film model provides correction factors for the effect of wall mass transfer (such as by suction or
injection) on heat transfer and exerted friction between fluid and wall. In the present analysis, it has
been demonstrated that the conventional correction factors do not account for the thickness of the
mass-transferring layer (or diffusional film thickness). Hence, the classical correction factors are not
generally applicable for Sho/Nu, > 1 and an improved film analysis is required. Here, new correction
factors have been derived which account for both the magnitude of the mass-transfer rate and the
thickness of the mass-transferring film. These correction factors represented by simple analytical
expressions reveal the substantial influence of the actual diffusional film thickness on transport
phenomena. Furthermore, the improved thermal correction factor has been applied in the tangency
condition. This condition is used to predict fog formation in mixtures of nitrogen and n-butyl alcohol.
The experimental results of Johnstone et al. (1950) cannot be explained with the conventional nor
alternative thermal correction factor. A better validation of the presented model will be possible with
experiments where Sho/Nuo is less close to unity and/or the mass flux is larger.