3.

4 arc length: The distance from the tip of the welding

electrode to the adjacent surface of the weld pool.
SMAW:A constant-current (CC) power supply is preferred. SMAW is a
manual welding process.
5.3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
GTAW is an arc welding process that uses an arc between
a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the weld pool.
The process is used with shielding gas and without the
application of pressure. GTAW can be used with or without
the addition of filler metal. The CC type power supply can
be used with either dc or ac, the choice depends largely on
the metal to be welded. Direct current welding is typically
performed with the electrode negative (DCEN) polarity.
DCEN welding offers the advantages of deeper penetration
and faster welding speeds. Alternating current provides a
cathodic cleaning (sputtering) that removes refractory
oxides from the surfaces of the weld joint, which is necessary
for welding aluminum and magnesium.
5.3.1 Advantages of GTAW
Some commonly accepted advantages of the GTAW process
include:
a. Produces high purity welds, generally free from defects.
b. Little post-weld cleaning is required.
c. Allows for excellent control of root pass weld penetration.
d. Can be used with or without filler metal, dependent on the
application
5.4 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
GMAW is an arc welding process that uses an arc between
continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool. The process
is used with shielding from an externally supplied gas
and without the application of pressure. GMAW may be operated
in semiautomatic, machine, or automatic modes. It
employs a constant voltage (CV) power supply, and uses
either the short circuiting, globular, or spray methods to transfer
metal from the electrode to the work:
5.4.1 Short Circuiting Transfer (GMAW-S)
GMAW-S encompasses the lowest range of welding currents
and electrode diameters associated with GMAW process.
This process produces a fast freezing weld pool that is
generally suited for joining thin section, out-of position, or
root pass. Due to the fast-freezing nature of this process, there
is potential for lack of sidewall fusion when welding thickwall
equipment or a nozzle attachment.

5.4.2 Globular Transfer

This process encompasses relatively low current (below
250 A). The globular transfer mode is characterized by a drop
size with a diameter greater than that of the electrode. In general,
this process is limited to the flat position and can produce
spatter
5.4.3 Spray Transfer
The spray transfer mode results in a highly directed stream
of discrete drops that are accelerated by arc forces. Spatter is
negligible. Due to its high arc forces with high current, applying
this process to thin sheets may be difficult. The thickness
limitation of the spray arc transfer has been overcome by the
use of pulsed GMAW. Pulsed GMAW is a variation of the
GMAW in which the current is pulsed to obtain the advantage
of spray transfer at the less average currents than that of spray
transfer mode.
5.4.4 Advantages of GMAW
Some commonly accepted advantages of the GMAW process
include:
a. The only consumable electrode process that can be used to
weld most commercial metals and alloys.
b. Deposition rates are significantly higher than those
obtained with SMAW.
c. Minimal post-weld cleaning is required due to the absence
of a slag.
5.5 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
FCAW is an arc welding process that uses an arc between
continuous tubular filler metal electrode and the weld pool.
The process is used with shielding gas evolved from a flux
contained within the tubular electrode, with or without additional
shielding from an externally supplied gas, and without
the application of pressure. Normally a semiautomatic process,
the use of FCAW depends on the type of electrodes
available, the mechanical property requirements of the
welded joints, and the joint designs and fit-up. The recommended
power source is the dc constant-voltage type, similar
to sources used for GMAW.
5.6 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
Submerged arc welding is an arc welding process that uses
an arc or arcs between a flux covered bare metal electrode(s)
and the weld pool. The arc and molten metal are shielded by a
blanket of granular flux, supplied through the welding nozzle
from a hopper. The process is used without pressure and filler
metal from the electrode and sometimes from a supplemental
source (welding rod, flux, or metal granules). SAW can be
applied in three different modes: semiautomatic, automatic,
and machine. It can utilize either a CV or CC power supply.
SAW is used extensively in shop pressure vessel fabrication
and pipe manufacturing. Figure 10 shows a schematic of the
SAW process.
5.6.1 Advantages of SAW
Some commonly accepted advantages of the SAW process

include:
a. Provides very high metal deposition rates.
b. Produces repeatable high quality welds for large weldments
and repetitive short welds.
5.6.2 Limitations of SAW
Limitations associated with SAW are:
a. A power supply capable of providing high amperage at
100% duty cycle is recommended.
b. Weld is not visible during the welding process.
c. Equipment required is more costly and extensive, and less
portable.
d. Process is limited to shop applications and flat position.
5.7 STUD ARC WELDING (SW)
SW is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a
metal stud or similar part and the work piece. Once the surfaces
of the parts are properly heated, that is the end of the
stud is molten and the work has an equal area of molten pool,
they are brought into contact by pressure. Shielding gas or
flux may or may not be used. The process may be fully automatic
or semiautomatic. A stud gun holds the tip of the stud
against the work. Direct current is typically used for SW with
the stud gun connected to the negative terminal (DCEN). The
power source is a CC type.
SW is a specialized process predominantly limited to welding
insulation and refractory support pins to tanks, pressure
vessels and heater casing.
It is important to differentiate the PQR and welder performance
qualification (WPQ), detailed in Section 7. The purpose
of the PQR is to establish the properties of the
weldment. The purpose of the WPQ is to establish the
welder is capable of making a quality weld using the welding
procedure.
7.4 AWS CLASSIFICATION OF FILLER METALS
An AWS classification number identifies electrodes and
welding rods. The AWS classification numbers are specified
in ASME Section IIC under their appropriate SFA specification
number. ASME Section IX Table QW-432 lists the AWS
classification numbers and SFA specification numbers
included under each of the F-numbers. Note that the Xs in
the AWS classification numbers represent numerals, i.e. the
AWS classifications E6010, E7010, E8010, E9010, and
E10010 are all covered by F-number 3 (EXX10). Appendix A
contains additional details on the conventions used in identification
of filler metals for the welding processes.
8.2 WELDER PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION
(WPQ):
Mechanical tests performed on welder qualification test
coupons are defined in ASME Section IX, QW-452 for type
and number required. If radiographic exam is used for qualification,
the minimum length of coupon to be examined is 6 in.

(152.4 mm), and includes the entire weld circumference for

pipe coupons. Coupons are required to pass visual examination
and physical testing, if used. Rules for qualification of
welding operators using radiography require 3 ft (0.91 m)
length to be examined.
Welder performance qualification expires if the welding
process is not used during a six-month period. The welders
qualification can be revoked if there is a reason to question
their ability to make welds. A welders log or continuity
report can be used to verify that a welders qualifications are
current.
9.3 VISUAL EXAMINATION (VT)
9.3.1 General
Visual examination is the most extensively used NDE
method for welds. It includes either the direct or indirect
observation of the exposed surfaces of the weld and base
metal. Direct visual examination is conducted when access is
sufficient to place the eye within 6 in. 24 in. (150 mm
600 mm) of the surface to be examined and at an angle not
less than 30 degrees to the surface as illustrated in Figure 12.
Mirrors may be used to improve the angle of vision.
d. Personnel are required to demonstrate annually completion
of a J-1 Jaeger-type eye vision test.
9.5 ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD
MEASUREMENT (ACFM)
The ACFM technique is an electromagnetic non-contacting
technique that is able to detect and size surface breaking
defects in a range of different materials and through coatings
of varying thickness. This technique is ideal for inspecting
complex geometries such as nozzles, ring-grooves, grind-out
areas or radiuses. It requires minimal surface preparation and
can be used at elevated temperatures up to 900F (482C).
With its increased sensitivity to shallow cracks, ACFM is
used for the evaluation and monitoring of existing cracks.

9.8.9.4 Excessive Backscatter

A lead letter B with a minimum dimension of 1/2 in.
(12.7 mm) and 1/16 in. (1.55 mm) thickness is typically
attached to the back of each film holder/cassette during each
exposure to determine if backscatter radiation is exposing the
film. If a light image of the letter B appears on any radiograph
of a darker background, protection from scatter radiation
will be considered insufficient and the radiograph will be considered
unacceptable. A dark image of the B on a lighter
background is not cause for rejection of the radiograph.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

The physical properties of a metal or alloy are those, which

are relatively insensitive to structure and can be measured
without the application of force. Examples of physical properties
of a metal are the melting temperature, the thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity, the coefficient of thermal
expansion, and density.