Chap3 PDF
Chap3 PDF
Chap3 PDF
INTRODUCTION
technological development and the nature and extent of such changes can not be
predicted with accuracy. A built-in flexibility in the waste management system
hence becomes essential. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify some of the
factors that are likely to cause changes in waste composition and characteristics,
which will enable planners to make reasonable judgements about the future.
3.2
Domestic/Residential Waste:
This category of waste comprises the solid wastes that originate from single
and multi-family household units. These wastes are generated as a consequence of
household activities such as cooking, cleaning, repairs, hobbies, redecoration,
empty containers, packaging, clothing, old books, writing/new paper, and old
furnishings. Households also discard bulky wastes such as furniture and large
appliances which cannot be repaired and used.
(ii)
Municipal Waste:
Commercial Waste:
(iv)
Institutional Waste:
Garbage:
Garbage is the term applied to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from
the handling, storage, sale, preparation, cooking and serving of food. Such wastes
contain putrescible organic matter, which produces strong odours and therefore
attracts rats, flies and other vermin. It requires immediate attention in its storage,
handling and disposal.
(vi)
Rubbish:
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(ix)
Street Sweeping:
This term applies to wastes that are collected from streets, walkways,
alleys, parks and vacant lots. In the more affluent countries manual street
sweeping has virtually disappeared but it still commonly takes place in developing
countries, where littering of public places is a far more widespread and acute
problem. Mechanised street sweeping is the dominant practice in the developed
countries. Street wastes include paper, cardboard, plastic, dirt, dust, leaves and
other vegetable matter.
(x)
Dead Animals:
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DESCRIPTION
SOURCES
Rubbish
Households, institutions
and commercial such as
hotels, stores,
restaurants, markets, etc.
Bulky waste
Street waste
Street sweepings,
Dirt, leaves, catch basin dirt, animal
droppings,
contents of litter receptacles
dead animals
Streets, sidewalks,
alleys, vacant lots, etc.
Dead animals
Small animals: cats, dogs, poultry etc.
Large animals: horses, cows etc.
Lumber, roofing, and sheathing
scraps, crop residues, rubble,
broken concrete, plaster, conduit
pipe, wire, insulation etc.
Construction and
demolition sites,
remodeling,
repairing sites
Hazardous wastes
Horticulture
Wastes
Construction
& demolition
waste
Industrial
waste & sludges
Source: Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries by Bhide & Sunderasan, INSDOC April, 1983
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3.3
scale should be operated during the entire daily period of operation of the landfill
site, round the clock, if necessary. A shift system should be employed, the
weighing team comprising four workers for each scale a supervisor, an assistant
and two helpers moving the scale platform to the desired spacing for each vehicle.
The quantities of waste measured at disposal sites more correctly reflect the
quantities being disposed rather than those generated since the measurements do
not include:
Bins or boxes for storage of about 60 litre i.e. 0.06 m3 capacity sorted
material
This procedure may not be feasible in developing countries where time for
study and resources are limited. For such situations a suitable procedure of sample
collection is described.
40
Where,
n
Z
S
*
=
=
=
number of samples
the standard normal deviate for confidence leve l desired
estimated standard deviation (transformed basis)
2 arcsin X - 2 arcsin X
The value for is set according to the desired level of precision. In this
case the values for acceptable precision are obtained from the range e.g. paper
content in Indian Cities ranges between 2.91 6.43%. The average percentage of
paper content is 4.036. Therefore X = p.04036. (Y = 0.4045). There will be two
values i.e. 0.02126 and 0.02394. The choice of sign for X is positive if X is
less than 0.5. Therefore, corresponding values for X are 0.0516 & 0.0643 and
transformed values Y -> 0.4582 & 0.5126.
Therefore
=
=
=
and
=
=
=
We get n = 6
Z = 1.96, Z+0.684
2
Similarly substituting value of 2 in equation n = (ZS/ 2)
We get n = 2
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Table 3.2 :
Range
(no. of samples)
Paper
0.04036
0.4045
0.0742
26
Rubber,
Leather &
Synthetics
0.00596
0.1545
0.0298
13 35
Glass
0.00558
0.1495
0.0285
9 10
Metals
0.00506
0.1424
0.0277
13 20
Total
Compostable
Matter
0.4221
1.4144
0.1766
1 36
Inert
0.4793
1.4979
0.0731
23
X ->
Y ->
V ->
25.66
0.2566
1.0570
0.1137
0.0980
no. of samples
43
Metal, glass, ceramics, plastics, textiles, dirt and wood are generally present
although not always so, the relative proportions depending on local factors;
44
For these reasons an analysis of the composition of solid waste, for rich and
poor countries alike, is expressed in terms of a limited number of constituents. It
is useful in illustrating the variations from one urban center to another and from
country to country. Data for different degrees of national wealth (annual
per-capita income) are presented in Table 3.3. Waste composition also varies
with socio-economic status within a particular community, since income
determines life-style consumption patterns and cultural behaviour.
Table 3.3 :
Composition :
(% by weight)
Metal
Glass, Ceramics
Food and
Garden waste
Paper
Textiles
Plastics/Rubber
Misc. Combustible
Misc. Incombustible
Inert
Density
(kg/m3 )
Moisture Content
(% by wt)
Waste
Generation
(kg/cap/day)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Middle Income
Countries
(2)
High Income
Countries
(3)
0.2 2.5
0.5 3.5
15
1 10
3 13
4 10
40 65
1 10
15
15
18
20 50
250 500
20 60
15 40
2 10
26
1 30
170 330
20 50
15 40
2 10
2 10
1 20
100 170
40 80
40 60
20 30
0.4 0.6
0.5 0.9
0.7 1.8
Countries having a per capita income less than US$360 (1978 prices)
Countries having a per capita income US$360-3500 (1978 prices)
Countries having a per capita income greater than US$3500 (1978 prices)
45
3.3.5.1
46
Paper
Rubber,
Leather
And
Synthetics
Glass
Metals
Total
compostable
matter
Inert
0.1 to 0.5
12
2.91
0.78
0.56
0.33
44.57
43.59
0.5 to 1.0
15
2.95
0.73
0.35
0.32
40.04
48.38
1.0 to 2.0
4.71
0.71
0.46
0.49
38.95
44.73
2.0 to 5.0
3.18
0.48
0.48
0.59
56.67
49.07
>5
6.43
0.28
0.94
0.80
30.84
53.90
All values in table 3.4 are in percent, and are calculated on net weight basis
Source : Background material for Manual on SWM, NEERI, 1996
Table 3.5 :
Population
range (in
million)
No. of
Cities
surveyed
Moisture
Organic
matter
Nitrogen
as Total
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
as P2O5
Potassium
as K2O
C/N
Ratio
Calorific
value* in
kcal/kg
0.1-0.5
12
25.81
37.09
0.71
0.63
0.83
30.94
1009.89
0.5-1.0
15
19.52
25.14
0.66
0.56
0.69
21.13
900.61
1.0-2.0
26.98
26.89
0.64
0.82
0.72
23.68
980.05
2.0-5.0
21.03
25.60
0.56
0.69
0.78
22.45
907.18
> 5.0
38.72
39.07
0.56
0.52
0.52
30.11
800.70
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3.3.6 Quantities
The information regarding waste quantity and density coupled with waste
generation rate (by weight), is important while assessing the payload capacity of
the collection equipment. It is possible to estimate the number of vehicles
required for the collection and transportation of waste each day.
While per capita waste generation is a statistic, which is necessary for
indicating trends in consumption and production, the total we ight and volume of
wastes generated by the community served by the management system are of
greater importance in planning and design. As in all other aspects of data
collection for the planning and design phases, data on waste generation, weight
and volume should be collected by each authority for application in its own area of
operation.
3.3.6.1
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Table 3.6 :
Population
Range
(in million)
< 0.1
328
68.300
0.21
14343.00
0.1 0.5
255
56.914
0.21
11952.00
0.5 1.0
31
21.729
0.25
5432.00
1.0 2.0
14
17.184
0.27
4640.00
2.0 5.0
20.597
0.35
7209.00
> 5.0
26.306
0.50*
13153.00
3.3.6.2
Commercial refuse
Street sweepings
Institutional refuse
consumed the increase in per capita solid waste quantities would be directly
proportional to the per capita increase in GNP. Table 3.7 shows the relation
between GNP and expected generation of municipal solid waste, based on the
study conducted by the United Nations in 1995.
Table 3.7 :
Sl.
No.
Country
GNP Per
Capita
(US$)
Urban
Population
(% of Total)
Urban MSW
Generation
(kg/capita/day)
GNP Per
Capita
(US$)
Urban
Population
(% of Total)
Urban MSW
Generation
(kg/capita/day)
Low Income
490
27.8
0.64
1,050
48.8
0.6-1.0
1.
Nepal
200
13.7
0.50
360
34.3
0.6
2.
Bangladesh
240
18.3
0.49
440
40.0
0.6
3.
Myanmar
240
26.2
0.45
580
47.3
0.6
4.
Vietnam
240
20.8
0.55
580
39.0
0.7
5.
Mangolia
310
60.9
0.60
560
76.5
0.9
6.
India
340
26.8
0.46
620
45.2
0.7
7.
Lao PDR
350
21.7
0.69
850
44.5
0.8
8.
China
620
30.3
0.79
1,500
54.5
0.9
9.
Sri Lanka
700
22.4
0.89
1,300
42.6
1.0
1,410
37.6
0.73
3,390
61.1
0.8-1.5
980
35.4
0.76
2,400
60.7
1.0
Middle Income
10.
Indonesia
11.
Philippines
1.050
54.2
0.52
2,500
74.3
0.8
12.
Thailand
2,740
20.0
1.10
6,650
39.1
1.5
13.
Malaysia
3,890
53.7
0.81
9,400
72.7
1.4
30,990
79.5
1.64
41,140
88.2
1.1-4.5
9,700
81.3
1.59
17,600
93.7
1.4
95.0
5.07
31,000
97.3
4.5
1.10
36,000
1.47
53,500
High Income
14.
Korea, Republic of
15.
Hong Kong
22,990
16.
Singapore
26,730
17.
Japan
39,640
100
77.6
100
84.9
( 1 US$ = 40 INR )
Source: What a Waste, Solid Waste Management in Asia, Urban Development Sector Unit, East
Asia and Pacific Region, October, 1998
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1.1
1.3
3.3.6.4
Seasonal Variations
Density
A knowledge of the density of a waste i.e. its mass per unit volume (kg/m3)
is essential for the design of all elements of the solid waste management system
viz. Community storage, transportation and disposal. For example, in highincome countries, considerable benefit is derived through the use of compaction
vehicles on collection routes, because the waste is typically of low density. A
reduction of volume of 75% is frequently achieved with normal compaction
equipment, so that an initial density of 100 kg/m3 will readily be increased to 400
kg/m3. In other words, the vehicle would haul four times the weight of waste in
the compacted state than when the waste is uncompacted. The situation in
low-income countries is quite different: a high initial density of waste precludes
the achievement of high compaction ratio. Consequently, compaction vehicles
offer little or no advantage and are not cost-effective.
Significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste moves
from source to disposal, as a result of scavenging, handling, wetting and drying by
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the weather, vibration in the collection vehicles. The values shown in Table 3.8
reflect densities at the pick-up point.
Table 3.8 :
Sl.No.
Density
(Kg/m3 )
1.
Bangalore
390
2.
Baroda
457
3.
Delhi
422
4.
Hyderabad
369
5.
Jaipur
537
6.
Jabalpur
395
7.
Raipur
405
The above figures may be taken as indicative and actual field measurements must be made
while designing solid waste management schemes for towns and cities.
Procedure: The solid waste should be taken in the smaller 0.028 m3 box to give a
composite sample, from different parts of the heap of waste, then weighed with the
help of a spring balance. After weighing, this smaller box (0.028 m3) is emptied
in bigger l m3 box and the weight of the waste poured into the bigger box is noted.
This is repeated till the larger box is filled to the top. The waste should not be
compacted by pressure.
52
Fill the l m3 box three times and take the average. Thus the weight per
cubic meter is obtained.
3.3.7.2
Moisture Content
Calorific Value
combustion gases remains above 100Oc so that the water resulting from
combustion is in the vapour state. Table 3.5 shows typical values of the residue
and calorific value for the components of municipal solid waste.
While evaluating incineration as a means of disposal or energy recovery,
the following points should be kept in view:
The moisture contained as free water in the waste reduces the dry organic
material per kilogram of waste and requires a significant amount of energy
for evaporation; and
The ash content of the waste reduces the proportion of dry organic material
per kilogram of waste. It also retains some heat when removed from the
furnace.
Bio-Chemical:
Toxic:
3.3.8.1
Classification
are very useful in assessment of potential of methane gas generation. The various
chemical components normally found out in municipal solid waste are described
below. The product of decomposition and heating values are two examples of the
importance of chemical characteristics. Analysis identifies the compounds and the
per cent dry weight of each class.
(i)
Lipids:
Included in this class of compounds are fats, oils and grease. The principal
sources of lipids are garbage, cooking oils and fats. Lipids have high calorific
values, about 38000 kcal/kg, which makes waste with a high lipid content suitable
for energy recovery processes. Since lipids in the solid state become liquid at
temperatures slightly above ambient, they add to the liquid content during waste
decomposition. They are biodegradable but because they have a low solubility in
waste, the rate of biodegradation is relatively slow.
(ii)
Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are found primarily in food and yard waste. They include
sugars and polymers of sugars such as starch and cellulose and have the general
formula (CH2O) X. Carbohydrates are readily biodegraded to products such as
carbon dioxide, water and methane. Decomposing carbohydrates are particularly
attractive for flies and rats and for this reason should not be left exposed for
periods longer than is necessary.
(iii)
Proteins:
Natural Fibres:
This class includes the natural compounds, cellulose and lignin, both of
which are resistant to biodegradation. They are found in paper and paper products
and in food and yard waste. Cellulose is a larger polymer of glucose while lignin
is composed of a group of monomers of which benzene is the primary member.
Paper, cotton and wood products are 100%, 95% and 40% cellulose respectively.
Since they are highly combustible, solid waste having a high proportion of paper
and wood products, are suitable for incineration. The calorific values of ovendried
55
paper products are in the range 12000 18000 kcal/kg and of wood about 20000
kcal/kg, which compare with 44200 kcal/kg for fuel oil.
(v)
Non-combustibles:
Materials in this class are glass, ceramic, metals, dust, dirt, ashes and
construction. Non-combustibles account for 30-50% of the dry solids.
3.4
CONCLUSION
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