Beyond Mapping I

Epilog Historical Overview and What

Is in Store
Beyond Mapping book

Bringing the GIS Paradigm to Closure discusses the evolution and probable future of GIS
technology
Learning Computer-Assisted Map Analysis a 1986 journal article describing how oldfashioned math and statistics can go a long way toward helping us understand GIS
A Mathematical Structure for Analyzing Maps 1986 journal article establishing a
comprehensive framework for map analysis/modeling using primitive spatial analysis and spatial
statistics operators
Note: The processing and figures discussed in this topic were derived using MapCalcTM software. See www.innovativegis.com to
download a free MapCalc Learner version with tutorial materials for classroom and self-learning map analysis concepts and
procedures.
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Bringing the GIS Paradigm to Closure

(GIS World Supplement, July 1992)
(return to top of Topic)

Information has always been the cornerstone of effective decisions. Spatial information is particularly
complex as it requires two descriptorsWhere is What. For thousands of years the link between the two
descriptors has been the traditional, manually drafted map involving pens, rub-on shading, rulers,
planimeters, dot grids, and acetate sheets. Its historical use was for navigation through unfamiliar terrain
and seas, emphasizing the accurate location of physical features.
More recently, analysis of mapped data has become an important part of understanding and managing
geographic space. This new perspective marks a turning point in the use of maps from one emphasizing
physical description of geographic space, to one of interpreting mapped data, combining map layers and
finally, to spatially characterizing and communicating complex spatial relationships. This movement
from where is what (descriptive) to "so what and why" (prescriptive) has set the stage for entirely new
geospatial concepts and tools.
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 1

Since the 1960's, the decision-making process has become increasingly quantitative, and mathematical
models have become commonplace. Prior to the computerized map, most spatial analyses were severely
limited by their manual processing procedures. The computer has provided the means for both efficient
handling of voluminous data and effective spatial analysis capabilities. From this perspective, all
geographic information systems are rooted in the digital nature of the computerized map.
The coining of the term Geographic Information Systems reinforces this movement from maps as images
to mapped data. In fact, information is GIS's middle name. Of course, there have been other, more
descriptive definitions of the acronym, such as "Gee It's Stupid," or "Guessing Is Simpler," or my
personal favorite, "Guaranteed Income Stream."
COMPUTER MAPPING
The early 1970's saw computer mapping automate map drafting. The points, lines and areas defining
geographic features on a map are represented as an organized set of X, Y coordinates. These data drive
pen plotters that can rapidly redraw the connections at a variety of colors, scales, and projections with the
map image, itself, as the focus of the processing.
The pioneering work during this period established many of the underlying concepts and procedures of
modern GIS technology. An obvious advantage with computer mapping is the ability to change a portion
of a map and quickly redraft the entire area. Updates to resource maps which could take weeks, such as a
forest fire burn, can be done in a few hours. The less obvious advantage is the radical change in the
format of mapped data from analog inked lines on paper, to digital values stored on disk.
SPATIAL DATA MANAGEMENT
During 1980's, the change in data format and computer environment was exploited. Spatial database
management systems were developed that linked computer mapping capabilities with traditional database
management capabilities. In these systems, identification numbers are assigned to each geographic
feature, such as a timber harvest unit or ownership parcel. For example, a user is able to point to any
location on a map and instantly retrieve information about that location. Alternatively, a user can specify
a set of conditions, such as a specific forest and soil combination, then direct the results of the geographic
search to be displayed as a map.
Early in the development of GIS, two alternative data structures for encoding maps were debated. The
vector data model closely mimics the manual drafting process by representing map features (discrete
spatial objects) as a set of lines which, in turn, are stores as a series of X,Y coordinates. An alternative
structure, termed the raster data model, establishes an imaginary grid over a project area, and then stores
resource information for each cell in the grid (continuous map surface). The early debate attempted to
determine the universally best structure. The relative advantages and disadvantages of both were viewed
in a competitive manner that failed to recognize the overall strengths of a GIS approach encompassing
both formats.

____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 2

By the mid-1980's, the general consensus within the GIS community was that the nature of the data and
the processing desired determines the appropriate data structure. This realization of the duality of mapped
data structure had significant impact on geographic information systems. From one perspective, maps
form sharp boundaries that are best represented as lines. Property ownership, timber sale boundaries, and
road networks are examples where lines are real and the data are certain. Other maps, such as soils, site
index, and slope are interpretations of terrain conditions. The placement of lines identifying these
conditions is subject to judgment and broad classification of continuous spatial distributions. From this
perspective, a sharp boundary implied by a line is artificial and the data itself is based on probability.
Increasing demands for mapped data focused attention on data availability, accuracy and standards, as
well as data structure issues. Hardware vendors continued to improve digitizing equipment, with manual
digitizing tablets giving way to automated scanners at many GIS facilities. A new industry for map
encoding and database design emerged, as well as a marketplace for the sales of digital map products.
Regional, national and international organizations began addressing the necessary standards for digital
maps to insure compatibility among systems. This era saw GIS database development move from project
costing to equity investment justification in the development of corporate databases.
MAP ANALYSIS AND MODELING
As GIS continued its evolution, the emphasis turned from descriptive query to prescriptive analysis of
maps. If early GIS users had to repeatedly overlay several maps on a light-table, an analogous procedure
was developed within the GIS. Similarly, if repeated distance and bearing calculations were needed, the
GIS system was programmed with a mathematical solution. The result of this effort was GIS
functionality that mimicked the manual procedures in a user's daily activities. The value of these systems
was the savings gained by automating tedious and repetitive operations.
By the mid-1980's, the bulk of descriptive query operations were available in most GIS systems and
attention turned to a comprehensive theory of map analysis. The dominant feature of this theory is that
spatial information is represented numerically, rather than in analog fashion as inked lines on a map.
These digital maps are frequently conceptualized as a set of "floating maps" with a common registration,
allowing the computer to "look" down and across the stack of digital maps. The spatial relationships of
the data can be summarized (database queries) or mathematically manipulated (analytic processing).
Because of the analog nature of traditional map sheets, manual analytic techniques are limited in their
quantitative processing. Digital representation, on the other hand, makes a wealth of quantitative (as well
as qualitative) processing possible. The application of this new theory to mapping was revolutionary and
its application takes two formsspatial statistics and spatial analysis.
Meteorologists and geophysicists have used spatial statistics for decades to characterize the geographic
distribution, or pattern, of mapped data. The statistics describe the spatial variation in the data, rather
than assuming a typical response is everywhere. For example, field measurements of snow depth can be
made at several plots within a watershed. Traditionally, these data are analyzed for a single value (the
average depth) to characterize an entire watershed. Spatial statistics, on the other hand, uses both the
location and the measurements at sample locations to generate a map of relative snow depth throughout
the watershed. This numeric-based processing is a direct extension of traditional non-spatial statistics.
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 3

Spatial analysis applications, on the other hand, involve context-based processing. For example,
foresters can characterize timber supply by considering the relative skidding and log-hauling
accessibility of harvesting parcels. Wildlife managers can consider such factors as proximity to roads and
relative housing density to map human activity and incorporate this information into habitat delineation.
Land planners can assess the visual exposure of alternative sites for a facility to sensitive viewing
locations, such as roads and scenic overlooks.
Spatial mathematics has evolved similar to spatial statistics by extending conventional concepts. This
"map algebra" uses sequential processing of spatial operators to perform complex map analyses. It is
similar to traditional algebra in which primitive operations (e.g., add, subtract, exponentiate) are logically
sequenced on variables to form equations. However in map algebra, entire maps composed of thousands
or millions of numbers represent the variables of the spatial equation.
Most of the traditional mathematical capabilities, plus an extensive set of advanced map processing
operations, are available in modern GIS packages. You can add, subtract, multiply, divide, exponentiate,
root, log, cosine, differentiate and even integrate maps. After all, maps in a GIS are just organized sets of
numbers. However, with map-ematics, the spatial coincidence and juxtaposition of values among and
within maps create new operations, such as effective distance, optimal path routing, visual exposure
density and landscape diversity, shape and pattern. These new tools and modeling approach to spatial
information combine to extend record-keeping systems and decision-making models into effective
decision support systems.
SPATIAL REASONING AND DIALOG
The future also will build on the cognitive basis, as well as the databases, of GIS technology. Information
systems are at a threshold that is pushing well beyond mapping, management, modeling, and multimedia
to spatial reasoning and dialogue. In the past, analytical models have focused on management options
that are technically optimal the scientific solution. Yet in reality, there is another set of perspectives
that must be considered the social solution. It is this final sieve of management alternatives that most
often confounds geographic-based decisions. It uses elusive measures, such as human values, attitudes,
beliefs, judgment, trust and understanding. These are not the usual quantitative measures amenable to
computer algorithms and traditional decision-making models.
The step from technically feasible to socially acceptable is not so much increased scientific and
econometric modeling, as it is communication. Basic to effective communication is involvement of
interested parties throughout the decision process. This new participatory environment has two main
elements consensus building and conflict resolution.
Consensus Building involves technically-driven communication and occurs during the alternative
formulation phase. It involves a specialist's translation of various considerations raised by a decision
team into a spatial model. Once completed, the model is executed under a wide variety of conditions and
the differences in outcome are noted.
From this perspective, an individual map is not the objective. It is how maps change as the different
scenarios are tried that becomes information. "What if avoidance of visual exposure is more important
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
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Page 4

than avoidance of steep slopes in siting a new electric transmission line? Where does the proposed route
change, if at all?" What if slope is more important? Answers to these analytical queries (scenarios) focus
attention on the effects of differing perspectives. Often, seemingly divergent philosophical views result in
only slightly different map views. This realization, coupled with active involvement in the decision
process, can lead to group consensus.
However, if consensus is not obtained, mechanisms for resolving conflict come into play. Conflict
Resolution extends the Grateful Dead's lyrics, "nobody is right, if everybody is wrong," by seeking an
acceptable management action through the melding of different perspectives. The socially-driven
communication occurs during the decision formulation phase.
It involves the creation of a "conflicts map" which compares the outcomes from two or more competing
uses. Each map location is assigned a numeric code describing the actual conflict of various perspectives.
For example, a parcel might be identified as ideal for a wildlife preserve, a campground and a timber
harvest. As these alternatives are mutually exclusive, a single use must be assigned. The assignment,
however, involves a holistic perspective which simultaneously considers the assignments of all other
locations in a project area.
Traditional scientific approaches rarely are effective in addressing the holistic problem of conflict
resolution. Even if a scientific solution is reached, it often is viewed with suspicion by less technicallyversed decision-makers. Modern resource information systems provide an alternative approach involving
human rationalization and tradeoffs.
This process involves statements like, "If you let me harvest this parcel, I will let you set aside that one as
a wildlife preserve." The statement is followed by a persuasive argument and group discussion. The
dialogue is far from a mathematical optimization, but often comes closer to an acceptable decision. It
uses the information system to focus discussion away from broad philosophical positions, to a specific
project area and its unique distribution of conditions and potential uses.
CRITICAL ISSUES
The technical hurdles surrounding GIS have been aggressively tackled over the past four decades.
Comprehensive spatial databases are taking form, GIS applications are accelerating and even office
automation packages are including a "mapping button." So what is the most pressing issue confronting
GIS in the next millennium?
Calvin, of the Calvin and Hobbes comic strip, puts it in perspective: "Why waste time learning, when
ignorance is instantaneous?" Why should time be wasted in GIS training and education? It's just a tool,
isn't it? The users can figure it out for themselves. They quickly grasped the operational concepts of the
toaster and indoor plumbing. We have been mapping for thousands of years and it is second nature. GIS
technology just automated the process and made it easier.
Admittedly, this is a bit of an overstatement, but it does set the stage for GIS's largest hurdle educating
the masses of potential users on what GIS is (and isn't) and developing spatial reasoning skills. In many
respects, GIS technology is not mapping as usual. The rights, privileges and responsibilities of
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 5

interacting with mapped variables are much more demanding than interactions with traditional maps and
spatial records.
At least as much attention (and ultimately, direct investment) should go into geospatial application
development and training as is given to hardware, software and database development. Like the
automobile and indoor plumbing, GIS won't be an important technology until it becomes second nature
for both accessing mapped data and translating it into information for decisions. Much more attention
needs to be focused beyond mapping to that of spatial reasoning, the "softer," less traditional side of
geotechnology.
GISs development has been more evolutionary, than revolutionary. It responds to contemporary needs as
much as it responds to technical breakthroughs. Planning and management have always required
information as the cornerstone. Early information systems relied on physical storage of data and manual
processing. With the advent of the computer, most of these data and procedures have been automated.
As a result, the focus of GIS has expanded from descriptive inventories to entirely new applications
involving prescriptive analysis. In this transition, map analysis has become more quantitative. This
wealth of new processing capabilities provides an opportunity to address complex spatial issues in
entirely new ways.
It is clear that GIS technology has greatly changed our perspective of a map. It has moved mapping from
a historical role of provider of input, to an active and vital ingredient in the "thruput" process of decisionmaking. Today's professional is challenged to understand this new environment and formulate innovative
applications that meet the complexity and accelerating needs of the twenty-first century.
______________________
Authors Note: The July 1992 issue of GIS World was a special issue for the URISA conference. This supplemental
white paper is a distillation of several keynotes, presentations and papers presented by the author.

Learning Computer-Assisted Map

Analysis
(GIS World Supplement, June 1993)
(return to top of Topic)

old-fashioned math and statistics can go a long way toward helping us understand GIS
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology is expanding the computer revolution by integrating
spatial information with the research, planning and management of forestlands. The teaching of GIS
technology poses problems in the classroom, and innovative ways of learning to apply the technology are
being developed.
Unlike most other disciplines, GIS technology was born from specialized applications. A comprehensive
theory tying these applications together is only now emerging. In one sense GIS technology is similar to
conventional map processing, involving traditional maps and drafting aidspens, run-on shading, rulers,
planimeters, dot grids, and acetate sheets for light-table overlays. In another sense these systems provide
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 6

advanced analytical capabilities, enabling land managers to address complex issues in entirely new ways.
As essential as computer-assisted map analysis has become, the technology is difficult to teach. Practical
experience is required as well as theory, yet very few classrooms can provide extensive hands-on
learning. Most GIS require expensive and specialized hardware, and even where equipment is available,
instructors are faced with teaching the procedures of a system not designed for classroom use.
Consequently, the approach most commonly used relies on case studies and selected literature.
Mathematics provides a useful starting point. In fact, GIS theory is based on a mathematical framework
of primitive map-analysis operations analogous to those of traditional statistics and algebra. The teacher
presents basic data characteristics and map processing as in a math course. Lectures and exercises
provide a general toolbox for map analysis that embodies fundamental concepts and stimulates creative
application. This toolbox is as flexible as conventional mathematics in expression relationships among
variablesbut with GIS, the variables are entire maps.
The map analysis toolbox helps resource define and evaluate spatial considerations in land management.
For example, forest managers can characterize timber supply by considering the relative skidding and loghauling accessibility of harvest parcels. Wildlife can consider such factors as proximity to roads and
relative housing density in order to map human activity and incorporate this information into conventional
habitat maps. Forest planners can assess the visual aesthetics of alternative sites for a facility or clearcut.
THE FUNDAMENTALS
The main purpose of a geographic information system is to process spatial information. The data
structure can be conceptualized as a set of floating maps with common registration, allowing the user to
look down and across a stack of maps. The spatial relationships of the data can be summarized
(database inquiries) or manipulated (analytic processing). Such systems can be formally characterized as
internally referenced, automated, spatial information systems designed for data mapping,
management, and analysis.
All GIS contain hardware and software for data input, storage, processing, and display of computerized
maps. The processing functions of these systems can be grouped into four categories: computer mapping,
spatial database management, spatial statistics, and cartographic modeling.
Computer mapping Also termed automated cartography, computer mapping involves the preparation
of map products. The focus of these operations is the input and display of computerized maps.
Spatial Database Management These procedures focus on the storage component of GIS, efficiently
organizing and searching large set of data for frequency statistics and coincidence among variables. The
database allows rapid updating and examining of mapped information. For example, a spatial database
can be searched for areas of silty-loam soil, moderate slope, and ponderosa pine forest cover. A summary
table or a map of the results can then be produced.
These mapping and database capabilities have proven to be the backbone of current GIS applications.
Aside from the significant advantages of processing speed and ability to handle tremendous volumes of
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 7

data, such uses are similar to those of manual techniques. Here is where the parallels to mathematics and
traditional statistics may be drawn.
Because of those parallels, the generalized GIS structure provides a framework for discussing the various
data types and storage procedures involved in computer mapping and data management. It also provides
a foundation for advanced analytic operations.
Spatial statisticsThe dominant feature of GIS technology is that spatial information is represented
numerically rather than in an analog fashion, as in the inked lines of a map. Because of the analog nature
of the map sheets, manual analytic techniques are limited to nonquantitative processing. Digital
representation, on the other hand, has the potential for quantitative as well as qualitative processing.
GIS have stimulated the development of spatial statistics, a discipline that seeks to characterize the
geographic distribution or pattern of mapped data. Spatial statistics differs from traditional statistics by
describing the more refined spatial variation in the data, rather than producing typical responses assumed
to be uniformally distributed in space.

Figure 1. Spatial Statistics. Whereas traditional statistics identifies the typical response and assumes
this estimate to be uniformally distributed in space, spatial statistics seeks to characterize the geographic
distribution (pattern) of mapped data. The tabular data identify the location and population density of
microorganisms sampled in a lake. Traditional statistical analysis shows an average density of about
430, assumed to be uniformally distributed throughout the lake. Spatial statistics incorporates locational
information in mapping variations in the data. The pattern contains considerable variation from the
average (shown as a plane) in the northwest portion of the lake.
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 8

An example of spatial analysis is shown in figures 1 and 2. Figure 1 depicts density mapping of a
microorganism determined from laboratory analysis of surface water samples. Figure 2 depicts the
natural extension to multivariate statistics for spatial coincidence between two microorganisms in the
samples.
Traditional and spatial statistics complement each other for decision-making. In both statistical
approaches, the nature of the data is critical. For analyses similar to those in Figures 1 and 2, thematic
values (what information) must identify variables that form continuous gradients in both numeric and
geographic space.

Figure 2. Multivariate Statistics. Maps characterizing spatial variation among two or more variables
can be compared and locations of unusual coincidence identified. Traditional statistical analysis
identifies the typical paired responses of two microorganism populations. This information assumes that
the joint condition is uniformally distributed in space and does not identify where atypical joint
occurrences might be found. Spatial statistics compares the two maps of population densities to identify
two areas of unusually large differences in the populations.
Many forms of mapped data exist, including digital maps which, coupled with traditional mapping
considerationsscale, projection, registration, resolutioncan help foresters understand the potential and
pitfalls of GIS applications. The quantitative nature of digital maps provides the foundation for a
mathematics of maps.
Just as spatial statistics has been developed by extending concepts of conventional statistics, a spatial
mathematics has evolved. This map algebra uses sequential processing of mathematical primitives to
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 9

perform complex map analyses. It is similar to traditional algebra, in which primitive operations (add,
subtract, exponentiation) are logically sequenced on variables to form equations; but in map algebra,
entire maps composed of thousands of number represent the variables.
Most traditional mathematical capabilities plus an extensive set of advanced map-processing primitives
emerge. Transpose, inverse, and diagonalize are examples of new primitives based on the nature of
matrix algebra. Within map analysis, the spatial coincidence and juxtapositioning of values among and
within maps create new operators such as masking, proximity, and optimal paths.
This set of map-analysis operators can be flexibly combined through a processing structure similar to
conventional mathematics. The logical sequence involves retrieval of one or maps from the database,
processing that data as specified by the user, creation of a new map containing the processing results, and
storage of the new map for subsequent processing.
The cyclical processing is similar to evaluating nested parentheticals in traditional algebra. Values for
the known variables are first defined, then they are manipulated by performing the primitive operations
in the order prescribed by the equation.
For example, in the equation A = (B + C) / D the variables B and C are first defined and then added, with
the sum stored as an intermediate solution. This intermediate value, in turn, is retrieved and divided by
the variable D to derive the value of the unknown variable A. This same processing structure provides
the framework for computer-assisted map analysis, but the variables are represented as spatially registered
maps. The numbers contained in the solution map (in effect solving for A) are a function of the input
maps and the primitive operations performed.
Cartographic modelingThis mathematical structure forms a conceptual framework easily adapted to a
variety of applications in a familiar and intuitive manner. For example:
(new value old value)
%Change = ------------------------------- * 100
old value
This equation the percent change in value for a parcel of land. In a similar manner, a map of percent
change in land value for an entire town may be expressed in such GIS commands as:
COMPUTE NEWVALUE.MAP MINUS OLDVALUE.MAPFOR DIFFERENCE.MAP
COMPUTE DIFFERENCE.MAP TIMES 100 DIVIDED BY OLDVALE.MAP
FOR PERCENTCHANGE.MAP
Within this model, data for current and past land values are collected and encoded as computerized maps.
These data are evaluated as shown above to form a solution map of percent change. The simple model
might be extended to provide coincidence statistics, such as
CROSSTAB ZONING.MAPWITH PERCENTCHANGE.MAP
____________________________
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Page 10

for a table summarizing the spatial relationship between the zoning map and change in land value. Such a
table would show which zones experienced the greatest increase in market value.
The basic model might also be extended to include such geographic searches as
RENUMBER PERCENTCHANGE.MAP FOR BIG_CHANGES.MAP
ASSIGNING 0 TO -20 THRU 20 ASSIGNING 1 TO 20 THRU 100
for a map search that isolates those areas that experienced more than a +20 percent change in market
value.
ANALYTIC TOOLBOX
In traditional statistics and mathematics, pencil and paper are all this is needed to complete exercises.
Use of a pocket calculator or computer enhances this experience by considering larger, more realistic sets
of numbers. However, the tremendous volume of data involved in even the simplest map-processing task
requires a computer for solution. Also, many of the advanced operations, such as effective distance
measures and optimal paths, are so analytically complex that computer processing is essential.
Classroom needs are not being ignored. Software and materials supporting instruction in computerassisted map analysis are appearing on the scene. Among these is the Map Analysis Package (MAP), a
widely distributed system developed at Yale in 1976 for mainframe computers. Over 90 universities,
many with natural-resource programs, have acquired these materials.
The Professional Map Analysis Package (pMAP) is a commercially developed implementation of MAP
for PCs. The Academic Map Analysis Package (aMAP) is a special educational version of pMAP
available from Yale for classroom use. All of the student exercises can be performed on a standard IBM
PC or similar system.
As an example of a student exercise, consider the model outlined in figure 3. The exercise proposed that
students generate a map characterizing both the number of houses and their simple proximity to major
roads, given maps of housing locations (HOUSING) and the road network (ROADS). A conceptual
flowchart and the actual sequence of pMAP commands forming the solution is shown at the top. Some of
the intermediate maps and the final map are shown at the bottom.
Optional assignments in the exercise required students to produce a similar map identifying both the
cover type and the distance to the nearest house for all locations in the study area and extend the
technique to characterize each map location as to its general housing density within a tenth-of-a-mile
radius, as well as it proximity to the nearest major road. Both of these options require minimal
modification of the basic techniqueredefinition of the input maps in the first case and slight editing of
two others in the second (see Authors Note 2 for more discussion of class exercises and course
organization).
GIS technology is revolutionizing how we handle maps. Beginning in the 1970s, an ever-increasing
portion of mapped data has been collected and processed in digital format. Currently, this computer
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 11

processing emphasizes computer mapping and database management. These techniques allow users to
update maps quickly, generate descriptive statistics, make geographic searches for areas of specified
coincidence, and display the results as a variety of colorful and useful products.

Figure 3. Student Exercise. Proximity to major roads is first determined and then combined with housing
information. Two-digit codes identify the number of houses (first digit; tens) and the distance to the
nearest major road (second digit; ones).
Emerging capabilities are extending the revolution to how we analyze spatial information. These
operations provide an analytic toolbox for expressing spatial relationships within and among maps,
analogous to traditional statistics and algebra. This quantitative approach is changing basic concepts of
map content, structure, and use.
Maps are moving from images that describe the location of features to mapped data quantifying a physical
or abstract system in prescriptive terms. Students of GIS technology are developing a proficiency in a
sort of spatial spreadsheet that allows them to integrate spatial information with research, planning, and
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 12

management in natural-resource fields.

__________________________________
Authors Notes: 1) The June 1993 issue of GIS World was a special issue for the URISA conference. This
supplemental white paper is based on a Journal of Forestry paper of the same title appearing, in the October 1986
issue. 2) See a 1979 paper entitled An Academic Approach to Cartographic Modeling in Management of Natural
Resources describing a graduate-level course in map analysis/modeling using a Map Algebra instructional
approach posted at http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/Papers/Other/Harvard1979/HarvardPaper.pdf.

A Mathematical Structure for Analyzing

Maps
(GIS World Supplement, June 1993)
(return to top of Topic)

ABSTRACT the growing use of computers in environmental management is profoundly changing data
collection procedures, analytic processes, and even the decision-making environment itself. The
emerging technology of geographic information systems (GIS) is expanding this revolution to integrate
spatial information fully into research, planning, and management of land. In one sense, this technology
is similar to conventional map processing involving traditional maps and drafting aids, such as pens, rubon shading, rulers, planimeters, dot grids, and acetate sheets for light-table overlays. In another sense,
these systems provide advanced analytic capabilities, enabling managers to address complex issues in
entirely new ways. This report discusses a fundamental approach to computer-assisted map analysis that
treats entire maps as variables. The set of analytic procedures for processing mapped data forms a
mathematical structure analogous to traditional statistics and algebra. All of the procedures discussed are
available for personal computer environments.
The historical use of maps has been for navigation through unfamiliar terrain and seas. Within this
context, preparation of maps that accurately locate special features became the primary focus of attention.
More recently, analysis of mapped data has become an important part of resource and environmental
planning. During the 1960s, manual analytic procedures for overlaying maps were popularized by the
work of McHarg (1969) and others. These techniques mark an important turning point in the use of
mapsfrom one emphasizing physical descriptors of geographic space, to one spatially characterizing
appropriate land management actions. This movement from descriptive to prescriptive mapping has set
the stage for revolutionary concepts of map structure, content, and use.
Spatial analysis involves tremendous volumes of data. Manual cartographic techniques allow
manipulation of these data, but they are fundamentally limited by their nonquantitative nature.
Traditional statistics, on the other hand, enable quantitative treatment of the data, but, until recently, the
sheer magnitude of mapped data made such processing prohibitive. Recognition of this limitation led to
"stratified sampling" techniques developed in the early part of this century. These techniques treat spatial
considerations at the onset of analysis by dividing geographic space into homogeneous response parcels.
Most often, these parcels are manually delineated on an appropriate map, and the "typical" value for each
parcel determined. The results of any analysis is then assumed to be uniformly distributed throughout
each parcel. The area-weighted average of a set of parcels statistically characterizes the typical response
____________________________
From the online book Beyond Mapping I by Joseph K. Berry posted at www.innovativegis.com/basis/
All rights reserved. Permission to copy for educational use is granted.
Page 13

for an extended area. Mathematical modeling of spatial systems has followed a similar approach of
spatially aggregating variation in model variables. Most ecosystem models, for example, identify "level
variables" and "flow rates" presumed to be typical for vast geographic expanses.
A comprehensive spatial statistics and mathematics, for many years, has been variously conceptualized by
both theorist and practitioner. Until modern computers and the computerized map, these concepts were
without practical implementation. The computer has provided the means for both efficient handling of
voluminous data and the quantitative analysis required by these concepts. From this perspective, the
current revolution in mapping is rooted in the digital nature of the computerized map. Increasingly,
geographic information system (GIS) technology is being viewed as providing new capabilities for
expressing spatial relationships, as well as efficient mapping and management of spatial data. This report
discusses the fundamental consideration of the emerging "toolbox" of analytic capabilities.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
The main purpose of a geographic information system (GIS) is to process spatial information. These
systems can be defined as internally referenced, automated, spatial information systems--designed for
data mapping, management, and analysis. These systems have an automated linkage between the type of
data, termed the thematic attribute, and the whereabouts of that data, termed the locational attribute. This
structure can be conceptualized as a stack of "floating maps," with common spatial registration, allowing
the user to "look" down and across the stack. The spatial relationships of the data can be examined (that
is, inventory queries) or manipulated (that is, analytic processing). The locational information may be
organized as a collection of line segments identifying the boundaries of point, linear, and areal features.
An alternative organization establishes an imaginary grid pattern over a study area and stores numbers
identifying the characteristic at each grid space. Although there are significant practical differences in
these data structures, the primary conceptual difference is that the grid format stores information on the
interior of areal features, and implies boundaries; whereas, the segment format stores information about
boundaries, and implies interiors. Generally, the line segment structure is best for inventory-oriented
processing, while the grid structure is best for analysis-oriented processing. The difficulty of line
segments in characterizing spatial gradients, such as elevation or housing density, coupled with the
frequent necessity to compute interior characteristics limit the use of this data type for many of the
advanced analytic operations. As a result, most modern GIS contain programs for converting between the
two data structures.
Regardless of the data storage structure, all GIS contain hardware and software for data input, storage,
processing, and display of digital maps. The processing functions of these systems can be grouped into
four broad categories:

Computer mapping
Spatial data base management
Spatial statistics
Cartographic modeling

Most GIS contain some capabilities from each of these categories. An inventory-oriented system will
emphasize mapping and management functions, whereas, an analysis-oriented system will focus on
statistics and modeling functions.
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Computer mapping, also termed automated cartography, involves the preparation of map products. The
focus of these operations is on the input and display of computerized maps. Spatial data base
management, on the other hand, focuses on the storage component of GIS technology. Like nonspatial
data base systems, these procedures efficiently organize and search large sets of data for frequency
statistics and/or coincidence among variables. For example, a spatial data base may be searched to
generate a map of areas of silty-loam soil, moderate slope, and ponderosa pine forest cover. These
mapping and data base capabilities have proven to be the backbone of current GIS applications. Once a
data base is compiled, they allow rapid updating and examining of mapped data. However, other than the
significant advantage of speed, these capabilities are similar to those of manual techniques. The
remainder of this paper investigates the emerging analytic concepts of spatial statistics and cartographic
modeling.
Spatial Statistics
Spatial statistics seeks to characterize the geographic pattern or distribution of mapped data. This
approach differs from traditional statistics as it describes the spatial variation in the data, rather than
distilling the data for typical responses that are assumed to be uniformly distributed in space. For
example, consider the hypothetical data presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Spatially characterizing data variation. Traditional statistics identifies the typical response and assumes
this estimate to be distributed uniformly in space. Spatial statistics seeks to characterize the geographic
distribution, or pattern, of mapped data.
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The large square at the top is a map of sample locations for a portion of a lake. The tabular data to the
right identify both the location and microorganism density determined from laboratory analysis of the
surface water samples. Traditional statistics would analyze the data by fitting a numerical distribution to
the data to determine the typical response. Such density functions as standard normal, binomial, and
Poisson could be tried, and the best-fitting functional form chosen. The lower-right inset characterizes
the fitting of a "standard normal curve" indicating an average organism density of 430.7 + 5.17 units.
These parameters describing the central tendency of the data in numerical space are assumed to be
uniformly distributed in geographic space. As shown in the lower-left plot, this assumption implies a
horizontal plane at 430.7 units over the entire area. The geographic distribution of the standard deviation
would form two planes (analogous to "error bars") above and below the average. This traditional
approach concentrates on characterizing the typical thematic response, and disregards the locational
information in the sampled data.
Spatial statistics, on the other hand, incorporates locational information in mapping the variation in
thematic values. Analogous to traditional statistics, a density function is fitted to the data. In this
instance, the distribution is characterized in geographic space, rather than numerical space. To
conceptualize this process, visualize a pillar at each sample location rising above the lake in Figure 1 to
the height of its thematic value (that is, measured organism density). The lower-left inset shows a
continuous surface that responds to the peaks and valleys implied by the pillars of the sampled data. This
surface was fitted by "inverse-distance-squared weighted averaging" of the sample values using an
inexpensive personal computer software package (Golden 1985). The distribution shows considerable
variation in the data in the southwest portion, tending to conflict with the assumption that variation is
uniformly distributed in space. Analogous to traditional statistics, other surface fitting techniques, such as
Kriging, spline, or polynomial functions, could be tried and the best-fitting functional form chosen.
Analysis of the residuals, from comparisons of the various surfaces with the measured values, provides an
assessment of fit.
Figure 2 depicts multivariate statistical analysis. If the level of another microorganism was also
determined for each water sample, its joint occurrence with the previously described organism could be
assessed. In traditional statistics, this involves fitting of a density function in multivariate statistical
space. For the example, a standard normal surface was fitted, with its joint mean" and "covariance
matrix" describing the typical paired occurrence. Generally speaking, the second organism occurs less
often (379.3 vs. 430.7) with a negative correlation (-.78) between the two populations.
The right portion of Figure 2 depicts an analysis of the spatial distributions of the two populations. For
this analysis the two maps of population density are compared (that is, one subtracted from the other) to
generate a coincidence surface. A planimetric map of the surface, registered to the original map of the
lake, is on the right side of the figure. The darkened areas locate areas of large differences (that is, more
than average difference plus average standard deviation) in the two organism populations. The combined
information provided by traditional and spatial statistics complements each other for decision making.
Characterizing the typical response develops a general impression of the data. The mapping of the
variance in the data refines this impression by locating areas of abnormal response. In the example, the
approximately 50 units difference in average population densities may not warrant overall concern.
However, the pockets of larger differences may direct further investigation, or special management
action, within those areas of the lake.
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Figure 2. Assessing coincidence among mapped data. Maps characterizing spatial variation among two
or more variables can be compared and locations of unusual coincidence identified.
In both statistical approaches, the nature of the data is crucial. For spatial analyses similar to the example,
the thematic values must be numerically "robust" and the locational attribute "isopleth." These terms
identify map variables that form gradients in both numeric and geographic space. By contrast, a variable
might contain "non-robust" values (for instance, arbitrary numbers associated with soil types) that are
discontinuous, or "choropleth," in geographic space (for instance, abrupt land use boundaries). A
complete discussion of the considerations dealing with the various types of data in spatial statistics is
beyond the introductory scope of this article. Both Davis (1973) and Ripley (1981) offer good treatise of
this subject.
A Mathematical Structure for Map Analysis
Just as a spatial statistics may be identified, a spatial mathematics is also emerging. This approach uses
sequential processing of mathematical primitives to perform a wide variety of complex map analyses
(Berry 1985). By controlling the order in which the operations are executed, and using a common
database to store the intermediate results, a mathematical-like processing structure is developed. This
"map algebra" (Figure 3) is similar to traditional algebra in which primitive operations, such as addition,
subtraction, and exponentiation, are logically sequenced for specified variables to form equations;
however, in map algebra the variables represent entire maps consisting of numerous values. Most of the
traditional mathematical capabilities, plus an extensive set of advanced map processing primitives,
comprise this map analysis "toolbox." As with matrix algebra (a mathematics operating on groups of
numbers defining variables), new primitives emerge that are based on the nature of the data. Matrix
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algebra's transposition, inversion, and diagonalization are examples of extended operations. Within map
analysis, the spatial coincidence and juxtapositioning of values among and within maps create new
operators, such as proximity, spatial coincidence, and optimal paths.

Figure 3. Cartographic modeling. In mathematics, primitive operators, such as addition and

subtraction, are used to express relationships among variables. "Map algebra," in an analogous manner,
operates on entire maps at a time using primitive operators to express relationships within and among
mapped variables.
These operators can be accessed through general purpose map analysis packages, similar to the numerous
matrix algebra packages. The map analysis package (MAP) (Tomlin 1983) is an example of a
comprehensive general purpose system that has been acquired by over 350 computer centers throughout
the world. A commercial implementation of this system, the Professional Map Analysis Package (pMAP)
(SIS 1986), has recently been released for personal computers. All of the processing discussed in this
paper was done with this inexpensive pMAP system in a standard IBM PC environment. The logical
sequencing of map processing involves:
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Retrieval of one or more maps from the database

Processing those data as specified by the user
Creation of a new map containing the processing results
Storage of the new map for subsequent processing

Each new map derived as processing continues is spatially registered to the other maps in the database.
The values comprising the derived maps are a function of the statistical or mathematical summary of the
values on the "input maps."
This cyclical processing provides an extremely flexible structure similar to "evaluating nested
parentheticals in traditional algebra. Within this structure, a mathematician first defines the values for
each dependent variable and then solves the equation by performing the primitive mathematical
operations on those numbers in the order prescribed by the equation. For example, the simple equation
A = (B + C)/D
identifies that the variables B and C are first defined, and then added, with the sum being stored as an
intermediate solution. The intermediate value, in turn, is divided by the variable D to calculate the
solution variable A. This same mathematical structure provides the framework for computer-assisted map
analysis.
Within this processing structure, four fundamental classes of map analysis operations may be identified.
These include:

Reclassifying maps involving the reassignment of the values of an existing map as a function of the
initial value, position, size, shape, or contiguity of the spatial configuration associated with each
category.
Overlaying maps resulting in the creation of a new map where the value assigned to every location
is computed as a function of the independent values associated with that location on two or more
existing maps.
Measuring distance and connectivity involving the creation of a new map expressing the distance
and route between locations as simple Euclidean length, or as a function of absolute or relative
barriers.
Characterizing and summarizing neighborhoods resulting in the creation of a new map based on
the consideration of values within the general vicinity of target locations.

These major groupings can be further classified as to the basic approaches used by the various processing
algorithms. This mathematical structure forms a conceptual framework that is easily adapted to modeling
the spatial relationships in both physical and abstract systems. Detailed discussion of the various analytic
procedures is beyond the introductory scope of this article. Reference to the papers by Berry and Tomlin
(1982a and b) provides comprehensive discussion and examples of each of the classes of operations.
Cartographic Modeling
The cyclical processing structure of map analysis enables primitive spatial operations to be combined to
form equations, or "cartographic models," in a familiar and intuitive manner. For example, in traditional
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algebra, an equation for the percent change in value of a parcel of land may be expressed as
(new value old value)
%Change = ------------------------------- * 100
old value
In a similar manner, a map of percent change in market values for an entire town may be expressed, in
pMAP command language, as:
COMPUTE NEWVALUE.MAP MINUS OLDVALUE.MAP TIMES 100
DIVIDEDBY OLDVALUE.MAP FOR PERCENTCHANGE.MAP
Within this model, data for current and past land values are collected and encoded as computerized maps.
These data are evaluated, as shown above, to form a solution map of percent change. The simple model
might be extended to provide coincidence statistics, such as
CROSSTABULATE ZONING.MAP WITH PERCENTCHANGE.MAP
for a table summarizing the spatial relationship between type of zoning and change in land value (to
answer the question which zones have experienced the greatest decline in market value?). The basic
model might also be extended to include geographic searches, such as
RENUMBER PERCENTCHANGE.MAP ASSIGNING 0 TO -- 20 THRU 20
FOR BIGCHANGES.MAP
for a map isolating those areas which have experienced more than a + 20% or -20% change in market
value.
Another simple model is outlined in Figure 4. It creates a map characterizing the number of houses and
their proximity to major roads, given maps of housing locations (HOUSING) and the road network
(ROADS). The model incorporates reclassifying, distance measuring, and overlaying operations. An
extension to the model (not shown) uses a neighborhood operation to characterize each map location as to
its general housing density within a tenth of a mile radius, as well as its proximity to roads. Incorporation
of this modification requires the addition of one line of code and slight editing of two others. A workingcopy display of the results and tabular summary is shown at the bottom of Figure 4. The pMAP
command sequence for this analysis is shown in the upper portion.
The procedure used in the example may be generalized to identify "type-distance" combinations among
any set of features within a mapped area. Consider the following generalization:
onemap X
anothermap Y
XDIST = distance as a fn(x)
z = (y * 10) + XDIST
compositemap Z

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Figure 4. A simple cartographic model. This analysis combines the information on housing locations
(HOUSING) and the road network (ROADS) to derive a map characterizing the number of houses and
their proximity to the nearest major road.
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Page 21

This "macro" technique may be stored as a command file and accessed at anytime. For example, the
following command sequence can be entered to assess the covertype (Y) and distance to the nearest house
(x) for all map locations.
Keyboard Entry
ASSOCIATE X WITH HOUSING
ASSOCIATE Y WITH COVERTYPE
READ c:macro.cmd
Stored Command File
SPREAD X TO 9 FOR PROX_X
COMPUTE Y TIMES l0 FOR Y_10
COMPUTE PROX_X PLUS Y_10 FOR Z
DISPLAY Z
Note: the Z map contains a two-digit code with the tens digit indicating the Covertype and the ones digit
indicating the proximity to the nearest house. For example a 21 value indicates locations that are classified as cover
type 2 and close to a house (only 1 cell away).

The ASSOCIATE command temporarily defines specified maps as generalized variables. The READ
command transfers input control to the designated file, and the stored set of generalized commands are
processed as if they were being entered from the keyboard. When the model is finished executing, input
control is returned to the keyboard for user interactive processing.
Generalized Structure for Map Analysis
The development of a generalized analytic structure for map processing is similar to those of many other
nonspatial systems. For example, the popular dBASE III package contains less than 20 analytic
operations, yet they may be flexibly combined to create "models" for such diverse applications as address
lists, inventory control, and commitment accounting. Once developed, these logical sequences of dBASE
sentences can be "fixed" into menus for easy end-user operations. A flexible analytic structure provides
for dynamic simulation as well as database management. For example, the Multiplan "spreadsheet"
package allows users to define the interrelationships among variables. By specifying a logical sequence
of interrelationships and variables, a financial model of a company's production process may be
established. By changing specific values of the model, the impact of uncertainty in fiscal assumptions can
be simulated. The advent of database management and spreadsheet packages has revolutionized the
handling of nonspatial data.
Computer-assisted map analysis promises a similar revolution for handling spatial data. For example, a
model for siting a new highway could be developed. The analysis would likely consider economic and
social concerns (for example, proximity to high housing density, visual exposure to houses), as well as
purely engineering ones (for example, steep slopes, water bodies). The combined expression of both
physical and nonphysical concerns, in a quantified spatial context, is a major benefit. However, the
ability to simulate various scenarios (for instance, steepness is twice as important as visual exposure;
proximity to housing four times as important as all other considerations) provides an opportunity to fully
integrate spatial information into the decision-making process. By noting how often and where the
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Page 22

optimal route changes as successive runs are made, information on the unique sensitivity to siting a
highway in a particular locale is described.
In addition to flexibility, there are several other advantages in developing a generalized analytic structure
for map analysis. The systematic rigor of a mathematical approach forces both theorist and user to
consider carefully the nature of the data being processed, it also provides a comprehensive format for
instruction which is independent of specific disciplines or applications (Berry 1986). In addition, the
flowchart of processing succinctly describes the components of an analysis. This communication enables
decision makers to understand more fully the analytic process, and actually comment on model
weightings, incomplete considerations, or erroneous assumptions. These comments, in most cases, can be
easily incorporated and new results generated in a timely manner. From a decision-maker's point of view,
traditional manual techniques of map analysis are separate from the decision itself. They require
considerable time to perform and many of the considerations are subjective in their evaluation. From this
perspective, the decision maker attempts to interpret results, bounded by the often vague assumptions and
system expression of the technician. Computer-assisted map analysis, on the other hand, encourages the
involvement of the decision maker in the analytic process. From this perspective, spatial information
becomes an active and integral part of the decision process itself.
Conclusion
Geographic information system (GIS) technology is revolutionizing how maps are handled. Since the
1970s, an ever-increasing portion of mapped data is being collected and processed in digital format.
Currently, this processing emphasizes computer mapping and database management capabilities. These
techniques allow users to update maps quickly, generate descriptive statistics, make geographic searches
for areas of specified coincidence, and display the results as a variety of colorful and useful products.
Newly developing capabilities extend this revolution to how mapped data are analyzed. These techniques
provide an analytic "toolbox" for expressing the spatial interrelationships of maps. Analogous to
traditional algebra and statistics, primitive operations are logically sequenced on variables to form spatial
models; however, the variables are represented as entire maps.
This quantitative approach to map analysis is changing basic concepts of map structure, content, and use.
From this perspective, maps move from images describing the location of features to mapped data
quantifying a physical or abstract system in prescriptive terms. This radical change in map analysis has
promoted a more complete integration of spatial information into the decision-making process.
_______________________
Authors Notes: 1) This supplement is based on an article published in the Journal of Environmental Management,
Springer-Verlag, Vol 11, No. 3, pp. 317-325, 1986. J.K. Berry. 2) The professional map analysis package (pMAP)
described in this article was developed and written by the author and Dr. Kenneth L. Reed of Spatial Information
Systems, Inc. Several of the concepts and algorithms are based on the widely distributed mainframe map analysis
package (MAP) developed by C. Dana Tomlin (1983) and distributed by Yale University. 3) References:

Berry, J. K. 1985. Computer-assisted map analysis: fundamental techniques. Pages 369-386 in Proceedings of
6th annual conference, National Computer Graphics Association, Dallas, Texas, April.

Berry, J.K. 1986. The academic map analysis package (aMAP) instructions materials. Yale University, School
of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, Connecticut.

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Page 23

Berry, J. K., and C.D. Tomlin. 1982b. Cartographic modeling: computer-assisted analysis of spatially defined
neighborhoods. Pages 227-241 in Conference on energy resource management, American Planning
Association, Vienna, Virginia, October.

Davis, J. C. 1973. Statistics and data analysis in geology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 170-411.

Golden Software. 1985. Golden Software Graphics System Information Manual. Golden Software, Golden,
Colorado.

McHarg, I. L. 1969. Design with nature. Doubleday/Natural History Press, Doubleday and Company, Garden
City, New York, 197 pp.

Ripley, B. D. 1981. Spatial statistics. Series in Probability and Mathematical Statistics. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 241 pp.

SIS. 1986. The professional map analysis package (pMAP)user's manual and reference. Spatial Information
Systems, Omaha, Nebraska, 228 pp.

Tomlin, C.D. 1983. Digital cartographic modeling techniques in environmental planning. PhD dissertation,
Yale University, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, Connecticut, 298 pp.

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