Principles of Geographic Information System

Chapter-I
Introduction to GIS
Amare G/Medhin
Asst. Professor

Email: amarenigusse@gmail.com
Tell :0932163507

Reading materials prepared by Dr. Govindu Vanum

Institute of Geo-Information and Earth Observation Sciences
Mekelle University, Mekelle
 Introduction to GIS
Chapter Content
 Information Requirements
 Definition of GIS
 Data vs. Information
 Data Integration
 GIS Concepts
 Questions a GIS can answer
 GIS Functions
 Components of GIS
 GIS Contributing Disciplines
 Applications of GIS
Objectives

Up on completion of the chapter, you will be able to:

 Understand what a GIS is,
 Distinguish between data and information,
 Describe data integration in a GIS,
 Discuss GIS concepts,
 Identify questions a GIS can answer,
 Understand how GIS functions,
 Identify components of GIS,
 Identify various disciplines contributing to GIS.
 Point out the application areas of GIS.
 Information Requirements
We are confined in our activities to the Surface and Near
Surface of the Earth.
 We travel over it and in the lower levels of the atmosphere,
 Through tunnels dug just below the surface,
 We dig ditches and burry pipelines and cables,
 Construct mines to extract mineral deposits,
 Drill wells to access oil and gas,
 Keeping track of all this activity is important, and Knowing Where it
Occurs can be the most convenient basis for tracking.
• To find information about a place or event, knowing Where
Something Happens is critically important!
=> Geographic Space.
 Information …
 Accurate and timely information on resources is
required for Better Management and Decision
Making.
a further understanding of the interactions between
the multiple Spatially Distributed Resources.
it needs to work with data that relates to Space
(Positional Data).Geographical Information
Systems (GIS) provide an essential technology for
meeting these requirements.
But what is a GIS?
What is GIS ?
An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic
data and personnel designed to efficiently Capture, Store, Update,
Manipulate, Analyze and Display all forms of geographically
referenced information

Components of GIS
 What is a GIS?
 Geographic = Spatially Referenced
Data (have locations and dimensions
within a coordinate space).
 Information = Data Processed into a
usable Form (extraction of specific and
meaningful information from a diverse
collection of data).
 System = a framework for
Manipulating, Querying, Analyzing and
Disseminating Information.
 Definition 1: GIS- a Toolbox
 “A powerful set of tools for Storing and Retrieving at
will, Transforming and Displaying Spatial Data from
the real world for a particular set of purposes.”
(Burrough, 1986, p6)

 “A system for Capturing, Storing, Checking,

Manipulating, Analyzing, and Displaying Data which
are Spatially Referenced to the Earth” (Department of
Environment, 1987)

 “An Information Technology which Stores, Analyses,

and Displays both Spatial and Non‐Spatial Data”
(Parker, 1988)
 Definition 2: GIS-Information System
 A System ‐ a group of connected entities and activities.
 An Information System ‐ a set of procedures, executed
on raw data, to produce information for decision making.
 A Geographic Information System: a computer-based
system to aid in the Collection, Maintenance, Storage,
Analysis, Output, and Distribution of spatial data and
information.
 A Geographic Information System ‐ an Information
System using geographically referenced data.
 Definition 3: GIS- Approach to Science
 Geographic Information Science… (Goodchild,1997)
 Is the science behind the technology.

 Considers questions raised by the use of systems and

technologies.
 Is the science needed to keep technology at the cutting edge.

 Addresses the fundamental issues arising from use.

Systematic study of Geographic Information using scientific methods.

A multidisciplinary field:
 Many disciplines contribute to these issues.
e.g. cartography, geodesy, Photogrammetry, ...
 Analogy: GIS science is to GIS as statistics is to statistical software
packages.
 Data vs Information
 By data, we mean representations of the real world that is
the raw recording of measurements.
 Data is of little use unless it is transformed into
information.
 Spatial Data means data that contains Positional Values.
Geospatial
=> data is spatial data that is Geo-referenced.
 By information, we =>mean data that has been interpreted by
human being understanding and knowledge.
 Geo-information is a specific type of information that
involves the interpretation of spatial data.
 We transform data into information through the use of an
information system.
 Data Integration
 Data integration is the linking of information in
different forms through a GIS.
 Its ability to Integrate Spatial and Non-Spatial
Data with in a single system.
 Integrated Information System can be
established.
Data Integration
 Why GIS ?
New technology for making maps, Automatic map making,
Because location is important,
 Geospatial data are better maintained in a standard format,
 Revision and updating are easier,
 Geospatial data and information are easier to search, analysis and represent,
 More value added product,
 Geospatial data can be shared and exchanged freely,
 Productivity of the staff improved and more efficient,
 Time and money are saved, Why GIS is valuable?
 Consistency and better science,
 Better decision can be made,
 Better problem solving.
To create maps that are difficult to make by hand E.g., 3D or stereoscopic maps
Spatial Analysis – Neighborhood searches, Overlays, Proximity Analysis, 3D-
Analysis
 GIS Concepts
 GIS Concept #1: Features have attributes associated with
them.
 These attributes describe the properties and
characteristics of these features.
 Suppose tree is one record in a database. We call each
category (e.g. tree height) a field/attribute.
 Using GIS we can map the location of special trees and
identify which attributes belong to which tree.
 We can know what information relates to which tree.
 GIS Concepts
 GIS Concept # 2: Information is separated into layers.
 Each layer carries information about features of the same
type (streets, rivers, etc).
 Layers represent data in a variety of ways (Raster, Vector
or TIN layers).
 For example, we can have a layer with rivers and a layer
with soil types and a third layer for trees locations.
 We can conduct analysis between layers and only display
layers of interest.
Example to Select the Best Track for a New Highway?

Cadastral parcel

National park

Alternative 1 Alternative 2
Risk area

Land-use
Alternative 3

Soil

Slopes

DTM

Topography
Decision Makers
 Questions a GIS can Answer
 Location: what is at...?
 Here we are seeking to find out what exists at a particular
location.
 A location can be described in different ways using, for
example, place name, zip code, or latitude and longitude
coordinates.
 Condition: where is it...?
 Instead of identifying what exists at a particular location,
we can find a location where certain conditions are satisfied.
 Trends: what has changed since...?
 This seeks to discover the differences between an area as a
result of the passing of time.
e.g. How much land has gone from agriculture to other uses
since 1950?
 Questions ...
 Patterns: what spatial patterns exist?
 This discovers what types of patterns may exist in the
newly created data file that were not visible before.
 For example you may wish to know what kinds of
patterns exist for motor vehicle accidents? i.e. where motor
vehicle accidents occur and at what times?
 Modeling: what if...?
 This helps to determine what happens if something is
changed within an area.
 For example a toxic substance seeps into the local
groundwater supply, or an earthquake of a given magnitude
occurs at a given point, etc.
 Routing: which is the best way...?
 GIS Functions
 In simple form GIS functions are: Capture, Store, Query,
Analyze, Display, and Output.
 Data Input & Management
• Spatial
• Attribute
• Quality Control & Database Management
 Data Compilation
 Data Storage and Update
 Retrieving Data and Metadata
 Data Manipulation: Geo-processing
 Analysis & Modeling
 Information Output
 Maps, charts, tables, reports …
 GIS Architecture
Key Board Entry
Data Input/Data Manual Digitizing
Capture Scanning
Subsystem Automatic Digitizing
Data Storage and DBMS
Retrieval Subsystem
Format Conversion
Data Medium Conversion
Data Manipulation Spatial Measurements
and Analysis Subsystem Reclassification
Buffering
Overlay
Modeling Surfaces etc.
Reporting/ Output
Maps
Subsystems
Graphical Outputs
 GIS Process
 GIS, with its array of functions, should be viewed
as a process rather than as merely software or
hardware.
 GIS Components
 A typical GIS composed by the following
components:
• Software applications to perform GIS operations.
• Hardware (Scanner, Color display, desktops,
digitizer, plotter, etc) on which a GIS operates.
• Procedures/Analysis (scripts, programs, analysis
methods, etc to complete certain tasks).
• Data availability and accuracy of data can affect
the results of any query or analysis.
• Expert knowledge to apply GIS appropriately.
• Networking (LAN, Wireless, Internet, Intranet,
etc).
GIS Components
 How GIS differs from related systems?
 DBMS: Typical MIS database contains implicit but not explicit
locational information.
•City, county, zip code, etc. but no geographical coordinates.
 Automated Mapping (AM): Primarily two-dimensional display
devices.
• Thematic Mapping (SAS/GRAPH, DIDS, Business Mapping
Software) unable to relate different geographical layers (e.g zip
codes and counties)
•Automated cartography-graphical design oriented; limited
database ability
 Facility Management (FM) Systems: Lack of Spatial
Analysis tools.
 CAD (computer aided design/drafting): primarily 3-D
graphic creation (engineering design) & display systems and don’t
reference via geographic location.
 How GIS differs from related systems?

DBMS Vs CAD Vs GIS:

DBMS: Provides a means of storing &
updating descriptive information
(attribute data )
CAD: Stores graphic information &
produce good graphic output
GIS: Stores and links both graphic &
attribute data
GIS: Contributing Disciplines
 Geography
 Cartography
 Remote Sensing
 Photogrammetry
 Surveying
 Geodesy
 Statistics
 Operations research
 Computer Science
 Mathematics
 Urban planning
 Management science etc.
 GIS: Contributing ...
• broadly concerned with
understanding the world and man's
place in it.
Geography • long tradition in spatial analysis
• provides techniques for conducting
spatial analysis and a spatial
perspective on research

• concerned with the display of spatial

information
• currently the main source of input
data for GIS is maps
Cartography • digital cartography provides methods
for digital representation and
manipulation of cartographic features
and methods of visualization
 GIS: Contributing ...
• images from space and the air are
major source of geographical data;
• remote sensing includes techniques
for data acquisition and processing
Remote Sensing anywhere on the globe at low cost,
consistent update potential;
• interpreted data from a remote
sensing system can be merged with
other data layers in a GIS

• using aerial photographs and

techniques for making accurate
measurements from them;
Photogrammetry • it is the source of most data on
topography (ground surface
elevations) used as input to GIS.
 GIS: Contributing ...

•provides high quality data on positions

Surveying of land boundaries, buildings, etc

•source of high accuracy positional

Geodesy control for GIS, and measures the size
and shape of the Earth

Research •many applications of GIS require use

of optimizing techniques for decision-
Operation making during research
 GIS: Contributing ...
• many models built using GIS are
statistical in nature, many statistical
techniques used for analysis
Statistics • statistics is important in understanding
issues of error and uncertainty in GIS
data
• computer-aided design (CAD)
provides software, techniques for data
input, display and visualization,
representation, particularly in 3
dimensions
• advances in computer graphics
Computer provide hardware, software for handling
and displaying graphic objects,
Science techniques of visualization
• DBMS contribute methods for
representing data in digital form,
procedures for system design and
handling large volumes of data,
Relations of other disciplines with GIS
 Application Areas of GIS
 Agricultural applications,
 Forestry applications,
 Rangeland applications,
 Water resources applications,
 Urban and regional planning applications,
 Wetland mapping,
 Land use/ Land cover mapping,
 Geologic and soil mapping,
 Wildlife ecology applications,
 Archaeological applications,
 Environmental assessment, monitoring and management,
 Transportation and infrastructure planning,
 Market analysis, visual impact analysis,
 Land Information System and Cadastral Application ,
 Site Selecting Analysis and many other applications etc.
 Review questions
 A broad and reliable information base is essential if natural
resources are to be managed effectively. What are the problems
related to lack of information?
 What is the difference between GI Systems, Science and
Studies?
 What distinguishes GIS from other information systems?
 Explain how GIS deals with layered data.
 List and briefly explain the various GIS functions.
 What are the questions that a GIS can answer?
 What are the five M’s in GIS? Make a short description for
each of them.
 What do you think is the possible application of GIS in the
area of your specialization?
THANK YOU